0521801117 cambridge university press conflict and confrontation in south east asia 1961 1965 britain the united states indonesia and the creation of malaysia oct 2001

This page intentionally left blank In the early 1960s, Britain and the United States were still trying to come to terms with the powerful forces of indigenous nationalism unleashed by the Second World War The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation – a crisis which was, as Macmillan remarked to Kennedy, ‘as dangerous a situation in South East Asia as we have seen since the war’ – was a complex test of Anglo-American relations As American commitment to Vietnam accelerated under the Kennedy and Johnson Administrations, Britain was involving herself in an ‘end-of-empire’ exercise in statebuilding which had important military and political implications for both nations Matthew Jones provides a detailed insight into the origins, outbreak and development of this important episode in international history; using a large range of previously unavailable archival sources, he illuminates the formation of the Malaysian federation, Indonesia’s violent opposition to the new state and the Western powers’ attempts to deal with the resulting conflict M A T T H E W J O N E S is a Lecturer in International History at Royal Holloway College, University of London His previous publications include Britain, the United States and the Mediterranean War, 1942–44 (1996) Conflict and Confrontation in South East Asia, 1961–1965 Britain, the United States and the Creation of Malaysia Matthew Jones    Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge  , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521801119 © Matthew Jones 2002 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2001 - isbn-13 978-0-511-07178-2 eBook (EBL) - isbn-10 0-511-07178-7 eBook (EBL) - isbn-13 978-0-521-80111-9 hardback - isbn-10 0-521-80111-7 hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate For Anya and Alexander Contents List of maps Preface and acknowledgements List of abbreviations Introduction: Britain, the United States and the South East Asian setting Part I Build-up page ix xi xvi 29 The Kennedy Administration, Indonesia and the resolution of the West Irian crisis, 1961–1962 31 The Greater Malaysia scheme I: the move towards merger 61 The Greater Malaysia scheme II: the Cobbold Commission and the Borneo territories 79 Britain, Indonesia and Malaya: from West Irian to the Brunei revolt 98 Part II Outbreak 123 The emergence of confrontation: January–May 1963 125 The path to the Manila summit, May–July 1963 150 From the Manila summit to the creation of Malaysia: August–September 1963 172 Avoiding escalation, September–December 1963 205 vii viii Contents Part III Denouement The diplomacy of confrontation, Anglo-American relations and the Vietnam War, January–June 1964 233 235 10 Escalation, upheaval and reappraisal, July 1964–October 1965 268 Conclusion: The Western presence in South East Asia by the 1960s 295 Bibliography Index 305 314 Bibliography 311 Morgan, Kenneth O., Callaghan: A Life (Oxford, 1997) Mortimer, Rex, Indonesian Communism Under Sukarno: Ideology and Politics, 1959– 1965 (Ithaca, 1974) Nagai, Yonosuke, and Iriye, Akira (eds.), The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (Oxford, 1977) Osborne, Milton E., Singapore and Malaysia (Ithaca, 1964) Paterson, Thomas G (ed.), Kennedy’s Quest for Victory: American Foreign Policy, 1961–1963 (Oxford, 1989) Pickering, Jeffrey, Britain’s Withdrawal from East of Suez: The Politics of Retrenchment (London, 1998) Pierce, Robert (ed.), Patrick Gordon Walker: Political Diaries, 1932–1971 (London, 1991) Pluvier, Jan M., Confrontations: A Study in Indonesian Politics (Kuala Lumpur, 1965) South-East Asia from Colonialism to Independence (Kuala Lumpur, 1974) Pocock, Tom, Fighting General: The Public and Private Campaigns of General Sir Walter Walker (London, 1973) Ponting, Clive, Breach of Promise: Labour in Power, 1964–70 (London, 1990) Porritt, Vernon L., British Colonial Rule in Sarawak, 1946–1963 (Kuala Lumpur, 1997) Prados, John, The Keepers of the Keys: A History of the National Security Council from Truman to Bush (New York, 1991) Ratnam, K J., and Milne, R S., The Malayan Parliamentary Election of 1964 (Singapore, 1967) Reeves, Richard, President Kennedy: Profile of Power (New York, 1993) Rostow, Walt W., The Diffusion of Power: An Essay on Recent History (New York, 1972) Rotter, Andrew J., The Path to Vietnam: Origins of the American Commitment to Southeast Asia (Ithaca, 1987) Rubinstein, Alvin Z (ed.), Soviet and Chinese Influence in the Third World (London, 1975) Rust, William J., Kennedy in Vietnam: American Vietnam Policy, 1960–63 (New York, 1985) Sampson, Anthony, Macmillan: A Study in Ambiguity (London, 1967) Schlesinger Jr, Arthur M., A Thousand Days: John F Kennedy in the White House (London, 1965) Robert Kennedy and His Times (London, 1978) Schoenbaum, Thomas J., Waging Peace and War: Dean Rusk in the Truman, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (New York, 1988) Shapley, Deborah, Promise and Power: The Life and Times of Robert McNamara (Boston, 1993) Sharma, Archana, British Policy Towards Malaysia, 1957–67 (London, 1993) Sheehan, Neil, A Bright Shining Lie: John Paul Vann and America in Vietnam, (London, 1988) Short, Anthony, The Communist Insurrection in Malaya, 1948–1960 (London, 1975) Singh, Anita Inder, The Limits of