UNIT 1ETYMOLOGY HANU English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M A Lexicology 2014 34 2014 34 UNIT 3 WORD FORMATION Word formation or word building is the process of creation of new words from the resources of a.
TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC HÀ NỘI ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY TỪ VỰNG HỌC TIẾNG ANH Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng (Biên soạn) Senior lecturer, English Department Hà Nội - 2014 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 -2- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 PREFACE This material is compiled, first and foremost, to satisfy the demand for learning and teaching materials in the subject of lexicology at Hanoi University but not to serve any commercial purpose It comprises, besides the first unit serving as an introduction to the subject, nine other units – each deals with a major matter in the study of the English vocabulary The material is intended as a course-book for English language students whose crucial requirement at the university or college is to fully grasp the nature of English words It is also intended as a reference book for all those who find a thorough understanding of the complex nature of words and a clever and exact use of words very important for them The aims of this material are: - Providing learners with the very basic understanding of the operation of the English vocabulary, - Enabling learners to know how to make new words, and to be aware of the importance of using the right words in different types of texts, - Providing learners with the basic knowledge of linguistic phenomena concerning the English vocabulary, - Giving learners confidence and refinement in the use of English words and expressions During the process of compilation the compiler tried to make it complete with definitions and examples for most linguistic concepts, terms dealt with in the book and update it with “fresh language” collected from books, study reports, dictionaries, newspapers, reviews, etc The compiler, making full use of his teaching experience, also complements the work with jokes, puns, anecdotes, extracts to help learners relieve their pains in learning such a hard subject as lexicology Thus, while studying fundamentals of the main problems associated with English vocabulary, the users can associate them with more authentic everyday language to better understand the practicality of what they are studying and find interest in the subject they are learning If a language we are studying can be compared to a society in which we are living, then each word or expression can be compared to a person in that society Accordingly, the right or the wrong use of a word in a text can sometimes bring about the same advantage or disadvantage that the right or the wrong use of a person in an organization may result in The complier hopes that this material will make a considerable contribution to improving the teaching and learning of lexicology, one of the three main subjects in the study of linguistics, at the English Department of Hanoi University Compiler Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng -3- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 HOW TO USE THIS COURSE BOOK Notes for teachers The contents of each unit in this course book can be presented in the form of: - a lecture on the topic - tutorials - presentations - group discussions Notes for students Before you start work First of all, look at the contents, familiarizing yourselves with the topics covered Make sure that you understand the terminologies by looking at the glossary from page 180 to page 186 Skim quickly through the entire book, paying attention to subtitles printed in bold-type capital letters to grasp the main content as well as the lay out of each unit Working through a unit Read each part in the unit carefully, highlighting or underlining what you think new or important to you Study the examples given Think if you can have similar ones of your own Try to relate what you are reading to relevant matters in your mother tongue Study the questions or discussion and activities at the end of each unit to check your understanding of the key issues presented in the unit When you have finished Remember to the exercises to consolidate your knowledge of the subject you have learned as well as to find out what you are still missing in it Revise at regular intervals after finishing a unit Without revision you are likely to forget and so waste the effort you have exerted In your initial work and your revision you should consult a good dictionary Choosing a dictionary A good monolingual dictionary is indispensable to anyone wishing to have a full mastery of a language Arm yourself with a good dictionary that contains: - Etymology of the word (for example, native or Latin or French, etc.), - Alternative meanings as well as definition, - A clear guide to how to use the word, - Clear examples of the word indifferent contexts, - Stylistic characteristics of the word (for