Food safety handbook 805 trang

FOOD SAFETY HANDBOOK FOOD SAFETY HANDBOOK RONALD H SCHMIDT and GARY E RODRICK A JOHN WILEY & SONS PUBLICATION Copyright (” 2003 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada N o part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval sqstem, or transmitted in an) form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive Danvers MA 01923 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470 or on the web at www.copyright.com Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Perniissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Inc 11 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-601 1, fax (201) 748-6008, e-mail: permrccl~~wiley.com Limit of Liability/Disclairner of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation You should consult with a professional where appropriate Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S at 317-572-3993 or fax 31 7-572-4002 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print however, may not be available in electronic format Library of Congress Catali~ging-in-PublicariNgData is uvailuble: ISBN - - - Printed in the United States of America 10 CONTENTS Preface xi PART I CHARACTERIZATION OF FOOD SAFETY AND RISKS Edited by Joan Rose DEFINITION OF FOOD SAFETY Robert (Skip) A Seward I/ CHARACTERIZATION OF FOOD HAZARDS 11 RISK ANALYSIS FRAMEWORKS FOR CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL HAZARDS 19 Robert (Skip) A Seward /I Margaret E Coleman and Harry M Marks DOSE-RESPONSE MODELING FOR MICROBIAL RISK 47 Chuck Haas EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT OF MICROBIAL FOOD HAZARDS 59 Richard C Whifing V Vi CONTENTS EXPOSURE AND DOSE-RESPONSE MODELING FOR FOOD CHEMICAL RISK ASSESSMENT 73 Carl K Winter ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF FOODBORNE HAZARDS 89 Tanya Roberts, Jean Buzby, and Erik Lichtenberg PART I1 FOOD HAZARDS: BIOLOGICAL 125 Edited by LeeAnne Jackson PREVALENCE OF FOODBOURNE PATHOGENS 127 LeeAnne Jackson PHYSIOLOGY AND SURVIVAL OF FOODBOURNE PATHOGENS IN VARIOUS FOOD SYSTEMS G.E Rodrick and R.H Schmidt 137 10 CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS IN FOODS R Todd Bacon and John N Sofos 157 11 CONTEMPORARY MONITORING METHODS 197 Jinru Chen PART Ill FOOD HAZARDS: CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL 21 Edited by Austin R Long and G William Chase 12 HAZARDS FROM NATURAL ORIGINS 213 John J Specchio 13 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL HAZARDS PRODUCED DURING FOOD PROCESSING, STORAGE, AND PREPARATION 233 Heidi Rupp 14 HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH NUTRIENT FORTIFICATION Anne Porada Reid 265 CONTENTS 15 MONITORING CHEMICAL HAZARDS: REGULATORY INFORMATION Daphne Santiago 16 HAZARDS RESULTING FROM ENVIRONMENTAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND AGRICULTURAL CONTAMINANTS Sneh D Bhandari PART IV SYSTEMS FOR FOOD SAFETY SURVEILLANCE AND RISK PREVENTION vii 277 291 323 Edited by Keith R Schneider 17 IMPLEMENTATION OF FSlS REGULATORY PROGRAMS FOR PATHOGEN REDUCTION Pat Sfolfa 18 ADVANCES IN FOOD SANITATION: USE OF INTERVENTION STRATEGIES Judy W Arnold 19 USE OF SURVEILLANCE NETWORKS Craig W Hedberg 20 HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) Debby Newslow PART V FOOD SAFETY OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING, HANDLING, AND DISTRIBUTlON 325 337 353 363 381 Edited by Barry G Swanson 21 FOOD PLANT SANITATION Henry C Carsberg 22 FOOD SAFETY CONTROL SYSTEMS IN FOOD PROCESSING Joellen M Feirtag and Madeline Velazquez 23 FOOD SAFETY AND !NNOVATIVE FOOD PACKAGING Michael L Rooney 383 403 41 Viii CONTENTS 24 SAFE HANDLING OF FRESH-CUT PRODUCE AND SALADS 425 Dawn L Hentges 25 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES: PREREQUISITES FOR FOOD SAFETY 443 Barry G Swanson PART VI FOOD SAFETY IN RETAIL FOODS Edited by Ronald H Schmidt and Gary E Rodrick 26 COMMERCIAL FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS: THE PRINCIPLES OF MODERN FOOD HYGIENE 453 455 Roy Costa 27 INSTITUTIONAL FOOD SERVICE OPERATIONS 523 Ruby P Puckett 28 FOOD SERVICE AT TEMPORARY EVENTS AND CASUAL PUBLIC GATHERINGS 549 Donna L Scott and Robert Gravani PART VII DIET, HEALTH, AND FOOD SAFETY 57 Edited by Mary K Schmidl 29 MEDICAL FOODS 573 Mary K Schmidl and Theodore P Labuza 30 FOOD FORTIFICATION 607 R Elaine Turner 31 SPORTS NUTRITION 627 Joanne L Slavin 32 DtETARY SUPPLEMENTS 641 33 FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND NUTRACEUTICALS 673 Cathy L Bartels and Sarah J Miller Ronald H Schmidt and R Elaine Turner CONTENTS PART Vlll WORLD-WIDE FOOD SAFETY ISSUES iX 689 Edited by Sara E Valdes Martinez 34 INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR STANDARDIZATION IS0 9000 AND RELATED STANDARDS 691 John G Surak 35 IMPACT OF FOOD SAFETY ON WORLD TRADE ISSUES 725 Erik Lichtenberg 36 UNITED STATES IMPORT/EXPORT REGULATION AND CERTIFICATION 741 Rebeca Lopez-Garcia 37 EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS WITH AN EMPHASIS ON GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS 759 J Ralph Blanchfield 38 FAO/WHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS Eduardo R Mendez and John R Lupien Index 793 801 PREFACE Food safety legislation and regulations have long been impacted by a variety of factors, including socioeconomic, consumer, political, and legal issues With regard to food safety issues and concerns, certain parallels can be drawn between the beginning and close of the 20th century At the start of the 20th century, several food safety issues were brought to the public’s attention Atrocious sanitation problems in the meat industry, highlighted in Upton Sinclair’s novel The Jungle, had a major influence on the passage of the landmark legislation, the Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906) Likewise, fairly wide-spread food adulteration with the addition of inappropriate chemical substances, and the marketing of a variety of fraudulent and potentially dangerous elixirs, concoctions, and other formulations, led to passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) We are now in the 21st century and, food safety issues have as high a priority and significance as