British Influence: South Asia and the Anglo-American Relationship, 1947–56 (London, 1993) 312 Bibliography Smith, R B., An International History of the Vietnam War, vol I: Revolution versus Containment, 1955–61 (London, 1983) An International History of the Vietnam War, vol II: The Struggle for South-East Asia, 1961–65 (London, 1985) An International History of the Vietnam War, vol III: The Making of a Limited War, 1965–66 (London, 1991) Sorenson, Theodore, Kennedy (London, 1965) Steinberg, David J (ed.), In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History (Honolulu, 1987) Stockwell, A J., British Policy and Malay Politics during the Malayan Union Experiment, 1942–48 (Kuala Lumpur, 1979) Subritzky, John, Confronting Sukarno: British, American, Australian and New Zealand Diplomacy in the Malaysian–Indonesian Confrontation, 1961–5 (London, 2000) Tarling, Nicholas (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, vol II (Cambridge, 1992) Taylor, Jay, China and Southeast Asia: Peking’s Relations with Revolutionary Movements (London, 1976) Thorne, Christopher, Allies of a Kind: Britain, the United States and the War Against Japan, 1941–1945 (London, 1978) The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941–1945 (London, 1985) Turnbull, C M., A History of Singapore, 1819–1975 (Kuala Lumpur, 1977) White, Mark J (ed.), Kennedy: The New Frontier Revisited (London, 1998) Wilson, Harold, The Labour Government, 1964–70: A Personal Record (London, 1971) Yahuda, Michael, China’s Role in World Affairs (London, 1978) Ziegler, Philip, Wilson: The Authorised Life (London, 1993) ARTICLES Ball, Simon J., ‘Selkirk in Singapore’, Twentieth Century British History, 10, 2, 1999 Beckett, Ian F W., ‘Robert Thompson and the British Advisory Mission to South Vietnam, 1961–1965’, Small Wars and Insurgencies, 8, 3, 1997 Brands, H W., ‘The Limits of Manipulation: How the United States Didn’t Topple Sukarno’, Journal of American History, 76, 3, 1989 Bunnell, Frederick P., ‘The Central Intelligence Agency – Deputy Directorate for Plans 1961 Secret Memorandum on Indonesia: a Study in the Politics of Policy Formulation in the Kennedy Administration’, Indonesia, 1981 ‘American “Low Posture” Toward Indonesia in the Months Leading up to the 1965 “Coup” ’, Indonesia, 1990 Dumbrell, John, ‘The Johnson Administration and the British Labour Government: Vietnam, the Pound and East of Suez’, Journal of American Studies, 30, 2, 1996 Holland, Robert F., ‘The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945–63’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 12, 1984 Bibliography 313 Jones, Gareth, ‘Sukarno’s Early Views on the Territorial Boundaries of Indonesia’, Australian Outlook, 18, 1964 Jones, Matthew, ‘ “Maximum Disavowable Aid”: Britain, the United States and the Indonesian Rebellion, 1957–58’, English Historical Review, 114, 459, 1999 ‘Creating Malaysia: Singapore Security, the Borneo Territories and the Contours of British Policy, 1961–63’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 28, 2, 2000 Kahin, George McT., ‘Malaysia and Indonesia’, Pacific Affairs, 37, 3, 1964 Leifer, Michael, ‘Anglo-American Differences over Malaysia’, The World Today, 20, 4, 1964 Logevall, Fredrik, ‘De Gaulle, Neutralization and American Involvement in Vietnam, 1963–1964’, Pacific Historical Review, 41, 1992 Louis, Wm Roger, and Robinson, Ronald, ‘The Imperialism of Decolonization’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 22, 3, 1994 Mohamed Noordin Sopiee, ‘The Advocacy of Malaysia before 1961’, Modern Asian Studies, 7, 4, 1973 Paterson, Thomas G., ‘Bearing the Burden: a Critical Look at John F Kennedy’s Foreign Policy’, The Virginia Quarterly Review, 54, 2, 1978 Scott, Peter Dale, ‘The US and the Overthrow of Sukarno, 1965–1967’, Pacific Affairs, 58, 2, 1985 Sodhy, P., ‘Malaysian–United States Relations during Indonesia’s Confrontation against Malaysia, 1963–1966’, Journal of South East Asian Studies, 19, 1, 1988 Stockwell, A J., ‘Colonial Planning during World War Two: the Case of Malaya’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 2, 3, 1974 ‘British Imperial Policy and Decolonisation in Malaya, 1942–52’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 13, 1, 1984 ‘Malaysia: the Making of a Neo-Colony?’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 26, 2, 1998 Tilman, Robert O., ‘Elections in Sarawak’, Asian Survey, 3, 10, 1963 Warner, Geoffrey, ‘The United States and Vietnam: from Kennedy to Johnson’, International Affairs, 73, 2, 1997 OTHER WORK Bunnell, Frederick P., ‘The Kennedy Initiatives in Indonesia, 1962–1963’, unpublished PhD thesis, Cornell University, 1969 Easter, David, ‘British Defence Policy in South East Asia and the Confrontation, 1960–66’, unpublished PhD thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science, 1998 Index Abell, Sir Anthony, as member of Cobbold Commission, 80, 85, 86–7 Abdul Rahman, Tunku, and arrest programme for Singapore, 89–93, 117–18 and assurances to British over formation of Malaysia, 176, 183 and Borneo territories, 67, 69, 71, 72, 90–1, 95, 270 and break-up of Indonesia, 214 and British use of Singapore base, 67, 72, 74, 76–7 and n.47 and Brunei revolt, 110–11, 114 and Cobbold Commission, 81, 83, 84 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 61–7, 69–72, 89–93, 141–2, 164–5 and Head, 247, 249 and Kalabakan, 230–1 and Indonesia, 107–8, 114 as leader of UMNO, 6, 268 and Lee Kuan Yew, 