example, formal, informal, slang, etc.), - Idiomatic expressions with the presence of the word -4- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Suggested readings Alexander (1994), Right Word, Wrong Word: Words and Structures confused and misused by learners of English Longman ELT Bùi Minh Toàn (1999), Từ hoạt động giao tiếp tiếng Việt, NXB Giáo dục Crystal D (1992), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language CUP Đinh Trọng Lạc (1999), 99 Phương pháp biện pháp tu từ, NXB Giáo dục Fromkin V., Rodman R., Hyams N (2002), An Introduction to Language (7th ed) Thomson/Heinle Gordon A.I., et al (1983), Word Finder NSW: Reader‘s Digest Services Pty Ltd Hurford R.J and Heasley B (1983) Semantics: A Course book Cambridge: CUP Nguyễn Như Ý (1998), Từ điển Giải thích thuật ngữ ngôn ngữ học NXB Giáo dục Nguyễn Thành Chương (2007), Enlarging your vocabulary NXB Tuổi trẻ 10 Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (1998), Từ vựng học tiếng Việt NXB Giáo dục 11 Nguyễn Vạn Phú (2000), Tiếng Anh lý thú – Chuyện chữ nghĩa tiếng Anh, NXB TP HCM 12 Phạm Văn Bình (1999), Tục ngữ nước Anh & thành ngữ tiếng Anh giàu hình ảnh NXB Hải Phịng 13 Phạm Văn Bình (2003), Thành Ngữ Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese Idioms) NXB Đại học Sư phạm 14 Pocheptsov G.G (1974), Language and Humour Vysca Skola Publishers 15 Võ Đại Quang (2003), Semantics (Ngữ nghĩa học), Đại học Ngoại ngữ ĐHQGHN -5- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 CONTENTS UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION What is lexicology? What is word? Why should we study words? What does lexicology deal with? What is the structure of language? What is lexicology in the study of the structure of language? Why should we study lexicology? UNIT 2: ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH WORDS What is etymology? Etymology of the English words Where did the English words come from? Old English (450-1100 ad) Middle English (1100-1500) Modern English Early modern English (1500-1800) Late modern English (1800-present) Borrowed words in English language Types of borrowings - International words - Etymological doublets - Translation-Loans (calques) - Hybrids Changes borrowings have undergone - Phonetic assimilation - Grammatical assimilation - Semantic assimilation Relationship between etymological and stylistic characteristic of words -6- Page 13 13 13 14 17 18 19 19 21 21 22 22 23 23 23 23 23 24 26 26 26 27 27 28 28 29 29 30 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Why learning about word origins or etymologies? Questions for discussion and activities 32 33 UNIT 3: WORD FORMATION Basic concepts - Morpheme - Root - Stem - Base - Affix - Paradigm Types of words - Root words - Derived words - Compound words - Shortenings/contracted words Major types of word formation - Affixation/derivation - Conversion (Zero-derivation) - Composition/compounding Classification of compounds - Structural criterion - Semantic criterion Compounds versus word combinations Shortening/Contraction Minor types of word formation - Onomatopoeia/Sound imitation - Reduplication - Back-formation/Reversion Questions for discussion and activities 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 35 36 36 36 44 46 47 48 48 49 50 52 52 53 54 55 UNIT 4: WORD MEANINGS What is meaning? 56 56 -7- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Three conceptions of meaning - Words → things - Words → concepts → things - Stimuli → word → responses Semantic structure of the word Types of semantic components Polysemy Semantic treatment of polysemy Context and meaning How words develop new meanings Development of new meanings - Metaphor - Metonymy - Generalization /extension - Specialization /narrowing - Degradation/pejoration - Elevation/ amelioration Questions for discussion and activities UNIT 5: HOMONYMY What are homonyms Classification of homonyms - Homonyms proper - Homophones - Homographs - Full homonyms - Partial homonyms Sources of homonyms - Phonetic changes - Borrowing - Word-building - Split polysemy/ disintegration Homonymy versus polysemy -8- 56 56 57 58 58 61 63 64 65 66 67 67 68 69 69 70 70 72 73 73 73 73 74 75 75 75 76 77 77 78 78 79 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Questions for discussion and activities 81 UNIT 6: SYNONYMY- ANTONYMY What are synonyms Classification of synonyms Types of connotations - Connotation of degree of intensity - Connotation of duration - Emotive connotation - Evaluative connotation - Causative connotation - Connotation of manner - Connotation of attendant circumstances - Connotation of attendant features - Stylistic connotations Sources of synonyms - Borrowings - Dialectical words - Euphemisms - Shift of meaning - Word-formation Implication ANTONYMY What are antonyms? Distribution of antonymy Classification of antonyms - Root (absolute) antonyms - Derivational antonyms Questions for discussion and activities 82 82 84 87 87 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 90 91 91 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 94 94 94 