they did over 100 years ago.” Public concerns have arisen regarding high-profile food-borne illness outbreaks due to contamination of food with certain pathogens (e.g., Salmonellu, Escherichiu coli 57:H7, Listeriu monocytogmes, and others) which have serious acute impact and potential chronic long-term complications in the ever-increasing high-risk population segment (e.g., elderly, children, immuno-compromised) In addition, food-borne illness outbreaks are occurring in foods previously not considered high risk (e.g., fruit juices, fresh produce, deli meats) In response to these foodborne pathogen issues, a presidential budgetary initiative was instituted in 1997 to put a multi-agency food safety strategy in place This National Food Safety Initiative includes a nationwide early warning system for food-borne illness, expanded food safety research, risk assessment, training and education proxi Xii PREFACE grams, and enhanced food establishment inspection systems Pathogen issues have also resulted in endorsement and implementation of comprehensive prevention and intervention strategies, such as the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system, by the regulatory and industrial communities Another parallel can be drawn to earlier times Society today, like that of the early 19OOs, is strongly interested in attaining certain therapeutic and health benefits through special foods (e.g., nutraceuticals and functional foods), and, once again, the line between foods and pharmaceuticals has become blurred The trend to market these products has created certain labeling concerns with regard to health claims, as well as safety and efficacy concerns As the world has gotten smaller through increased communication, travel, immigration, and trade, there are current concerns regarding the safety of food products throughout the world Global consumer concerns regarding genetically modified foods and ingredients, as well as potential chemical residues in foods, have had a major impact on current and future legislation, as well as world trade The intent of this book is to define and categorize the real and perceived safety issues surrounding food, to provide scientifically non-biased perspectives on these issues, and to provide assistance to the reader in understanding these issues While the primary professional audience for the book includes food technologists and scientists in the industry and regulatory sector, the book should provide useful information for many other audiences Part focuses on general descriptions of potential food safety hazards and provides in-depth background into risk assessment and epidemiology Potential food hazards are characterized in Part 11, where biological hazards are discussed, and in Part Ill, which addresses chemical and physical hazards Control systems and intervention strategies for reducing risk or preventing food hazards are presented in Part IV, V and VI The emphasis of Part IV is on regulatory surveillance and industry programs including Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) systems Food safety intervention in food processing, handling and distribution are addressed in Part V, while the focus of Part Vl is on the retail foods sector Diet, health and safety issues are characterized in Part VTI, with emphasis on food fortification, dietary supplements, and functional foods Finally, Part VIII addresses world-wide food safety issues through discussion of Codex Alimentarius Cotiztnission ( C A C ) , the European Union perspectives on genetic modification, and other globally accepted food standards The topics within each chapter are divided into sections called units To provide continuity across the book, these units have been generally organized according to the following structure: Introduction and Definition of Issues Background and Historical Sigiil'fcance, ScientGc Basis and Iiizplic~rtions, Regulatory, Industrial, and International Iniplications, and Current and Future Iniplica tions This project was a highly ambitious project and the co-editors would like to acknowledge the many people who provided valuable input and assistance and C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 784 * EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS Risk associated with the gene products in the plant, mainly proteins It is necessary to know that the gene does not encode for a protein that is toxic to humans or does not produce an allergic response It must also be established that insertion of the gene(s) does not result in unexpected effects Investigation of the possibility that the inserted gene may be transferred to bacteria This has particular relevance to the possible transfer of antibiotic resistance genes Council Directive 90/220/EEC has now been superseded by Directive 2001/18/ EC providing for deliberate release of GMOs into the environment Meanwhile, at a Commission meeting in July 2000, a strategy was proposed for relaunching the authorization procedure for GMOs on the basis of a reinforced framework for approval under a revised Directive 90/220/EEC after agreement between the Council and the European Parliament It includes the following: * * * * Anticipating the key provisions (labeling, traceability, monitoring etc) of the revised Directive 90/220/EEC before they are transposed in all Member States based on legally enforceable voluntary commitments The new requirements will be incorporated into the individual authorizations of GMO products granted on the basis of the existing Directive 90/220/EEC A comprehensive set of labeling provisions in the food sector that would cover GMOs and products derived from GMOs An initiative on a traceability system for GMOs and possibly products derived from GMOs Filling in the gaps in current legislation concerning GMOs In November 2000, the Commission issued Working Document ENV/620/ 2000 setting out detailed proposals Containment EU Council Directive 90/219/EEC on the contained use of genetically modified microorganisms (OJ L117, May 1990, pp 1-14), as amended by Council Directive 98/811EC of 26/10/98 (OJ L330, December 1998, p 13), which provides the circumstances and conditions under which GMOs (including fermentation organisms) require