UNIT 2 ETYMOLOGY HANU English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M A Lexicology 2014 98 UNIT 7 EUPHEMISMS WHAT IS EUPHEMISM? Euphemism is the substitution of a mild, indirect or even a vague word or express.
HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 UNIT EUPHEMISMS WHAT IS EUPHEMISM? Euphemism is the substitution of a mild, indirect or even a vague word or expression for an offensive, direct or unpleasant one The word euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemia, meaning ―the use of words of good omen‖ which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words eu, ―good/well‖ + pheme ―speech/speaking‖ The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud The term euphemism itself was used as a euphemism by the ancient Greeks, meaning ―to keep a holy silence‖ When talking or writing about subjects that we find embarrassing or unpleasant especially, when it comes to words that are considered indecent, indelicate, rude, too direct or impolite we instinctively avoid As the ―offensive‖ referents, for which these words stand, must still be alluded to, they are often described in a round-about way, by using substitutes called euphemisms For example, Mr Milton gets up from the table, explaining that he has to go to the little boy‟s room or see the man about the dog The secretary complains that her boss has pain in the derriere The undertaker (or mortician) asks delicately where to ship the loved one Rather than say that somebody has died, we might say that he/she ―has passed away‖ Some hospitals have ―Special Clinics‖, where sexually transmitted infections are treated CHARACTERISTICS OF EUPHEMISM As an important part of language, Euphemism has its own characteristics which include: Fuzziness In order to not to ―call a spade a spade‖ people, in many cases, use semantic obscurity, that is, they use fuzzy expressions to conceal the truth For example, - 98 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Blind → visually impaired or sight–deprived Poverty → reduced circumstances Prison → correctional facility Lie → economical with the truth Universality Euphemism can be found in any language in the world Most cultures, whether it is English, French, American, Japanese or Vietnamese, seem to have certain notions or things that people try to avoid mentioning directly The use of euphemism is therefore always encouraged in many contexts That the English word W C can be seen on the doors of public toilets in so many countries can be proof of this Localization Different societies have customs, beliefs, values and different ways of thinking and expressing their thoughts Each may have its own things that they consider taboo and therefore they have their own ways to refer to them Besides, all these differences also create differences in the choice of language for the same thing that the people in different countries consider taboo Thus, condom might be called French letter by the English people and rubber by the American The term restroom is an Americanism rarely used outside the United States, while washroom is a Canadian euphemism The abbreviation "W.C." was previously quite popular in the United Kingdom, but is passing out of favor there, while becoming more popular in France, Germany, the Netherlands and Hungary as the polite term of choice Contemporaneity Social changes take place all the time So does language What was once considered improper to say is now acceptable and vice versa Many euphemistic words become neutralized and new euphemisms are created For example, Poor, homeless was referred to as underprivileged and now becomes disadvantaged Lover was referred to as partner and now become boyfriend, girlfriend Let us take a look at the different euphemistic expressions for ―pregnant‖ to better understand this point: - 99 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 → She has cancelled all her social engagements (1855) → She is in an interesting condition (1880) → She is in delicate condition (1895) → She is knitting little bootees (1910) → She is in a family way (1920) → She is expecting (1935) → She is pregnant (1956) A similar progression occurred with the following terms for persons with physical handicaps being adopted by some people: lame → crippled → handicapped → disabled → physicallychallenged → differently-abled TYPES OF EUPHEMISMS According to Rawson (1995), there are two types of euphemisms: positive and negative Negative euphemisms include ―those that deflate and diminish They are defensive in nature, offsetting the power of tabooed terms and otherwise eradicating from the language everything that people prefer not to deal with directly.