17, 64, 69–70, 160–1, 185, 273 and Malaysian federal elections of 1964, 236–7, 257 and Manila summit, 173–6 and merger with Singapore, 17–18, 27, 64–5, 66 and negotiating position in confrontation, 210–12, 216, 221, 249, 250 and Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 249, 256 and Sandys, 173–4, 176, 182–3, 187–9, 200, 252 and Sukarno, 105, 129, 143–4, 169, 214 and Tokyo meeting of 1963 with Sukarno, 157, 169 and Tokyo summit of 1964, 265 and UN ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 183 and Washington visit of 1964, 277 314 Acheson, Dean, and ‘losing an empire’ speech, 120 recommends Rusk as Secretary of State, 46 and US global leadership, 37 and US position over West Irian, 33 Afro-Asian Conciliation Commission, 264, 265, 266 Aidit, Dipa Nusantara, 10, 275 Amery, Julian, and Greater Malaysia scheme, 74–5 ANZUS, 2, 8, 167–8, 206, 216–19, 278 n.29, 298 Ap Bac, 135 Australia, and ANZUS Treaty, 2, 167–8, 217–19, 229 commitment of forces to confrontation, 236, 272 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 72 n.33 and Malaysia, 136–7, 146–7, 217, 229 and relations with USA, 2, 298 Azahari, Sheikh A M., 67, 96–7, 112, 113, 117 Baldwin, Charles F., and pressure on Tunku Abdul Rahman for negotiations, 215 on Tunku Abdul Rahman and Sandys, 187–8 Ball, George W., becomes Under Secretary, 46 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 153 and Multilateral Force, 120 and support for sterling, 288–90 and Vietnam policy, 206 Bandar, Datu, 69, 158 n.29 Bangkok Foreign Ministers’ meeting of February 1964, 256–7 Barisan Socialis (Socialist Front), 69, 77–8, 90, 91, 93, 94, 117–18, 201 Index Barnett, Robert W., and US aid to Indonesia, 168 Barwick, Sir Garfield, 216 and Sukarno, 219, 220 Begg, Admiral Sir Varyl, 214 Bell, David, and US aid to Indonesia, 241 Bell, James, and Malaysian foreign policy, 252 Benson, Lt Col George, and links to Indonesian Army, 58 Boothby, Lord, and criticisms of US aid to Indonesia, 225 Borneo territories (Sarawak and British North Borneo (Sabah), see separate entry for Brunei), and Cobbold Commission, 81–7 and grant of internal self-government, 188 and Greater Malaysia scheme (see also Cobbold Commission), 62–3, 66, 67–8, 72–4, 76, 79, 94–5 and military aspects to confrontation, 126–7, 144, 187, 200, 272 and observer issue, 180, 182, 183–6, 190–1 Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 103–4, 181, 249, 256 and plebiscite/referendum, 140, 143, 176, 222, 232, 247–8, 257 and political situation in, 66–7, 94–6, 116–17, 142, 144, 166, 193 population of, 62 post-war colonial status of, and UN ascertainment of opinion towards Malaysia, 184–7, 193–4 Bottomley, James, and views of Tunku Abdul Rahman, 214 Bowles, Chester, and appointment of Harriman as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 47 and performance as Under Secretary, 46 Brook, Sir Norman, and Greater Malaysia scheme, 63 Broomfield, William S., and amendment to 1963 Foreign Assistance Act, 170, 239 and Sukarno, 57–8 and US aid to Indonesia, 151 Brown, George, 293 on British commitments in South East Asia, 291 315 Bruce, David, 282 on Anglo-American relationship, 293 and Robert Kennedy’s criticisms of Sandys, 252 Brunei and failure to join Malaysia, 161, 165 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 96–7 and Indonesian role in revolt of, 109, 113–15 revolt, 109–15, 117–19 Bundy, McGeorge, 206, and aid to Indonesia, 240–2 and British contribution to Vietnam War, 280, 285–6, 289 and n.59 and Harriman’s appointment as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 47 and Indonesian behaviour, 203, 221, 227–8 and Lyndon Johnson, 228, 238 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 240, 248 and National Security Council staff, 38–40 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 208 and presidential visit to Indonesia, 221 and Sukarno, 208, 221, 227–8 and support for sterling, 290 and US aid to Indonesia, 240–2 on US global leadership, 37 and West Irian dispute, 45, 51 Bundy, William P., 240, 264 appointment as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 238 and British views of, 262–3 and Indonesia policy, 240, 263, 278 and Vietnam War, 284 Bunker, Ellsworth, and role in West Irian dispute, 52–3 and visit to Indonesia of 1965, 278–9 Butler, R A., as Foreign Secretary, 224 and n.60, 263 and Anglo-American policies in South East Asia, 255, 260 and British options in confrontation, 228, 230, 244–7 and Manila visit of May 1964, 264–5 and meeting with Robert Kennedy, 251–2 and US actions in Vietnam War, 267 and Washington talks of February 1964, 260–1 316 Index Cable, James, and Anglo-American policies in South East Asia, 253–4, 285 and Indonesian policy after West Irian, 106–7 and links between confrontation and Vietnam War, 285 and situation in confrontation, 257 Caccia, Sir Harold, and Anglo-American policies in South East Asia, 254 on Indonesian policy after West Irian, 101–2 and plebiscite in Borneo territories, 232, 257 and US aid to Indonesia, 226, 232 and Washington visit of February 1964, 260 Caltex, 151–2, 207 Calwell, Arthur, approach to Malaysia, 218 Carrington, Lord, 284 n.42 and ‘neo-colonialist’ atmosphere in Kuala Lumpur, 296–7 and plebiscite in Borneo territories, 257 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 214 Central African Federation, 75 n.42, 81–2 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 12, 14, 22, 41, 109, 277, 278 Clandestine Communist