consent for contained use, is administered in the U.K by the Department of Food, Environment, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and implemented in the U.K by: * The Environmental Protection Act 1990, Part VI, Genetically Modified Organisms, Sections 106-127 Section 106 states that this Part (i.e., Part VI) has effect for preventing or minimizing any damage to the environment that may arise from the escape or release from human control of genetically modified organisms Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an CURRENT AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS * * * 785 The Genetically Modified Organisms (Risk Assessment) (Records and Exemptions) Regulations 1996 (SI 1996/1106) restricts the import and acquisition of GMOs under Section 108 (l)(a) of this Act The Genetically Modified Organisms (Contained Use) Regulations 1992 (SI 1992/3217) [The Genetically Modified Organisms (Contained Use) Regulations 1993-now revoked] The Genetically Modified Organisms (Contained Use) (Amendment) Regulations 1996 (SI 1996/967) The Genetically Modified Organisms (Contained Use) (Amendment) Regulations 1996 (SI 1998/1548) Labeling Before May 1997, labeling of GM foods in many countries, including the U.K., was not explicitly mandatory Nevertheless, some European food manufacturers and retailers labeled GM foods on a voluntary basis (e.g., the Co-op’s vegetarian cheese prepared with G M chymosin and Sainsbury’s and Safeway’s GM tomato paste) to allow consumers to exercise choice and to gain consumer confidence Labeling guidelines developed by a number of bodies including the independent Food Advisory Committee in 1993 (revised in 1996) and the Institute of Grocery Distribution in 1997 These guidelines took into account the need for labeling of novel foods that contain material (e.g., allergens) that may have implications for the health of some sections of the population (e.g., infants or the elderly) as well as those that contain “ethically sensitive genes.” The latter include foods that contain copy genes originally derived from humans or from animals that are the subject of religious dietary restrictions (e.g., pig genes for Muslims) or any animal genes for vegetarians Much of the provision on ethically sensitive genes has been based on the findings of the U.K Polkinghorne Committee, which reported on the ethics of genetic modification in 1993 On May 15, 1997, the EU Novel Foods Regulation (258/97) was made, controlling the placing on the market and making the labeling of G M foods or foods obtained from GMOs mandatory in the European Union if, on the basis of a scientific assessment, they were judged not to be substantially equivalent to an existing food (for a definition of substantial equivalence, see pp 765-6) Article of the Novel Foods Regulation requires foods and food ingredients containing or consisting of GMOs and foods and food ingredients produced from (but not containing) GMOs to be labeled so as to inform consumers of any characteristic or property that makes the food or food ingredient different from an equivalent existing food or food ingredient Not only must the modified characteristic or property be identified, the method by which it was obtained must be indicated The regulation allowed voluntary labeling to indicate the absence of any genetic material However, specific lines of GM soy and G M maize approved under the Deliberate Release Directive 90/220 and consumed to a significant degree Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 786 EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS before the Novel Foods Regulation came into effect on May 15, 1997, were therefore outside the scope of that Regulation To deal with that situation, on November 1, 1997 Commission Regulation 1813/97 was adopted, which made food ingredients from those crops subject to the same distinctive labeling provisions as those contained in the Novel Foods Regulation This regulation also stated that detailed Community Rules on labeling would be adopted as soon as possible in accordance with the requirements of Article of Regulation 258/97 In line with this provision, Council Regulation N o 1139/98 (OJ L159, 3/6/98, p 4) came into effect on October , 1998 As later amended by Regulation 49/2000, it requires that where a food consists of more than one ingredient, the words “produced from genetically modified soya” or “produced from genetically modified maize,” as appropriate, shall appear in the list of ingredients This wording can be shortened to “genetically modified” where an ingredient is already listed as being produced from soya or maize or where it is used as a footnote, linked by an asterisk to “soya*” or “maize* ” This regulation applies to foods delivered as such to the final consumer EU Regulation 50/2000 applies similar requirements to the labeling of G M derived additives and flavorings but extends beyond GM soy or maize to any G M source In the U.K., this requirement was taken one step further in early 1999 by the announcement that labeling of GM soy and maize will be required not only for manufactured products but also in restaurants, cafes, delicatessens, and sandwich shops Since it is not always practically possible for catering establishments to provide labeling at the point of sale, the Food Labelling (Amendment) Regulations 1999 S.I 1999/747 (UK) allow such establishments to inform customers about GM foods via their staff The availability of this inforniation must also be indicated on the menu or on a prominent notice In addition, information must also be made available to customers who place telephone orders for take-away food The Regulations allowed for a 6-month lead-in time (i.e., to September 1999) to enable reprinting of menus and staff training The selling of foods containing G M material where this has not been properly declared can now be prosecuted and fined up to &5,000 Regulation 1139/98 also requires that validated testing methods be established so that the presence or absence of G M materials can be scientifically determined To deal with adventitious contamination of foods or food ingredients with GM materials, a threshold for detection of genetically modified DNA would