‖ This type of euphemisms can also be called narrowing Euphemisms They are extremely ancient Thus, tiger can be euphemized as striped one; whore becomes working girl; wrong attack on one‟s own troops is alluded to as friendly fire, etc Positive euphemisms include ―those that inflate and magnify, making the euphemized items seem altogether grander and more important than they really are‖ For example: hair-dressers, hospital nurse, postman or housewife becomes beautician, angel in white, messenger in green or domestic engineer, respectively EUPHEMISMS IN USE Euphemisms are used in every aspect of life We are so familiar with euphemistic expressions that sometimes we cannot recognize them - 100 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Euphemisms in daily life I‟m a bit slow on my feet → My feet hurt, I can hardly walk To answer the call of nature → Go to the WC He needs sympathy; his family is less privileged than us → He really needs help; his family is so poor You are not the best cook in the world → You are a terrible cook ―I love you‖ might be expressed in very many different ways: You waken up my days Things won‟t be the same without you You are the apple of my eyes You make me feel light in the darkness You give me wings to fly You are the answer to my lonely prayer You are an angle from above I was so lonely till you came to me Sanitary facilities have, naturally, produced many euphemisms lavatory, powder room, washroom, restroom retiring room, (public) comfort station, ladies' (room), gentlemen's (room) water-closet, w.c, public conveniences and even windsor castle (which is a comical phrase for ―deciphering‖ w.c) Pregnancy is another topic for ―delicate‖ references Pregnant becomes in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition in the family way, (big) with child, expecting bun in the oven (sl.), knocked up (vulgar) Eating is also regarded as unrefined by some minds Hence, many substitutes have been employed: - 101 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 to partake of food (of refreshment) to refresh oneself, to break bread There are words which are easily targets for euphemistic substitution These include words associated with drunkenness The adjective drunk, for instance, has a great number of such substitutes, some of them ―delicate‖, but most comical - intoxicated (form), - tipsy, mellow, fresh, high, merry, - flustered, overcome, full (coll.), - drunk as a lord (coll.), drunk as an owl (coll.), - boiled (sl.), fried (sl.), tanked (sl.), tight (sl.), - stiff (sl.), picked (sl.), soaked (sl.), - three sheets to the wind (sl.), - high as a kite (sl.), half-seas-over (sl.), etc The following brief quotation from P.G Wodehouse (1978) gives two more examples of words belonging to the same group: ―Motty was under the surface Completely sozzled.‖ (From Right-Ho, Jeeves by P.G Wodehouse) Euphemisms in Business For chief of a department, to be dismissed is to resign for personal reason For workers ―dismissed‖ is dehired, surplused, rightsized, excessed, etc - When a company has to reduce their staff, they say they have ―workforce adjustment‖ - When they transfer workers to another factory or production lines they say they have to apply ―vocational relocation‖ - The ―losses‖ a company suffered are referred to its corporate annual report as ―negative cash flow‖, ―deficit enhancement‖ - John was out of game means he went bankrupt - 102 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 WHY IS EUPHEMISM? Euphemisms may, of course, be used due to genuine concern to unveil unpleasant things, to be more polite or not to hurt someone‘s feeling For instance, War may be referred to as conflict, dispute A liar can be described as a person who does not always strictly tell the truth And a stupid man can be said to be not exactly brilliant Profoundly deaf is used for deaf mute, The disabled or the differently-abled for the crippled More people want to work as custodian than guard or janitor Euphemisms prove to be very necessary in many situations It is certainly more pleasant to hear someone ask where the bathroom or the ladies‟/gentlemen‟s room is than where the WC is Euphemisms are used to avoid the so-called taboo – what is seen as inappropriate Three kinds of taboos can be mentioned here namely, social, superstitious and political taboos Social taboos The use of euphemisms to avoid social taboos is inspired by social convention, customs or common practices For example, children born with a certain genetic disability used to be called Mongoloid idiots Today these children are more objectively referred to as people with Down‟s syndrome a retarded or mentally handicapped person is called learningdisabled, a slow learner and a failing student becomes an underachiever a fat person is not obese or overweight but heavy, plumb, chubby, big boned, well-built, zaftig dumb is replaced by mute, deaf by hearing-impaired People who were seen as ―handicapped‖ and ―disabled‖ now take on new labels for themselves: they are in fact physically challenged, differently-abled and handi-capable - 103 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Mental diseases also cause the frequent use of euphemisms A mad person may be described as insane, mentally unstable, unbalanced, unhinged, not (quite) right (coll.), not all there (coll.), off one's head (coll.), wrong in the upper storey (coll.), crazy as a bedbug (sl.), loony (sl.), a mental case, a mental defective, etc A clinic for such patients can also be discreetly referred to as, for