95 97 UNIT 7: EUPHEMISMS What is euphemism? Characteristics of euphemism 98 98 98 -9- HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 - Fuzziness - Universality - Localization - Contemporaneity Types of euphemisms - Negative euphemisms - Positive euphemisms Euphemisms in use Why is euphemism? - Social taboos - Superstitious taboos - Political taboos How to create euphemisms - Foreign words - Abbreviations - Abstractions - Indirection - Understatements - Lengthy expressions - Phonetic distortion - Slang Bad effects of over using euphemisms Questions for discussion and activities UNIT 8: PHRASEOLOGY - IDIOMS AND PROVERBS Overview Main characteristics Phraseological units versus free word-groups Semantic criterion Structural criterion - Restriction in substitution - Restriction in introducing any additional components - Grammatical invariability - 10 - 98 99 99 99 100 100 100 100 103 103 105 108 109 109 110 110 110 111 111 111 111 112 113 114 114 114 116 117 118 118 118 119 HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 the sentence, we are not consciously aware of all these facets of its structure, but once our attention is drawn to them, we easily recognize their existence We could even concentrate on the study of one of these facets largely to the exclusion of the others – something that takes place routinely in language teaching, for instance, where someone may learn about aspects of ―pronunciation‖ one day, and of ―vocabulary‖ or ―grammar‖ the next WHAT IS LEXICOLOGY IN THE STUDY OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE? With lexicology, we are studying one of three main components of the structure of language namely, phonology, lexicology and syntax Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages It analyzes the sound patterns of a particular language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant, and explaining how these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantic relations), word groups and the whole lexicon So, lexicology deals with special aspects Syntax deals with the general facts of language Syntax is general because it deals with rules and regularities that apply to classes of words as a whole, whereas lexicology is particular because it is concerned with the way individual words operate and affect other words in the same context WHY SHOULD WE STUDY LEXICOLOGY? To some extent, each living language can be seen as a society with each word as a person When we learn a new language, we move into a new society You cannot integrate into that society unless you understand the people there and understand their ways of life, their way of thinking, their culture Similarly, you cannot master a language without having a good knowledge of vocabulary: you not know where the words come from, what kinds of words they are, how they work, what meanings they have in different combinations they are in, and so on and so forth Words are the means by which we understand the ideas of others and express our own opinions It is only logical then that people who know how to use words concisely and accurately find it easier to achieve their aims Lexicology will definitely facilitate your course of action - 19 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Questions for discussion and activities What is word? Why should we study word? What is lexicology? What is lexicology in the study of linguistics? What does lexicology deal with? Why is it necessary for language learners in general and students of English in particular to study English lexicology? What are your expectations in learning this subject? What difficulties can you envisage in learning this subject? - 20 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 UNIT ETYMOLOGY OF THE ENGLISH WORDS WHAT IS ETYMOLOGY? Etymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during earlier periods of their history and when they entered the languages in question Etymologists also apply the methods of comparative linguistics to reconstruct information about languages that are too old for any direct information to be available By analyzing related languages with a technique known as the comparative method, linguists can make inferences about their shared parent language and its vocabulary In this way, word roots have been found that can be traced all the way back to the origin of, for instance, the Indo-European language family Even though etymological research originally grew from the philological tradition, currently much etymological research is done on language families where little or no early documentation is available, such as Uralic and Austronesian Etymologists apply a number of methods to study the origins of words, some of which are: Philological research: Changes in the form and meaning of the word can be traced with the aid of older texts, if such are available Making use of dialectological data: The form or meaning of the word might show variations between dialects, which may yield clues about its earlier history The comparative method: By a systematic comparison of related