be set at or below which foods would not need to be labeled A negative list o f processed foods in which any genetically modified DNA or protein present would have been destroyed is also to be drawn up under the Regulation Foods may only be exempted from distinctive labeling if they contain less than an agreed threshold level of GM material Regulation 49/2000 of January 11, 2000 set the threshold at 1% of a single ingredient food or in a inulti-ingredient food, 1% of each ingredient considered separately, but only if the manufacturer can demonstrate that the ingredient Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an CURRENT AND FUTURE IMPLICATIONS 787 has been obtained from a non-GM source (but note that this only permits exemption from distinctive labeling for food or ingredients below the threshold; it does not permit such foods to be designated as “GM-free”-however, the EU Commission’s program of future work foreshadows the development of a Regulation for the labeling of GM foods) Of course, effective regulatory control in relation to a threshold limit is crucially dependent on the existence of a validated, reliable analytical method for detection, identification, and quantification of specific genes, and as yet (September 2002) no method has been validated by the EU The original expectation was that the food components compared should be key nutrients and toxicants rather than tiny fragments of degraded DNA and associated proteins The Regulation recognized that in some cases it would not be possible to segregate foods that contain genetically modified and conventional produce (e.g., soybeans imported from the U.S.) In such circumstances, the Regulation recognized that providing other information for the consumer (e.g., point-of-sale leaflets) indicating that GMOs may be present fulfilled the labeling obligation Enforcement of these measures are carried out by Member States’ authorities Since July 2000 discussions and work have been proceeding in the Commission, the Council of Ministers, and the European Parliament to provide a comprehensive and stringent regime, replacing the previous piecemeal measures covered in the various pieces of legislation and based on * * A mandatory traceability system for GMOs and possible products derived from GMOs or with the assistance of GMOs A comprehensive set of labeling provisions that would cover GMOs and products derived from GMOs or with the assistance of GMOs After agreement had been reached by the Council of Ministers, on July 25, 2001, the Commission issued a statement: “The European Commission adopted today an important legislative package on genetically modified organisms (GMOs) which establishes a sound community system to trace and label GMOs and to regulate the placing on the market and labelling of food and feed products derived from GMOs The new legislation is intended to provide a trustworthy and environmentally safe approach to GMOs, GM food and G M feed The package consists of a proposal’ for traceability and labelling of GMOs and products produced from GMOs and a proposal’ on regulating G M food and feed It will require the traceability of GMOs throughout the chain from farm to table and provide consumers with information by labelling all food and feed consisting of, containing or produced from a GMO It will establish a ‘one door one key’ procedure for the authorisation of GMOs for food and feed, including the deliberate release into the environment This procedure will consist of a single scientific assessment, carried out by the scientific committees of the European Food Authority The new system as proposed today Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 788 EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS ensures a tight and stringent regulatory framework on the use of GMOs in Europe and closes existing legal gaps whilst addressing legitimate concerns of the economic operators It meets the requests by Member States governments, the European Parliament and consumer organisations and has been drafted in close dialogue with all stakeholders and Member States Two further proposals relating to G M seed will be brought forward in autumn Today’s proposals are subject to co-decision with the European Parliament and the Council and should enter into force in 2003 at the latest The labelling provisions in respect of food and feed will be reviewed after two years of operation.” “Traceability” here means the ability to trace and follow a food, feed, or foodproducing animal or substance through all stages from rearing or growing of primary products, through production, manufacture, and distribution up to and including its sale or supply to the final consumer and, in the case of a food containing a GMO, or a food, food ingredient, additive, or flavoring derived from a GMO, an unique code identifier following it from “farm to fork,” provision to the authorities of information facilitating the detection and identification of a particular GM product including lodging of a sample of the GMO or its genetic material Of course, traceability is highly important for all aspects of product food safety But for any scheme that wants an effective system for authorization of specific GMOs and labeling distinction between GM and non-GM products, not only analysis but also traceability is a must However, this is the first time that a proposal has been made to establish mandatory traceability measures Moreover, it would seem that the new approach will place more emphasis on traceability of heritage than on analysis The statement includes the explanatory comment “In comparison with the labelling system in place today, the proposal on G M food and feed will add the labelling of: All foods produced from GMOs irrespectively of whether there is DNA or protein of GM origin in the final product All genetically modified feed.” LITERATURE CITED Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) 1989-2001 Annual Reports Available from ACNFP Secretariat, Food Standard Agency, Aviation House, 125 Kingsway, London WC2B 6NH, U.K (see also Internet Resources) Advisory Committee on Releases into the Environment (ACRE).1993-present Annual Rcports Available from DEFRA, Nobel House, 17 Smith