instance, an asylum, sanitarium, sanatorium, (mental) institution, and, less discreetly, as a nut house (sl.), booby hatch (sl.), loony bin (sl.), etc In the story by Evelyn Waugh (1979) ―Mr Loveday‟s Little Outing‖ a clinic of this kind, treating only very rich patients, is described as large private grounds suitable for the charge of nervous or difficult cases This is certainly the peak of euphemistic ―delicacy‖ The great number of humorous substitutes found in such groups of words proves particularly tempting for writers who use them for comical purposes Sex for many reasons has been too delicate a subject to talk about Words describing physical acts become taboos So, instead of engaging in sexual intercourse, people: - go to bed (with sb), sleep (with sb) - contact (with sb), couple - enjoy each other, possess sb - have carnal knowledge (of sb), go all the way There are many euphemisms for birth control devices, sometimes even propagated by the manufacturers: - 104 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Condoms are known as rubbers, sheaths, love gloves, diving suits, raincoats, Johnnies (in Ireland and to a lesser degree Britain), etc The birth control pill is known simply as ―The Pill‖, and other methods of birth control are also given generalized euphemisms like The Patch, The Sponge, Shots, etc The use of contraceptive devices becomes be safe, be careful, take preventive measures, take precautions, wear a raincoat The brothel is euphemistically referred to as bordello, house of prostitution , disorderly house, house of ill repute, house of pleasure, joy house, shagging house, knocking house, massage parlor, red-light district Superstitious taboos Superstitious taboos gave rise to the use of another type of euphemisms The reluctance to call things by their proper names is also typical of this type of euphemisms, but this time it is based on a deeplyrooted subconscious fear Superstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind when people believed that there was a supernatural link between a name and the object or creature it represented Therefore, all the words denoting evil spirits, dangerous animals, or the power of nature were taboo If uttered, it was believed that unspeakable disasters would result not only for the speaker but also for those near him That is why all creatures, objects and phenomena threatening danger were referred to in a round-about descriptive way So, a dangerous animal might be described as the onelurking-in-the-wood and a mortal disease as the Black Death The proverb Speak of the devil and he will appear must have been used and taken quite literally when it was first used, and the fear of calling the devil by name was certainly inherited from ancient superstitious beliefs So, the word devil became taboo, and a number of euphemisms were substituted for it: the Prince of Darkness, the black one, the evil one, dickens (coll.), deuce (coll.), Old Nick (coll.) - 105 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 The Christian religion also made certain words taboo Euphemisms for God and Jesus, such as gosh and gee, are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which many believe would violate one of the Ten Commandments The word god, due to some considerations, had a great number of substitutes which can still be traced in such phrases: Good Lord! By Heavens! (My) Goodness! Gracious! Gracious me! Good Heaven! A religious person may say ―God‖ and ―Jesus‖ with respect, not for showing anger, strong emotion or for cursing another person It is a blasphemy Some people find a softer way of swearing by using words of similar sounds with the name of God: Gee Whiz! Jeepers! Jesus Heck! Hell Go to heck! Go to hell! Christmas! Jiminy Cricket! Jesus Christ! Golly! Gosh! God! For crying out loud! For Christ‘s sake! Even in our modern emancipated times, old superstitious fears still lurk behind words associated with death and fatal diseases The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the magical belief that to speak the word ―death‖ was to invite death; where to ―draw Death's attention‖ is the ultimate bad fortune – a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English – speaking cultures for precisely this reason It may be said that one is not dying, but fading quickly because the end is near People who have died are referred to as having passed away or passed or departed Kick the bucket seems innocuous until one considers an explanation that has been proposed for the idiom: that a suicidal hanging victim must kick the bucket out from under his own feet during his suicide Deceased is a euphemism for ―dead‖, and sometimes the deceased is said to have gone to a better place, but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of Heaven Was taken to Jesus implies salvation specifically for Christians, but met his maker may imply some judgment, content implied or unknown, by God - 106 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Some Christians often use phrases such as gone to be with the Lord or called to higher service to express their belief that