languages, etymologists may often be able to detect which words derive from their common ancestor language and which were instead later borrowed from another language The study of semantic change: Etymologists must often make hypotheses about changes in the meaning of particular words Such hypotheses are tested against the general knowledge of semantic shifts For example, the assumption of a particular change of meaning may be substantiated by showing that the same type of change has occurred in other languages as well - 21 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS Where did the English words come from? Although more people speak Mandarin Chinese, English is used in more countries than any other language in the world English derives from Old English (sometimes referred to as AngloSaxon), a West Germanic variety, although its current vocabulary includes words from many languages The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders - mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland The Angles came from Ungallant and their language was called Englisc - from which the words England and English are derived English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages To illustrate the family relationship of these languages, here are the words for mother and brother English mother brother German mutter bruder Gaelic máthair braithair Latin mater frater Greek mẽtẽr phratẽr Old Church Slavonic mati bratru Sanskrit mãtr bhrãtr Indo-European mãter bhrãter It is true that English vocabulary, which is one of the most extensive amongst the world‘s languages contains an immense number of words of foreign origin In order to have a better understanding of the problem, it will be necessary to go through a brief survey of certain historical facts, relating to different epochs - 22 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Old English (450-1100 AD) The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English Old English did not sound or look like English today Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English Old English was spoken until around 1100 Middle English (1100-1500) In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added This language is called Middle English It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today Modern English Early Modern English (1500-1800) Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print Books became cheaper and more people learned to read Printing also brought standardization to English Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard In 1604 the first English dictionary was published Late Modern English (1800-Present) The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary Late Modern English has many more words, - 23 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth‘s surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries BORROWED WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Etymologically, the vocabulary of any language consists of two groups - the native words and the borrowed words The Old English roots may be seen in the similarity of numbers in English and German, particularly seven/sieben, eight/acht, nine/neun, and ten/zehn Pronouns are also cognate: I/mine/me ich/mein/mich; thou/thine/thee and du/dein/dich; we/wir us/uns; she/sie However, language change has eroded many grammatical elements, such as the noun case system, which is greatly simplified in modern English, and certain elements of vocabulary, some of which are borrowed from French Although more than half of the words in English come from either the French language or have a French cognate, most of the common words used in English are of Germanic origin For an example of the etymology of an English irregular verb of Germanic origin, see the etymology of the word go Days of the week are derived from old Norse: Monday (Moondæg), Tuesday (Twiesdæg), Wednesday (Wodensdæg), Thursday (Thorsdæg), Friday (Friedæg), Saturday (Saternesdæg), Sunday (Sunnandæg) When the Normans conquered England in 1066, they brought their Norman language with them During the Anglo-Norman period, which united insular and continental territories, the ruling class spoke AngloNorman, while the peasants spoke the vernacular English of the time, as well as the native Celtic languages Anglo-Norman was the conduit for the introduction of French into England, aided by the circulation of Langue d'oïl literature from France This led to many paired words of French and English origin For example, beef is related, through borrowing, to modern French bœuf, veal to veau, pork to porc, and poultry to poulet All these words, French and English, refer to the meat rather than to the animal Words that refer to farm animals, on the other hand, tend to be cognates of words in other Germanic languages For example, swine/Schwein, cow/Kuh, calf/Kalb, and sheep/Schaf English words of more than two syllables are likely to come from French, often with modified terminations For example, the French words for syllable, modified, terminations, and example