Square, London SW 1P 3JR, U.K (see also Internet Resources) Astwood, J.D et al 1996 Stability of food allergens to digestion in vitro Nrrtiirr Biot r c h n o l o ~14: ~ 1269-1273 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an LITERATURE CITED 789 Campden and Chorleywood Food Research Association 1997 HACCP: A Practical Guide, 2nd ed Technical Manual No 38 The Codex Alimentarius Commission revised basic texts on food hygiene in 1997; officially published in Volume 1B of the Codex Alimentarius and republished in a compact format: 15 x 21 cm, 58 pages, ISBN 92-5-104021-4 May be obtained through the worldwide sales agents, see http://www.jao.org/ or mailto:Publicationsales@fao.org (cost around $7) Committee on the Ethics of Genetic Modification and Food Use (The “Polkinghome Committee”) 1993 Report Available from HMSO, P.O Box 276, London SW8 5DT, U.K Dillon, M and Griffith, C 1996 How to HACCP, 2nd ed MD Associates Food and Drink Federation 1995, 1997 Food for our Future and Modem Biotechnology-Towards Greater Understanding Color brochures available from the FDF, Catherine Street, London WC2B 5JJ, U.K Food Advisory Committee (FAC) 1990-2001 Annual Reports and Guidelines for the Labelling of Foods Produced using Genetic Modification 1994 Available from FAC Secretariat, Food Standard Agency Aviation House 125 Kingsway London WC2B 6NH, U.K Food Labelling (Amendment) Regulations 1999 S.I 19991747 (UK) Herian, A.M et al 1990 Identification of soybean allergens by immunoblotting in sera from soy-allergic adults Intl Arch Allergy Appl Immunol92:193-198 ILSI Europe 1997 A Simple Guide to Understanding and Applying the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point Concept ILSI Europe Avenue E Mounier, 83, Box B-1200 Brussels, Belgium Also http://www europe ilsi org/’le/ilsihace.pdf Institute of Food Science and Technology (IFST) 1996 Guide to Food Biotechnology Available from IFST, Cambridge Court, 210 Shepherd’s Bush Road, London W6 7NJ, U.K Also http://www.ifst orglguides htm Institute of Grocery Distribution 1996, 1997 Biotechnology Factfile Available from IGD, Grange Lane, Letchmore Heath, Watford, Herts WD2 SDQ, U.K James, C 2001 Global Status of Transgenic Crops in 2001 ISAAA Brief No 24 ISAAA, Ithaca, NY, 30 pp Mortimore, S.E and Wallace, C 1994 HACCP: A Practical Approach Aspen Publ Inc., Gaithersburg, MD Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients Regulations 1997 S.1 199711335 (UK) Nordlee, J.A et al 1995 Identification of Brazil-nut allergen in transgenic soybeans N Engl J Med 334:688-692 Nuffield Foundation on Bioethics 1999 Report “Genetically modified crops: The ethical and social issues” Also available at http://wwl.ii.nufJieldbioethics.org/filelibrary/ pdf/gmcrop.p4if: Pearson, A.R and Dutson, T.R., Eds 1995 HACCP in Meat, Poultry and Fish Processing (Advances in Meat Research, Volume 10) Blackie Regulation (EC) No 258197 of the European Parliament and the Council of 25 January 1997 concerning Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients, Oficiul Journal of’ the European Communities No L43, 14 February 1997 Sheridan, J.D., Buchanan, R.L and Montville, T.J 1996 HACCP: An Integrated Approach to Assuring the Microbiological Safety of Meat and Poultry Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 790 EUROPEAN UNION REGULATIONS UK National Consensus Conference on Plant Biotechnology 1994 Final Report Available from The Science Museum, London SW7 2DD, U.K Finally, modesty should forbid, but honesty compels me to refer you also to IFST’s Food and Drink-Good Manufacturing Practice: A Guide to its Responsible Management, 4th ed (September 1998), of which I was editor and principal author It costs f 5 (all of which goes to IFST, none to me!), and if you visit i ~ w w i f t o r g / guidexhtm you will find out how to order it INTERNET RESOURCES Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes (ACNFP) (U.K.), Annual Reports 1989 2001, http://www.food gov u k / s c i e n c e / o u r u d v i s o r s / n ~ ) ~ I e ~ o o d / u c n f u l Advisory Committee on Releases to the Environment (ACRE) (U.K.), http://uwiv defrago v uk/environnzentlucrelindex h tm Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the U.S Department of Agriculture (APHIS-USDA), http://www.aplzis.usda.gov/hiotech/ Biotechnology at Work website of the Department of Trade and Industry (U.K.), http:// I V M J W clti.gov.uklhiowise Center for Science in the Public Interest: Genetically Engineered Foods: Are They Safe? lz ttp://cspinet.sufiser ver corn/nah/ll_O1/index.h tml Department of Health (U.K.) “Health Implications of Genetically Modified Foods,” http://l.c.~clw doh.gov uklginjood him European Union D G Consumer Policy and Consumer Health Protection (“Sanco”) htin website, Izttp://t.uropa.eu int/commlfood/index-e~~ European Union D G Consumer Policy and Consumer Health Protection (“Sanco”) indtT-i documents relating to GMOs, http://europu.eu.int/coiiim/j~od~f;F/g~~~o/g~~~o en I~tinl Foodfuture: Food and Biotechnology, Food and Drink Federation (U.K.), http:// ic.il.~c ,f~ocifi4ture org uk Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Report of Joint FAOIWHO Consultation him on Biotechnology and Food Safety, http://www.fuo.org/es/esn/hiotrclz/tahconts Food Standards Agency (U.K.), lzttp://,vn:,c.,food.goi~.ukl Institute of Food Science & Technology (IFST), http://wMw.ifst org Nuffield Council on Bioethics (1999) Report: “Genetically modified crops: the ethical and social issues,” http://w~~~~v.nu~eldhioetkics org~~lelibrary/pdj/g~icrop.pdf: The Royal Society, http://M’w1v.rOyuIsOC uc.irk Royal Society Statements: Feb 1998: Genetically Modified Plants for Food Use March 1999: The Regulation of Biotechnology in the UK April 1999: Scientific Advice on G M Foods: A Response to the Inquiry by the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee April 1999: CMOS and the Environment: A Response to the Inquiry by the House of Commons Environmental Audit Committee July 2000: Transgenic Plants and world agriculture Links on http://wivw royalsoc uc uk/policy/rep_fr htrn Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an INTERNET RESOURCES 791 UK House of Commons, Select Committee on Science and