Organization (CCO, in Sarawak), 87, 116, 200 Clay Committee (on US foreign aid programme), 150–1 Cobbold Commission of enquiry for Borneo territories, final report of, 85–7 membership and remit, 80 survey work and controversy surrounding, 81–5 Cobbold, Lord, 80 views on opinion in Borneo territories towards Greater Malaysia, 83–4 Colby, William, and British defence of Malaysia, 137 Confrontation (Indonesia–Malaysia conflict, 1963–6) military aspects of, 126–7, 144, 187, 200, 235–6, 264, 270–2 Cooper, Chester L., and Kennedy’s support for Malaysia, 138 Cyprus, 17–18, 20 de Gaulle, Charles, 125, 255 de Zulueta, Philip, and Azahari, 113 on Colonial Office and Greater Malaysia scheme, 82 and confrontation as an ‘Anglo-Saxon’ problem, 227 and covert action against Indonesia, 114 and Greater Malaysia negotiations, 92 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 68 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 155 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 200 and US policy, 179 Dean, Sir Patrick, 177 and UN ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 184, 194 Diem, Ngo Dinh, 21, 25, 135–6, 206, 238 Djuanda Kartawidjaja, 11, 55, 105, 156, 237 Douglas-Home, Sir Alec (see Home) Dulles, Allen, 11 Dulles, John Foster, and arms sales to Indonesia, 33 and Indonesia, 10, 13 and neutralism in the Cold War, and Sukarno, 13, 32 n.3 Eden, Anthony, 18–19 Eisenhower, Dwight D., and Anglo-American relations in the Far East, 21 and Indonesia, 10, 32 Felt, Admiral Harry D., and SEATO, 302 Fenner, Claude, 110 Fisher, Nigel, and Sandys, 75 Forrestal, Michael V., and Indonesia policy, 132–3, 222, 258, 264 and Malaysia policy, 138–9 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 153, 156 and position under Lyndon Johnson, 238–9, 241–2 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 242–3 and US aid to Indonesia, 56, 240, 262, 264 and Vietnam War, 206 Index Fowler, Henry, and US support for sterling, 290–1 Fry, Sir Leslie, and Narasimhan, 139–40 Fulbright, J William, as possible Secretary of State, 46 Garner, Sir Saville, and views on conditions in Sarawak, 166 Geneva Conference on Indochina of 1954, 2, Geneva Conference on Laos of 1961–2, 24–5, 46–7, 58, 119 Ghazali bin Shafie, 143, 185 announcement on formation of Malaysia, 190 as member of Cobbold Commission, 80, 81, 84, 86 and covert action against Indonesia, 128–9 on Tunku Abdul Rahman and Greater Malaysia scheme, 71 Gilchrist, Sir Andrew, and destruction of Embassy in Jakarta, 196–8 and documents from destroyed Embassy, 213–14 and plebiscite in Borneo territories, 257 and Sukarno, 232 Goa, 48–9, 101–2 Goode, Sir William, and Cobbold Commission, 80–1, 84–5 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 66 and Tunku Abdul Rahman and Borneo territories, 67 Gordon Walker, Patrick, and links between Vietnam War and confrontation, 285, 286–7 and Rusk’s message over US readiness for war with Indonesia, 278 n.29 Great Britain, and appeals to Australia and New Zealand for assistance in confrontation, 147, 229, 236 and covert action against Indonesia, 100, 128–9, 210, 212–14, 227, 228, 231, 250 and costs of confrontation, 222–3, 229 and military aspects of confrontation, 126–7, 144, 187, 200, 235–6, 264, 270–2 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 247, 250 and Far East, 2–4, 14–20, 26–8, 298–9 317 and views of Indonesia (and Sukarno), 14, 99–103, 114–15, 116, 126, 132, 146, 172, 176, 196–9, 212, 225, 232, 244–7 and Laos, 22–6 and Malaya, 3, 6, 8–9 and Malaysia, 231, 252, 268, 273–4, 296–8 and negotiations over formation of Malaysia, 75–6, 89–93, 142, 163–5 and Singapore’s departure from Malaysia, 287–9 and South East Asia commitments, 26–8, 144–7, 163, 280–1, 282, 283–4, 290, 291–4, 296 and South East Asia interests, 2–4, 258, 282 and sterling crisis of 1965, 288–9 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 126–7, 173–6, 187–8, 250, 251, 252, 257 and US aid to Indonesia, 202, 209, 212, 224–6 and USA, 7–8, 21, 23–6, 119–20, 131–2, 202, 208–9, 247–8, 258, 266, 300–1, 303–4 and Vietnam War, 25, 261–2, 266–7, 284–5, 289, 304 and West Irian dispute, 49, 100–3, 105 and Western oil companies in Indonesia, 154–6 Green, Marshall, becomes Ambassador to Indonesia, 279 Greenhill, Denis, and Manila summit, 175, 178 urges Harriman to support Malaysia, 194 Hammerskjold, Dag, 139 Harriman, W Averell, and ANZUS Treaty obligations, 167, 217 and appointment as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 25, 46–8 and British approach to confrontation, 202–3, 209, 216 and British approach to Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 104 and Indonesia, 58, 132, 133–4, 136, 139, 232, 258–60 and Lyndon Johnson, 238 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 242–3, 249 and Manila summit, 175 and quadripartite talks of October 1963, 219, 221 318 Index Harriman, W Averell (cont.) and quadripartite talks of February 1964, 258–60 and Sandys, 191, 216 and Sukarno, 48, 202, 209 and urged to support Malaysia, 194 and US aid to Indonesia, 58, 152, 202–3, 241 and Vietnam policy, 48, 136, 206–7, 237–8 and West Irian dispute, 49, 53 and Western oil companies in Indonesia, 152–6, 207 Hatta, Mohammed, 106 Head, Lord, and British commitment to confrontation, 229 and foreign bases in South East Asia, 298 and need for political solution to confrontation, 247 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 247, 249 Healey, Denis, authorizes ‘credibly deniable’ crossborder