are syllabe, modifié, - 24 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 terminaisons, and exemple In many cases, the English form of a word is more conservative (i.e., has changed less) than the French form Polysyllabic words in English also carry connotations of higher education or politeness English has proven accommodating to words from many languages, as described in the following examples Scots: cuddle, eerie, and greed Portuguese: albino, palaver, lingo, verandah, and coconut Italian: diva, prima donna, pasta, pizza, paparazzi, and umbrella Arabic: adobe, alcohol, algebra, algorithm, apricot, assassin, caliber, cotton, hazard, jacket, jar, julep, mosque, Muslim, orange, safari, sofa, and zero Japanese: honcho, sushi, and tsunami Cantonese Chinese: dim sum, gung ho, kowtow, kumquat, ketchup, and typhoon Hebrew: behemoth, hallelujah, Satan, jubilee, and rabbi Russian: taiga, sable, and sputnik Irish: galore, whiskey, phoney, trousers, and Tory Sanskrit: brahman, guru, karma, and pandit Malay: kampong and amok Swedish: smorgasbord and ombudsman Spanish has contributed many words, particularly in the southwestern United States Examples include buckaroo from vaquero or ―cowboy‖; alligator from el lagarto or ―lizard‖; rodeo and savvy; states' names such as Colorado and Florida Scientific terminology relies heavily on words of Latin and Greek origin Greek: drama, comedy, tragedy, scene, botany, physics, zoology, atomic (as well as many root words: thermo, phobia ) Latin: convention, animal, bonus, maximum, alumnus, quorum, exit, scientific, orthography, advantage, debt, agile, abdomen, anatomy, area, capsule, compensate, dexterity, discus, disc/disk, excavate, expensive, fictitious, gradual, habitual, insane, janitor, meditate, orbit, peninsula, physician, superintendent, ultimate… - 25 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 TYPES OF BORROWINGS International Words Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words There are in most of European languages some words whose meaning – no matter who say them, an Englishman, a Russian or a Frenchman, etc., i.e allowing for the difference in pronunciation – is roughly speaking, identical The international words can be traced etymologically, that is to say they came into different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowing from one or the same source ―International‖ words differ from other borrowing in that they reflect the relations of a number of countries and not the relations between two countries as is the case with borrowed words Neither should they be confounded with words of the common Indo-European stock Most names of sciences of Latin and Greek origin are international, e.g., philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, lexicology There are also numerous terms of art in this group: e.g., music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist Political terms frequently occur in the international words: e.g., politics, policy, revolution, democracy, communism, progress Scientific and technological terms: e.g., atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik The English language also contributed a considerable number of international words to world languages Among them the sports terms occupy a prominent position: e.g., football, volley-ball, hockey, cricket, golf, etc Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become international: e.g., coffee, cocoa, chocolate, avocado, grapefruit Etymological Doublets One of a pair of (or several) words more or less similar in meaning and phonation, appearing in language as the result of borrowing from the same source at different times - 26 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 The words shirt and skirt etymologically descend from the same root Shirt is a native word, and skirt (as the initial sk suggests) is a Scandinavian borrowing Their phonemic shape is different, and yet there is a certain resemblance which reflects their common origin Their meanings are also different but easily associated: they both denote articles of clothing More examples can be seen in: abridge-abbreviate, artist-artiste, chieftain-captain, card-chart, cavalry-chivalry… Some of these pairs, like shirt and skirt, consist of a native word and a borrowed word: shrew, n.(E) – screw, n.