Technology, http:// www.publications.par1iament.uklpa/cnzI99899/cmselect/cmsetech/286/90308/)1.htm and http:Il,vww.publications.parlic~ment uk/pulcml99899/cmselectlcmsetech/286/28602 htm The Canadian Food Inspection Agency’s Food Safety Enhancement Program web page of links at http://www.inspection.gc ca/engli.rh/ppc/psps/haccplcoure.shtml Food Safety and Inspection Service, U.S Department of Agriculture Pathogen Reduction/HACCP & HACCP Implementation plus numerous relevant links, http:// ivM;w,fiis usda gov/oa/haccp/i~zphaccp 11tin Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point Principles and Application Guidelines (U.S.) National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Safety of Foods, August 14, 1997 http://www.,fit vt edulhaccp971 Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an CHAPTER 38 FAO/WHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS EDUARDO R MENDEZ and JOHN R LUPIEN BACKGROUND AND HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE During the mid-l800s, the first attempt to standardize food and food products appeared in Austria and was called the Codex Alimentarius Europeus The idea behind this attempt was to have a system that could harmonize the food laws existing in Europe After some time this effort ended, but many years later the idea of creating an international system of food standards was revisited and discussed in many forums In 1943, during a United Nations conference on food and agriculture held in Hot Springs, Virginia, 44 nations joined together to create an organization that would give governments assistance to develop and review existing standards with three goals in mind These were to (1) improve the nutritional value of food that had importance in the international market as well as the national market, (2) create systems that would facilitate commerce, and (3) protect the health of the consumer These discussions were based on concerns raised by escalating international food trade after World War 11 Such concerns included the increased use of food additives to preserve food, new pesticide compounds that were being used in agriculture and food storage, and differing food standards in various countries affecting basic food composition and nutritional value Other basic problems included accurate food labeling, promotion of good food hygiene to reduce or eliminate contamination of foods with insect, rodent, and bird filth, and pathogenic microorganisms This conference created an Interim Commission to carry out the conference recommendations, which, in turn, led to the creation of a Food and Agriculture Organization within the United Nations (UN) on October 16, 1945 This organization was the precursor to the Organization for Food and Agriculture (FAO) The UN General Assembly was created one month later; the World Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn Food Safety Hutidbook, Edited by Ronald H Schmidt and Gary E Rodrick 0-471-21064-1 Copyright 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 793 C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 794 FAOIWHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS Health Organization (WHO) was formed several years later In the early years, F A and WHO concentrated on general problems of food production and malnutrition, but in the 1950s joint FAO/WHO discussions and activities on food standards, additives, and other aspects of food quality and safety were initiated During these discussions, member countries emphasized the need for international scientific evaluation mechanisms that could provide them with the best possible science-based advice, with periodic updating to ensure that the new scientific information was always taken into account in their recommendations In the 1950s and the 1960s, the member nations of F A and WHO held extensive discussions about international mechanisms to assist all member countries in improving the quality and safety of domestic food supplies and all food i n international commerce After an FAO/WHO conference on food additives in the mid-l950s, the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee of Food Additives (JECFA) was established The purpose of JECFA was to utilize the services of internationally recognized scientists serving in their individual capacities in expert meetings to evaluate available data on food additives, animal drug residues in foods, and other food contaminants such as mycotoxins, heavy metals, and industrial chemicals JEFCA makes recommendations regarding chemical contaminants in food (e.g., food additives, animal drug residues, and other contaminants) as well as considering specifications and analytical test methods, acceptable daily intakes, and/or tolerable weekly intakes JEFCA recommendations have, for many years, been of great value in setting science-based national rules for such compounds in both developing and developed countries The work of JEFCA has continued unabated over the past 45 years and continues to be a mainstay for member countries and for the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) In the 196Os, F A and WHO carried out similar discussions about the use of pesticides in agriculture and health programs and about pesticide residues in foods From these discussions came another expert assessment body, the joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR), which is a joint meeting of the F A Panel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Foods and the Environment and the WHO Core Assessment Group As with JEFCA, the recommendations of JMPR-on the use of pesticides in agriculture and public health programs, residues in foods, specification and test methods for pesticides and their residues, and acceptable daily intake levels for various pesticides -have been invaluable to member countries and to Codex in setting science-based recommendations for pesticide residues in foods In 1962, during ajoint meeting between the F A Conference and the WHO World Health Assembly on food standards and food, Codex was created It was to be the goal of the Codex to develop worldwide food standards, with the main objectives of protecting the health of the consumer and facilitatink7 international commerce in food