operations, 272 n.11 and need to end confrontation, 288 and reductions of forces in South East Asia, 291, 292 Heath, Edward, and meeting with Narasimhan, 159 Herter, Christian A., and US aid to Indonesia, 33 Hickenlooper amendment, 152 n.7 Hilsman, Roger, and ANZUS obligations, 167 and British approach to confrontation, 203 and British influence over Malaya, 174–5, 178, 188 and Indonesian objectives in confrontation, 203, 259 and Lyndon Johnson, 207, 238, 263 and Manila summit, 174–5, 178, 184 n.43, 188 and negotiations over confrontation, 215–16, 222 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 152, 154 and presidential visit to Indonesia, 168, 222 and Sandys, 191 and US aid to Indonesia, 151, 152, 232 and Vietnam policy, 135–6, 206–7, 237–8 Home, Lord (Sir Alec Douglas-Home from October 1963), becomes Prime Minister, 224 and Anglo-American policies in South East Asia, 253 and counter-confrontation measures, 128, 227 and Foreign Office approach to confrontation, 115, 210, 211 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 62–3 and Indonesian policy, 106, 109, 210, 265 and meetings with Johnson of February 1964, 261 and Kennedy, 212 and Laos, 23 n.63 on links between Vietnam War and confrontation, 262 and Manila summit, 178, 179, 182 and Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 129 and plebiscite in Borneo territories, 143 and political solution to confrontation, 211, 230, 236 n.3, 244 on US action against North Vietnam, 284 and US aid to Indonesia, 212 Hong Kong, 6, 145, 282, 283 Humphrey, Don D., economic mission to Indonesia of, 43, 54–5, 56 Indonesia and Brunei revolt, 111–14 and covert action/counter-confrontation measures, 12–14, 128–9, 130, 210, 212–14, 227, 228, 231, 250 fears of Chinese Communist influence, 133, 140 and Great Britain, 14, 99–103, 114–15, 126, 132, 146, 172, 176, 196–9, 212–13, 225, 232, 244–7 independence of, 2, and internal political situation, 9–14, 31–2, 58–9, 156–7, 170–1, 199, 237, 265, 275–8 and Malaya, 104–8 and Malaysia, 98–100, 107–9, 197–8, 270, 276–7 and non-alignment, 9–10 Outer Island rebellion of 1958, 11–14, 32, 43, 100, 106, 127, 128, 130 and Soviet Union, 13, 31, 34–5 Index and USA, 5, 9–10, 11–14, 32–4, 54–9, 136, 277–9, 300–1 and Western oil companies, 152–6, 207–8 Indonesian Army, 10–11, 13, 32, 55, 58, 59, 275–6, 277 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 130, 256 International Monetary Fund (IMF), 55–8, 150, 156, 170, 290 Jackson, Henry M., and organization of US foreign policy, 38 Janacek, George, 184 Johnson, Lyndon B., and arrival as President, 237–8 and McGeorge Bundy, 228, 238 and Diem coup, 206–7, 238 and Harriman, 238 and Hilsman, 207, 238 and Home’s visit to Washington of February 1964, 261 and McNamara, 207, 238 and Malaysia, 263, 277 and meeting with Nasution, 227, 232 and readiness for war with Indonesia, 278 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 240, 242, 248 and Rusk, 238, 262 and Sukarno, 239, 242, 262, 278 and US aid to Indonesia, 239–42, 261 and Wilson and Vietnam War, 287 and Wilson’s visit to Washington of December 1964, 286 Johnson, Robert H., and West Irian dispute, 41, 42, 44 Johnson, U Alexis, and Harriman’s desire not to be accountable to, 47 Joint Chiefs of Staff ( JCS), 24, 55, 255 Joint Intelligence Committee ( JIC), 107, 116, 126 Jones, Howard P., becomes US Ambassador to Indonesia, 12 and British covert action against Indonesia, 213–14, 250 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 132–3, 134–5 on importance of Indonesia to US position in Asia, 135 319 and initiative to end confrontation, 222 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 153–4, 207 and Sukarno, 40, 169, 190, 195, 202, 210, 222, 240, 250, 278 and US aid to Indonesia, 57, 240 and West Irian dispute, 33–4, 39–40, 43, 54 Kalabakan, 230–1, 244 Kennedy, John F., and ANZUS Treaty obligations, 167, 217–19 and foreign aid programme, 150–1 and foreign policy organization and emphasis, 35–9 and Indonesia, 43, 55, 57, 58–9, 219, 221–2 and Khrushchev’s ‘wars of national liberation’ speech, 35 and n.13 and Laos, 23–5, 46–7 and Macmillan, 49, 100, 119–20, 179, 181, 208, 210–11 and Manila summit, 179 and non-alignment, 35–7 and possible visit to Indonesia, 168, 221, 222 and Rusk, 39, 46–7 and South East Asia, 58–9 and State Department, 38–9, 46–7 and Sukarno, 40 n.31, 42, 50, 52, 210, 212, 219, 253 and support for Malaysia, 138–9, 194 and Vietnam War, 25, 37, 52, 58–9, 135–6, 205, 207 and West Irian dispute, 41–2, 43–5, 49, 50, 51–2 Kennedy, Robert F., 46, 238 and West Irian mediation mission of 1962, 50–1 and confrontation mediation mission of 1964, 240–3, 248–53, 258 and Sandys, 252–3 and Sukarno, 50 n.69, 253 Khrushchev, Nikita, 31, 35, 60 Komer, Robert W., and Indonesia, 134, 206, 216 and negotiations over confrontation, 210, 240 n.14, 249 and US aid to Indonesia, 55, 57, 134, 194–5 and West Irian dispute, 41, 42, 45, 50, 51, 53 320 Index Lansdowne, Lord, 109 and Indonesian foreign policy, 131 and Intergovernmental Committee on the Borneo territories, 94–5 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 127 Laos, 22–6, 46–7, 50, 54, 58, 101, 119 Lee Kuan Yew, and ambitions of, 192, 201 and arrest programme in Singapore, 89–93, 117–18, 160 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 65, 69–70 and Malaysian federal elections of 1964, 236–7, 269 and political situation in Singapore, 16–17, 18, 65–6, 68–9, 77–8, 93–4, 191–3, 201 