(Sc) Others are represented by two borrowings from the same language twice, but in different periods: corpse (Norm Fr) – corps (Par Fr.), travel (Norm Fr) – travail (Par Fr.), cavalry (Norm Fr.) – chivalry (Par Fr.), canal (Lat.) – channel (Fr.) gaol (Norm Fr.) – jail (Par Fr.) hospital (Lat.) – hostel (Norm Fr.) – hotel (Par Fr.), to capture (Lat.) – to catch (Norm Fr.) – to chase (Par Fr) Translation-Loans (calques) Translation loans are words and expressions formed from the material already existing in the language but according to patterns taken from another language, by way of literal word-for-word or root-for-root translation for example: wonder child (from Germ Wunderkind), first dancer (from Ital Prima-ballerina) The moment of truth (Sp El momento de la verdad); with a grain of salt (Lat Cum grano salis); famous case (Fr Cause célebre); underground movement (Fr Le movement souterrain); that goes without saying (Fr Châteaux en Espagne), wall-newspaper (Rus – деворий газета), five-year plan (Rus – пятилетний план), etc Hybrids A hybrid is a word whose different elements are of etymologically different origin, for example, - 27 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Aquaphobia – from Latin aqua ―water‖ and Greek φοβία ―fear‖; this term is distinguished from the non-hybrid word hydrophobia, which can refer to symptoms of rabies Automobile – a wheeled passenger vehicle, from Greek αυτό~ (auto) ―self-‖ and Latin mobilis ―moveable‖ Biathlon – from the Latin bis and the Greek αθλος (athlos) meaning contest Bigamy – from the Latin bis meaning ―twice‖ and the Greek γαμος (gamos) meaning wedlock Hexadecimal – from the Greek (hex) meaning ―six‖ and the Latin decimus meaning ―tenth‖ Homosexual – from the Greek μόvoς (homos) meaning ―same‖ and the Latin sexus meaning ―gender‖ Monoculture – from the Greek μόνπ (monos) meaning ―one, single‖ and the Latin cultura Monolingual – from the Greek μόνπ (monos) meaning ―one‖ and the Latin lingua meaning "tongue"; the non-hybrid word is unilingual Neonate – from the Greek νέος (neos), ―new‖, and the Latin natus, ―birth‖ Neuroscience – from the Greek νέσρον (neuron), meaning ―sinew‖ and the Latin scientia, from sciens, meaning ―having knowledge of‖ CHANGES BORROWINGS HAVE UNDERGONE The process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage Linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and semantic assimilation of borrowings Phonetic assimilation Phonetic assimilation comprises changes in sound-form and stress Sounds that were alien to the English language were fitted into its scheme of sounds For instance, the long [e] and [E] in recent French borrowings, quite strange to English speech, are rendered with the help of [ei] (as in the words communiqué, chaussee, café) Familiar sounds or sound combinations the position of which was strange to the English language, were replaced by - 28 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 other sounds or sound combinations to make the words conform to the norms of the language Substitution of native sounds for foreign ones usually takes place in the very act of borrowing But some words retain their foreign pronunciation for a long time before the unfamiliar sounds are replaced by similar native sounds e.g., Garage [ gə‗ra:ʒ – ‗g æra:ʒ – ‗gæridʒ ] In words that were added to English from foreign sources, especially from French or Latin, the accent was gradually transferred to the first syllable Thus words like honour, reason were accented on the same principle as the native father, mother Some of the French words keep the stress on the final syllable: machine, cartoon, police Grammatical assimilation Usually as soon as words from other languages were introduced into English they lost their former grammatical categories and inflexions and acquired new grammatical categories and paradigms by analogy with other English words e g sputnik- sputniks- sputnik‟s, coconut - coconuts However, there are some words in modern English that have for centuries retained their foreign inflexions Phenomenon-phenomena, datum-data, stratum-strata Other borrowings have two plural forms the native and the foreign, e g antenna- antennae, antennas formula- formulae, formulas, memorandum- memoranda, memorandums Semantic assimilation When a word is taken into another language its semantic structure, as a rule, undergoes great changes Polysemantic words are usually adopted only in one or two of their meanings Thus, the word timbre that had a number of meanings in French was borrowed into English as a musical term only - 29 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 The words cargo and cask, highly polysemantic in Spanish were adopted only in one of their meanings – the goods carried in a ship and a barrel for holding liquids respectively In some cases we can observe specialization of meaning, as in the word hangar, denoting a building in which aero planes are kept and revive, which had the meaning of review in French and came to denote a kind of theatrical entertainment in English In the process of its historical development a borrowing sometimes acquired new meanings that were not to be found in its former semantic structure For instance, the word move in modern English has developed the meanings of ―propose‖, ―change one‟s flat”, ―mix with people” and others that the French mouvoir does not possess The word scope which originally had the meaning of ―aim purpose”, now means ―ability to understand”, ―the field within which an activity takes place, sphere”, “opportunity, freedom of action” RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ETYMOLOGICAL AND STYLISTIC CHARACTERISTIC OF WORDS When it comes to the role of native and borrowed words in the language we must not take into consideration only the number of them but their