I n 1963, the first meeting of this commission took place; to date, 25 addiStt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn ' C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an SCIENTIFIC BASIS AND IMPLICATIONS 795 tional sessions have been held At present, 165 countries belong to this program, representing about 990/0 of the world’s population This gives an idea of the importance of the impact of the decisions made there, and it is a fact that many countries have benefited from the recommendations that have been advocated by this group of experts It is important to note that 70% of the countries that belong to the Commission are developing; it is in these developing countries that the biggest impact of this commission is seen, because these are the countries with the highest production and export levels of raw materials Thus their participation is encouraged and reinforced, in recognition of the fact that it is necessary to obtain the best benefits for the available resources SCIENTIFIC BASIS AND IMPLICATIONS Unlike JEFCA and JMPR, which were bodies of individual experts serving in their own individual capacities to provide FAO, WHO, and the member countries with recommendations based on current scientific data, Codex was created as an international commission This means that the members of Codex are governments and they participate in Codex activities representing their own national interests The Statues of Codex delineate the purposes of Codex, which are: - To protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practice in food trade - To promote coordination of all food standards work undertaken by inter- national governmental and nongovernmental organizations To prioritize, initiate, and prepare draft standards, finalize these standards, amend standards when necessary, and publish final recommended international standards Over the past 40 years, Codex has served as a very effective mechanism for obtaining consensus among its member countries on a wide range of standards for individual food products, food labeling, recommendations on pesticide residue, food additives and food contaminant levels, codes of hygienic practice, and other recommendations In carrying out the Codex work for the commission, a number of subcommittees were established to work on general and specific aspects of Codex work These committees are generally referred as “vertical committees” when they are set to deal with commodity standards-for example, milk and milk products, processed foods and vegetables, cereals, pulses, and legumes “Horizontal committees” deal with matters such as food labeling, food hygiene, pesticide residues, food additives and contaminants, and Codex general principles There are also Codex Regional Coordinating Committees that discuss regional food standards issues and work toward more effective utilization of Codex in developing and developed countries Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 796 FAOiWHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS F A and WHO have organized several international conferences of member countries to review Codex and related work from time to time The most recent of these conferences was held in Melbourne, Australia in October, 1999 and reviewed and endorsed ongoing science-based Codex JEFCA and JMPR work It also strongly supported Codex work with WTO to provide all member countries, especially developing countries, with equal opportunities to compete in international trade of good-quality and safe foods Codex member countries have understood from the outset that effective implementation of food legislation requires science-based systems to ensure the best consumer protection and to enable justification of actions taken by courts, policymakers, and consumers It is clear that all matters related to the control of quality or safety of foods, such as net weight, volume, ingredient lists, claims, additives, pesticide or animal drug residues, control of contaminants, or food hygiene, must be based on good science Additional information on the names and addresses of food manufacturers or distributors must also be accurate, but this is perhaps the only information about foods in the general system of food quality control and safety that could be considered not based in science However, it is clear that government food control authorities must use the best possible science-based judgment in food control decisions Taking action on the basis of the uninformed and non-science-based opinions of individuals or groups with hidden agendas can only lead to chaos A recent problem that has arisen in Codex work relates to new foods and food ingredients derived from techniques such as cloning and genetically modified foods National and international evaluation of genetically modified foods has shown that these products are not significantly different from other more “traditional” foods, which themselves have been genetically modified over many centuries and generations Despite the reassurance from the U.S FDA and other national or international bodies (such as F A and WHO) that genetically modified foods are safe and present no more problems to consumers than other foods on the market, pressure continues from some groups to require specific labeling for genetically modified foods and ingredients According to the best available science, this is not justified and is more likely to cause unnecessary confusion among consumers and additional regulatory problems for food producers and for government regulators Codex discussions are continuing on this point, and it is hoped that science-based information will be used in making a final Codex decision One additional point about Codex work is its value to developing countries in carrying out overall developmental plans Most developing countries rely on the agriculture industry as a mainstay of overall development Codex work provides a basis for national regulations that improve the quality and safety of domestic or imported foods and promote export trade possibilities At present, many developing countries have problems in international trade because of poor food hygiene, pesticide residues in export crops, microbial contamination, and food