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 17, 64, 69–70, 160–1, 185, 273 Lennox-Boyd, Alan, 80 and constitutional advance in Malaya, on separate independence for Singapore, 16 Levy, Walter, and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 153 Lim Chin Siong, 117 Lim Yew Hock, as Chief Minister of Singapore, 15, 16 as rival to Lee Kuan Yew, 160 Liu Shaoqui, visit to Indonesia of 1963, 60, 151 Lloyd, Selwyn, and calls for cuts in defence expenditure, 27 Lodge, Henry Cabot, and Diem coup, 206 Lopez, Salvador, 104, 264 Lovett, Robert, recommends Rusk as Secretary of State, 46 Luce, Admiral Sir David, and Brunei revolt, 110 Luns, Joseph, and West Irian dispute, 41–2, 49, 51–2, 53 Macapagal, Diosado, and negotiations over confrontation, 141, 143, 177, 264–5 and Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 104, 129–30, 141, 256 MacArthur, General Douglas, MacDonald, Malcolm, 80 and merger between Singapore and Malaya, 16 Mackenzie, Alfred, and Manila summit, 173, 177–8 MacKintosh Angus, 111 Macleod, Iain, and Central African Federation, 75 and n.42 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 63–4, 70 Macmillan, Harold, and Anglo-American relations as priority of, and arms sales to Indonesia, 103 and arrest programme in Singapore, 92, 118 and British commitments in South East Asia, 26–8, 146–8, 280–1 and Brunei revolt, 110, 113–14, 115 and Cobbold Commission, 88 and Colonial Office, 81–3, 84–5, 89 and costs of confrontation, 223 and defence of Malaysia, 146 departure as Prime Minister, 224 and economic problems of UK, 18–19 and failure to enter EEC, 125 and Indonesian policy, 113–14 and Kennedy, 49, 100, 119–20, 179–80, 181, 208, 211 and Manila summit, 179–80, 181, 182 and Nassau conference, 119–20 and Profumo affair, 162–3 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 63, 68, 71, 76, 85, 88, 92 and Sandys, 75 and n.42, 82, 89 on Singapore, 20 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 71, 92, 105 and US approach to Indonesia, 179, 195 and West Irian dispute, 49, 100–1, 105, 113 and Western oil companies in Indonesia, 154–5 Malaya, and covert action/counter-confrontation measures in Indonesia, 128–9, 130 defence agreement with Britain, 8–9 emergency in, 3, independence of, and Indonesia, 104–8 population of, 16 n.44 and West Irian dispute, 104–5 Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), 3, 160, 201, 269 Malaysia and Britain, 268, 273–4, 296–8 Index and federal elections of 1964, 231, 236–7, 257, 264, 269 and Indonesia, 98–100, 107–9, 197–8, 270, 276–7 negotiations over formation of, 74–6, 89–93, 159–65 political situation in, 200–1 and Singapore’s departure from, 269, 273–5, 287 and USA, 132, 134–5, 136, 138–9, 194, 202–4, 277 Malaysia Solidarity Consultative Committee (MSCC), 69–70 Malik, Adam, as Indonesian Foreign Minister, 276 Manila Accord, 157–8, 169, 173, 180 Manila summit, 172-81 and agreements reached at, 180–1, 190 Maphilindo, 157–8, 168, 176, 180–1, 211, 215, 227, 260, 265 Marshall, David, as Chief Minister of Singapore, 15 resignation speech of, 21 and victory in Anson by-election, 69 Maudling, Reginald, and Central African Federation, 75 n.42 and concerns over defence spending, 144–7 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 82, 88, 89 McConaughy, Walter P., as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 46 McNamara, Robert S., and British world power role, 286 and Defense Department, 38, 46 and Hilsman, 238 and Johnson, 238 and US aid to Indonesia, 239–42 and Vietnam War, 206–7 Menzies, Sir Robert G., 298 and ANZUS Treaty, 167–8, 217 and Greater Malaysia Scheme, 72 Michelmore, Laurence, and UN ascertainment of opinion in the Borneo territories, 183, 193–4 Moore, Philip, and covert action against Indonesia, 213–14 and Singapore arrest programme, 91 and Singapore referendum bill, 78 Mustapha, Tun, 69 321 Narasimhan, C V., attempts to find formula to resolve confrontation, 139–40, 142–3 British views of, 139–40 and UN ascertainment of opinion in the Borneo territories, 157–9, 173, 177, 183–4 Nassau Conference, 120 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 40, 125, 134 Nasution, General Abdul Haris, and declaration of martial law in Indonesia, 11 and fears of Chinese influence in Malaysia, 133 and Moscow visit of 1961, 34–5 and Malaysia, 133 and UN ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 186 and Washington visit of 1963, 225, 226–7 and West Irian dispute, 45 National Security Council (NSC) meetings, 10, 11, 34, 37, 50, 240–1 system, 38–9 New Zealand, appeals to by Britain for assistance in confrontation, 229 and Malaysia, 136–7, 146–7 and US policy towards Indonesia, 220 and USA, 298 Ningkan, Stephen, 166, 185, 188–9, 200 Nitze, Paul H., and US doubts over Malaysia, 137 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), restricts arms sales to Indonesia, 228 Ong Eng Guan, and Singapore internal politics, 17, 65 Ong Kee Hui, and SUPP, 67, 166 Ormsby Gore, Sir David (from 1964 Lord Harlech), and approaches to US over Indonesia, 133–4 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 253 and Nassau conference, 120 and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 154, 207 and quadripartite talks of February 1963, 137 and quadripartite talks of October 1963, 219, 221 and US aid to Indonesia, 202–3, 226 322 Index Ormsby Gore, Sir David (cont.) and US policy in South East Asia, 302–3 and US pressure on Tunku Abdul Rahman, 215–16, 248 Pelaez, Emmanual, 