physical death is not the end, but the beginning of the fuller realization of redemption Orthodox Christians often use the euphemism fallen asleep or fallen asleep in the Lord, which reflects Orthodox beliefs concerning death and resurrection Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful Someone who has died is said to have passed on, passed away, breathed his last, departed this life, closed his eyes, joined the majority, gone to heaven, met the his maker, bit the big one, kicked the bucket, bitten the dust, popped their clogs, pegged it, carked it, kicked off, taken a ride snuffed it, turned their toes up, yielded (given) up the ghost, bought the farm, cashed in their chips, fallen off their perch, croaked, expired, given up the ghost, checked out, hopped the twig, gone to California, gone south, gone West, shuffled off this mortal coil, run down the curtain and joined the Choir Invisible, or assumed room temperature, etc When buried, they may be said to be pushing up daisies, sleeping the big sleep, taking a dirt nap, checking out the grass from underneath or six feet under There are hundreds of such expressions in use The dead body entices many euphemisms, some polite and some profane, such as dear departed, loved one, decedent, last remains, worm food, or dead meat, croaker, goner, stiff (sl.) - 107 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Grave becomes final resting place, last home, memorial par, bone orchard, cold storage (sl.) Political taboos In many countries, people not always treat all others fairly There has been unfairness shown to racial, ethnic and religious minorities, as well as unfairness to women, people with physical differences, gay people, children and the elderly Some unfairness is in the law Some unfairness is in the people‘s hearts Our history is full of change This change came from groups of activists who organized to work together to change the laws They worked to have people become more tolerant of those who are different from themselves Some groups of these people took new names for themselves The old names seemed offensive and hurtful because they identified people by their differences and set them apart from ―normal‖ people A considerate person will no longer use these words because in some context it could be as dangerous as using vulgar language Speakers and writers are encouraged to use the new politically correct terms The following are some major changes that are occurring in the English language If you listen to different people speaking you will hear some using the politically correct terms, other using the traditional terms For example, Politically incorrect Politically correct When the gender of the person is not known he him his he or she; she or he him or her; her or him his or her; her or his When referring to the entire human race Man humans, human beings mankind human beings, humankind When writing to an unknown person Dear Sir: - 108 - Dear Sir or Madam: Dear Person: HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Various occupation names have been changed so that they may refer to either men or women fireman fire fighter police man police officer mail man letter carrier salesman salesperson chair man chairperson Bureaucracies such as the military and large corporations frequently spawn euphemisms of a more deliberate nature Organizations coin doublespeak expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive For example, a term used in the past for contamination by radioactive isotopes was Sunshine units Military organizations kill people, sometimes deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called neutralizing the target or Employing Kinetic Effects and the second collateral damage Violent destruction of non-state enemies may be referred to as pacification Two common terms when a soldier is accidentally killed (buys the farm) by their own side are friendly fire or blue on blue (BOBbing) HOW TO CREATE EUPHEMISMS Refinement and politeness are the very essence of euphemism To help avoid communication breakdown the following principles are suggested: Foreign words Foreign words or terms often sound finer Using foreign words is a good way to refer to something without being worried about hurting the listeners‘ feeling It always seem to be appropriate for speakers and writes of English to express any thought, any idea they wish, as long as the more rude parts of their speech are expressed in another language For example, cemetery for ―graveyard‖ is a borrowing from Greek, affair, amour, liaison(Fr.) brassiere, lingerie (Fr.) boss (Dutch) copulation, urination (Lat.) - 109 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Abbreviations Unpleasant words when contracted become more acceptable One knows what words are abbreviated but no one seems to be offended because the taboo word is not uttered BS (bullshit), SOB (son of a bitch) BM (bowel movement), BO (bad body odor), Big C, big H, big A, TB, STD Abstractions Abstractions, being quite unclear and meaningless, make ideal coverup words Casting ideas in the most general terms could reduce