labeling Codex activities can help to resolve some of these problems Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an REGULATORY AND INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS 797 Furthermore, Codex provides additional technical assistance to strengthen government and food industry food control activities The F A website has additional information on a wide range of food control guidance documents and expert reports used by all countries in setting up improved food control systems REGULATORY AND INTERNATIONAL IMPLICATIONS The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 as an attempt to carry out harmonization of tariffs and to promote better international trade in all products At the outset, agriculture and food were not included in GATT, but in 1970 a recognition of Codex standards produced a nonbinding text on nontariff barriers to trade Later, in 1986, countries belonging to GATT decided to start a new round of trade negotiations that included, for the first time, agriculture and agriculture products These discussions were called the Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations and were concluded in mid-1994 During the period from 1970 to 1988, the relationship between Codex and GATT was quite weak However, during the latter part of 1988, GATT was invited to participate in an executive committee meeting of Codex that took place at WHO headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland From then on, the continued participation of GATT was noticeable On January 1, 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) was created as a continuation and preemption of the GATT program The WTO included: * * Agreements on Agriculture-designed to reduce and harmonize support levels for agricultural commodities; Sanitary Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures-designed to harmonize or promote equivalents in food standards and food contamination problems related to human health; and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT)-designed to prevent restrictions on free and fair access of foods and other products to national markets of other countries through controlling issues such as labeling, basic food composition or other nonhealth food issues in national standards The SPS agreement specifically recognizes the work of Codex as benchmark standards, the recommendations and guidelines for judging foods in international trade The TBT agreement recognizes all international standards work such as Codex as authoritative in examining technical barriers to trade issues involving food standards The WTO has been authorized to examine trade complaints from its member countries in a tribunal system and to make binding decisions about such Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an 798 FAOiWHO FOOD STANDARDS PROGRAM: CODEX ALIMENTARIUS complaints One of the first complaints to come before the WTO involved the ban of beef imports by the European Union (EU) if the beef came from cattle that had been produced using growth-promoting hormones Before the creation of WTO, JEFCA had on several occasions reviewed growth-promoting hormones and the safety of residues in meat and had set acceptable daily intake levels for these The Codex Committee on veterinary drug residues in food had reviewed JEFCA recommendations and other relevant information and the recommended residue limits for these hormonal substances to Codex Despite strong opposition by the E U member countries, Codex formally approved the recommended residue limits, leading to the eventual WTO complaint The WTO considered the U.S complaint that the E U ban was too restrictive and was not based on sound scientific evidence, This WTO tribunal, in examining the relevant JEFCA and Codex decisions, ruled against the EU, agreeing that its ban was not based on adequate scientific information The EU, however, has in effect ignored this decision and maintained its ban, invoking among other things the “precautionary principle,” consumer demands, and other nonscience-based factors Although there has been no explicit statement as to the reasons for the E U ban, it would appear that current support systems for EU farmers are an important factor At present, for example, between the E U and the French government, payments to fanners raising large animals in France represent about 80%)of all farmers’ overall income Given the political influence of farm groups in all countries, and the lower prices of meat imports into the EU, if allowed, it is easy to understand some of the reasons for the E U ban One can hope that the more general aspects of the WTO Agreement on Agriculture will eventually reduce or eliminate or some of these non-science-based factors Despite government and food industry efforts, in many countries consumers have doubts about the quality and safety of the foods they buy and consume Codex and WTO have concentrated on improving risk analysis procedures, including (1) basic risk assessment that is carried out by JEFCA, JMPR, and national government counterparts, (2) risk management of food problems through appropriate government regulatory, inspection, and analysis systems, (3) industry quality and safety management procedures, and (4) improvements in risk communication information In the last area, scientists from government, industry, and academia have considerable room for improvement in preparing and presenting science-based information about food quality and safety in an understandable manner to help consumers and policy makers accept assurances that food supplies are both of good quality and safe CONCLUSIONS Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn This chapter presents information about the Codex Program-its commission, activities, and current Codex considerations At present, the main concerns that C.vT.Bg.Jy.Lj.Tai lieu Luan vT.Bg.Jy.Lj van Luan an.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an.Tai lieu Luan van Luan an Do an Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhd.vT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.LjvT.Bg.Jy.Lj.dtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn.Stt.010.Mssv.BKD002ac.email.ninhddtt@edu.gmail.com.vn.bkc19134.hmu.edu.vn