141, 157 Partai Kommunis Indonesie (PKI), 5, 10, 11, 12, 14, 31–2, 35, 49, 52, 54, 57, 59, 99, 153, 156, 169, 170, 198–9, 205, 209, 237, 269, 275–6, 277, 279, 300 Party Rakyat (in Brunei), 96–7, 109, 110, 112, 113 Passman, Otto, and US foreign aid programme, 57 Pearson, Lester, and Lyndon Johnson and US aid to Indonesia, 261 Peck, Sir Edward, 262 compares Communist and anti-colonial aggression, 101 and Indonesian threat, 116 and need for British forces in South East Asia, 284 and need to support US actions in Vietnam, 285 and plebiscite/referendum in Borneo territories, 141, 257 and US ‘cold feet’ over Malaysia, 137–8 and Washington visit of February 1964, 260 People’s Action Party (PAP), 15, 16, 65, 69, 78, 91, 93, 201, 236–7, 269, 273, 274–5 Perth, Lord, and Greater Malaysia scheme, 62–3, 64 Philippines, claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 103–4, 129–30, 181, 249, 256 Pope, Allen Lawrence, capture of during Outer Island rebellion of 1958, 12 release of, 51 Profumo affair, 162 Quadripartite talks (Britian–United States–Australia–New Zealand), of February 1963, 136–7, 145–6 of October 1963, 210, 219–21 of February 1964, 258–60 of September 1965, 288, 289 Radford, Admiral Arthur W., and US policy towards Indonesia, 11 Razak, Tun Abdul, 265 and Bangkok foreign ministers’ meeting of February 1964, 256 British view of, 188 n.56 and covert action against Indonesia, 129 and Greater Malaysia negotiations, 91, 93, 95, 164 and Manila foreign ministers’ meeting of 1963, 141, 157–8 and Manila summit, 176, 177 n.17, 180 and merger between Malaya and Singapore, 65 and preconditions to negotiations over confrontation, 276 and tough line of, 190 Rostow, Walt W., and State Department reorganization of 1961, 46 and West Irian dispute, 41, 44–5 Rusk, Dean, and Anglo-American policies in South East Asia, 255, 260 and British world power role, 286, 292, 293 and counter-confrontation measures, 217, 263, 266 and Indonesian belligerence, 209–10 and Johnson, 238, 262 and negotiations over confrontation, 215 and neutrals, 37 and opposition to Sukarno visit to Washington, 279 and performance at State Department, 39, 46–7, 207, 262 and possible war with Indonesia, 278 and US aid to Indonesia, 226, 228, 240–2 and West Irian dispute, 40, 44–5, 49, 51, 53, 54, 106 Russell, Richard, and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 242 and US aid to Indonesia, 239 Sandys, Duncan, American views of, 191, 203 and arrest programme in Singapore, 89–93, 117–18 and Colonial Office, 82–3, 89 and counter-confrontation measures, 228 and Harriman, 191, 216 and Lee Kuan Yew, 192 and Macmillan, 75 and n.42, 82, 89 and Malayan visit of 1961, 64 Index and Manila summit, 173–4, 176, 178 and negotiations over formation of Malaysia, 74–5, 89–93, 164–5 and nuclear weapons in Malaya, n.24 and plebiscite/referendum in Borneo territories, 140, 176, 257 and Profumo affair, 162–3 qualities of, 75 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 127, 173–4, 176, 182–3, 187–9, 200, 252 Sabah (North Borneo; see entry for Borneo territories) Sarawak (see entry for Borneo territories) Sarawak United People’s Party (SUPP), 67, 95–6, 116–17, 142, 166, 193–4 Sarit Thanarat, and Thai policies in Laos, 22 Sastromidjojo, Ali, and Indonesian tensions with Malaya, 107–8 Schlesinger, Arthur M., and appointment of Harriman, 47 and Rusk, 46 Scott, Sir Robert, opposition to large bases and forces in South East Asia, 18 on Singapore as main British base in South East Asia, 20 on South East Asia, 295 and Sukarno, 14 Selkirk, Lord, and Britain in South East Asia, 26, 149 and British position in Singapore, 20 and Brunei revolt, 110, 111–13, 114–15 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 62, 66, 67–8, 70, 89 and Indonesian policies, 67 n.17, 114–15 and Lee Kuan Yew, 191, 192 on Malay attitudes to Malaysia, 274 and Malaysia, 125–6 and meeting of 1961 with Subandrio, 99 and negotiations over Malaysia, 161 and plebiscite/referendum in Borneo territories, 140 and SEATO, 26 and Singapore arrest programme, 89, 92, 117–18 and Subandrio’s claims over referendum in Borneo territories 323 and Sukarno, 115 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 128 on US policy in Asia, 25, 302 Shell, 110, 151, 154–5, 198, 207–8, 225 Sihanouk, 256 Singapore arrest programme in, 89–93, 117–18, 160 and British base facilities, 14–15, 19–20, 67, 72, 74, 76–7 and n.47, 163, 250 and communal riots of 1964, 269 and departure from Malaysia, 269, 273–5, 287–9 and elections of 1963, 201 political situation in, 14–18, 20, 65–6, 68–9, 77–8, 93–4, 191–3, 201 and referendum on merger, 77–8, 89, 90, 93–4 Skybolt, 119–20 South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), 7, 8, 20–1, 23–4, 26–7, 67, 99, 165, 219, 254, 267, 283, 297, 299–300, 302 Stanvac, 151–2, 207 Stephens, Donald, 67, 69, 158 n.29, 185, 188–9, 200 Stevenson, William E., and British influence over Malaysia, 174 Subandrio, and announcement of ‘confrontation’, 126 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 99, 108, 109 and Indonesian internal politics, 237 and Indonesian policy in confrontation, 130, 141, 143, 157–9, 186, 190, 210, 256 visit to Moscow of 1961, 34 Suharto, 275–6 Sukarno, and approach to confrontation, 156–7, 251, 272–3 and Brunei revolt, 114–15 and independence struggle, 2, 5, 10–11 and Indonesian internal politics, 10–12, 31–2, 59, 156, 170–1, 199, 237, 265, 275–6 and ‘crush Malaysia’ speech, 209 and Kennedy, 40 n.31, 42 