the strength of particular taboos For example, it, problem, situation, and thing may refer to anything under the sun or any indecent topic the child who keeps playing with it problem days, problem drinking economic thing may be recession, depression or turmoil going to the other side for death it or come together in reference to a sexual act, tired and emotional for drunkenness Indirection Topics and terms that are too touchy may be alluded to in a variety of ways, most often by mentioning one aspect of the subject, a circumstance involving it, a related subject, or even by saying what it is not In this way, indirect language is used For example, the punishment of criminals with death is euphemized as capital punishment new life hamlet (refugee camp) break off contact (retreat) fee for product testing (bribery) industrial action (strike) active defense (attack) - 110 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Understatements Understatement is a statement that expresses the idea weaker or less than it really is It expresses things which are worse than their apparent meaning In some cases, a euphemism, though acknowledges part of the truth, conceals the extent of its whole grimness Therefore, understatement can reduce risks in communication For example, a nuclear reactor that is said to be above critical is actually out of control Close personal friend or constant friend is adultery; pre-owned, reconditioned or second hand things are used or old ones not exactly thin for ―fat‖, not completely truthful for ―lied‖, not unlike cheating for ―an instance of cheating‖, and so on Lengthy expressions Since euphemism is, by definition, a mild, roundabout word or expression, it follows logically that euphemisms (with very few exceptions) are longer than words they replace They have more letters, more syllables and frequently, two or more words will be effectively deployed in place of a single one adjustment downward (lay off) deficit enhancement, negative contribution to profit (loss) at this point in time (now) Middle East dancing (belly dancing) Phonetic distortion Phonetic distortion refers the changing of sounds within words or between words This is an effective way that many people choose to employ when they feel it impropriate to use certain words For example, Gee Whiz! Jeepers! is used in place of Jesus Heck is used for Hell; coffee shop for coffin shop Tea leaf is used for thief Goldarnit, dadgummit, etc Slang Slang is also employed in many cases to form euphemisms For example, pot for cannabis, laid for having sexual intercourse, brass for money, rip-off for overcharge and so on - 111 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 BAD EFFECTS OF OVER USING EUPHEMISMS The abuse of euphemism may sometimes bring the speaker to ridiculous situation It may cause confusion or difficulties to the native English speakers themselves Study the following cases: A landlady who refers to her lodger as paying guests is also using a euphemism, aiming at half-concealing the embarrassing fact that she lets rooms The love of affection, which displays itself in the excessive use of euphemisms, has never been a sign of good taste or genuine refinement Quite the opposite Fiction writers have often ridiculed pretentious people for their weak attempts to express themselves in a delicate and refined way ― Mrs Sunbury never went to bed, she retired, but Mr Sunbury who was not quite so refined as his wife always said: ―Me for Bedford‖ ‖ (From The Kite by W.S Maugham) (To retire in this ironical passage is a euphemistic substitute for to go to bed) Another lady, in Rain by the same author, easily surpasses Mrs Sunbury in the delicacy of her speech She says that there are many mosquitoes on the island where the story is set that at the Governor's parties ―all the ladies are given a pillow-slip to put their- their lower extremities in‖ Moreover, in some cases while trying to express themselves in a more refined way, the Americans coin such strange, vague words as: Positionally challenged Motivationally- impaired Differently clued Follicle-impaired Some linguistic experts say for fun: ―if you want to torture somebody, make them read a mutual fund prospectus‖ and ―Why buy a sleeping pill when you could read a mutual fund prospectus?‖ In the book ―Modern American Usage - A Guide‖ by Wilson Follett (1966) about the recent changes in the American people's habits of using language, Erick Wensberg, its editor said, ―I dream of a day when Americans say what they really think rather than spewing out amorphous buzz words that have become so pervasive” - 112 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Questions for discussion and activities What is euphemism? What are the main characteristics of euphemisms? What are the main types of euphemisms? What is euphemism used for? In what aspects of life can euphemisms be found? How can euphemisms be created? What bad effects can the abuse of euphemisms bring about? Give some examples of euphemisms in your mother tongue then compare them with those used in similar contexts in the English language - 113 -