and Manila summit, 169, 177, 179 and peace-feelers in 1964, 271–2 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 249, 250 and ‘To hell with your aid’ speech, 263–4 324 Index Sukarno (cont.) and Tokyo meeting of 1963 with Tunku Abdul Rahman, 157, 169 and Tokyo summit of 1964, 265 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 105, 129, 143–4, 169, 214 ‘Year of Living Dangerously’ speech, 272, 277 and UN ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 190, 195–6 visit to Moscow of 1961, 43 visit to Washington of 1961, 42–3 and West Irian, 32, 48–9, 50, 52, 55 Sullivan, William, and French policy in South East Asia, 256 Sumatra, 11, 12, 106, 128, 130, 140, 210, 213–14, 227, 228, 263 Tan Siew Sin, ambitions in Singapore, 160 Taylor, General Maxwell D., and Nasution visit to Washington of 1963, 225 Tebedu, 144 Tentara Nasional Kalimantan Utara (TNKU, North Borneo Liberation Army), 109–14, 127, 144, Thanat Khomen, efforts to mediate in confrontation, 215, 217, 220 Thant, U, 140 and UN ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 173, 175, 177, 180, 182, 183, 184, 185–6, 194, 195 Thompson mission to Vietnam, 25, 261 Thorneycroft Peter, and arms supplies to Indonesia, 228 and costs of confrontation, 223 and counter-confrontation measures, 231 and political solution to confrontation, 244, 246–7 and US policy towards confrontation, 225 Tonkin Gulf, 271, 284 Tory, Sir Geofroy, on Cobbold Commission, 84 and Malayan views of Indonesia, 105–6, 183 and Tunku Abdul Rahman, 64–5, 66, 87, 127–8, 129, 183, 188 warned of Brunei revolt, 110 Trend, Burke, and appeals to Australia and New Zealand for assistance in confrontation, 229 and British withdrawal from Far East, 290 and Malaysia as a liability, 145–7 and negotiated settlement of confrontation, 287–8 United Malays National Organization (UMNO), 3, 6, 9, 16, 201, 236, 269, 273–5, 297 United Nations (UN), 79, 115, 117, 139–40, 210, 218, 244 and ascertainment of opinion in Borneo territories, 130, 157–9, 177, 183–4, 193–4 Indonesian withdrawal from, 273 and General Assembly Resolution 1541, 173, 180 and Security Council debate of 1964, 270, 271 and West Irian dispute, 43–5, 52–4 United States and aid to Indonesia, 43, 55, 58–9, 209–10, 212, 221–2, 224–6, 228, 239–42, 259, 261, 262, 263–4, 277 and ANZUS Treaty, 167–8, 206, 216–19, 278 n.29 and British influence over Malaysia, 174–5, 178–9, 188 and British role in Far East, 7–8, 21, 280 and British world power role, 286, 289–90, 292–4, 301, 304 Congress, 40, 57–8, 150–1, 170, 239 and developing world, 35–8 and foreign aid programme, 150–1, 170 and Diem, 25, 135–6, 206–7 and Great Britain, 119–20, 131–2, 202, 208–9, 247–8, 258, 266, 300–1, 303–4 and Indonesia, 5, 9–10, 11–14, 32–4, 54–9, 135, 136, 277–9, 300–1 and Laos, 21–6 and Malaysia, 132, 138–9, 202–4, 277 and South East Asia, 4–5, 21–6, 54, 58–9, 301–3 and support for sterling, 288–91 and Vietnam War, 21, 25, 37, 52, 58–9, 135–6, 205–7, 255–6, 260, 267, 269, 279–80, 284, 303 and West Irian dispute, 13–14, 33–4, 39–54 Index Vietnam War and developments in, 58–9, 135, 235, 266–7, 269, 280 and Great Britain, 25, 261–2, 266–7, 284–5, 289, 304 and Kennedy, 205, 207 and links with confrontation, 254–5, 258, 260–2, 263, 266, 279–80, 284–5, 284–7 and ‘neutralization’ proposals, 254, 255–6, 260, 262 and USA, 21, 25, 37, 52, 58–9, 135–6, 205–7, 255–6, 260, 267, 269, 279–80, 284, 303 Victorious, HMS, 271 Waddell, Sir Alexander, and Brunei revolt, 112 and Cobbold Commission, 80 and Greater Malaysia scheme, 66, 72 Warner, Fred, 221 on appointment of Harriman as Assistant Secretary for the Far East, 25 and British attitude towards Sukarno, 172 and British military presence in South East Asia, 283 and quadripartite talks of February 1963, 131–2, 135, 136 and Philippine claim to North Borneo (Sabah), 104 on SEATO and Indochina, 299–300 and US policy in West Irian dispute, 101 and US policy towards Malaysia, 136–7 and US policy towards Indonesia, 208 325 and US pressure on Tunku Abdul Rahman, 216 Watherston, Sir David, as member of Cobbold Commission, 80, 85, 86–7 West Irian, 5, 13–14, 33–5, 39–54, 100–3, 104–5, 106 White, Sir Dennis, and Brunei revolt, 111 Wilson, Harold, and British east of Suez role, 281–2 visit to Washington, December 1964, 285–6 and Johnson and Vietnam, 287 meetings with George Ball of September 1965, 289 meetings with Lyndon Johnson of June 1967, 292 Wong Pow Nee, as member of Cobbold Commission, 80, 81, 86 Wright, Oliver, and British ‘Sukarno fixation’, 255 and British global commitments, 304 and Lyndon Johnson’s view of Sukarno, 262 and Robert Kennedy confrontation mediation mission, 250 and need for political solution to confrontation, 230 and US reactions to British withdrawal from South East Asia, 292, 293 Wyatt, Wilson, and oil negotiations with Indonesia, 153, 155–6 Yong, Stephen, 166 ... GUINEA PAPUA NEW GUINEA IM T O R PORTUGUESE TIMOR xxi Introduction: Britain, the United States and the South East Asian setting During the late 1950s and early 1960s, both Britain and the United. .. confrontation in South East Asia and technical experts to South East Asia, adding to the impression that the British were consolidating and extending their position in the region Entertaining many of the. .. Edwards, Crises and Commitments: The Politics and Diplomacy of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts, 1948? ?1965 (Sydney, 1992), 163–9 Britain, the United States and South East Asia social