semantic, stylistic character, their word building ability, frequency value, collocability (valency) and the productivity of their word-building patterns When borrowed words were identical in meaning with those already in English, the adopted word might replace the native word In most cases, however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use As a result, the number of synonymic groups in English greatly increased Linguists, writers and others have often commented on the relationship between such synonyms Otto Jespersen, for instance, remarks that the native synonym is always nearer the nation‘s heart than the French: ―it has the strongest associations with everything primitive, fundamental, popular, while the French word is often more formal, more polite, more refined and has a less strong hold on the emotional side of life‖ Simeon Potter (1960) makes a similar point: ―English and French expressions may have similar denotations but slightly different connotations and associations Generally the English words are stronger, more physical, and more human We feel more at ease after getting a hearty welcome than - 30 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 after being granted a cordial reception Compare freedom with liberty, friendship with amity, kingship with royalty, holiness with sanctity, happiness with felicity, depth with profundity, and love with charity‖ John Orr (1953) notes the ―aristocratic‖ quality of many of the French words adopted by English: ―When two synonyms exist to-day, one Anglo-Saxon, the other French: to keep back and to retain, to hold up and to sustain, smell and odour or perfume, forgive and pardon, right and just, feed and nourish, same and equal, build and construct, and countless others, the ancient hierarchy is still manifest - the English word humble, concrete, matter-of-fact, the French more abstract, academic, intellectual, and refined, corresponding not so much to a difference of class in the users of these words as to a difference in the fields of intellectual or social activity to which the words were and are applied‖ The stylistic distinction between the two layers of the English vocabulary has been emphasized In many cases, saying that the native word is more colloquial, while the French synonym is more literary, may sum up the difference The former will normally belong to the informal style of speech, while the latter will be typical of a more formal style or register The truth of this observation becomes even more obvious if we regard certain pairs within which a native word may be compared with its Latin synonym: motherly - maternal, daughterly - filial, fatherly childish - paternal, - infantile, etc Motherly love rings sweet and natural, compared to maternal feelings, which sounds formal and dry All the same, the word childish reminds us of all the wonder and vivid poetry of the earliest human age that infantile cannot You may speak about childish games and childish charm, but about infantile diseases, whereas infantile mind implies criticism The centre of gravity of borrowed words in the stylistic classification is represented by two groups: learned words and terminology In these strata the foreign element dominates the native It also seems that the whole opposition of ―formal versus informal‖ is based on the deeper underlying opposition of ―borrowed versus native‖, as the informal strata, especially slang and dialect, abound in native words even though it is possible to quote numerous exceptions - 31 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 WHY LEARNING ABOUT WORD ORIGINS OR ETYMOLOGIES? Etymology deals with the origin or derivation of words When you know the meaning of , for example, a Latin or Greek root, prefix, or suffix; you can better understand, and more easily remember, all the vocabulary words built on this Latin or Greek element that exists in English words Learning one root and you will have the key that will unlock the meanings of up to ten, twenty, or even hundreds of English words in which that Latin and/or Greek element (prefix, root, and suffix) appears; for example, learn ego (Latin, I) and you will immediately have a grasp of the meanings of egocentric, egomaniac, egoist, egotist, and alter ego all of which will expand your vocabulary - 32 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Questions for discussion and activities What is meant by etymology? What branch of the family of the Indo-European language does the English language belong to? Etymologically, how can English be an international language? What are the major stages in the historical development of the English language? What are the main types of borrowings in the English language? How many typical examples of borrowings in the Vietnamese language from the English language can you find? What changes can borrowings in the English language go through? What is the relationship between etymological and stylistic characteristic of words? Is the relationship between etymological and stylistic characteristic of words a ―universal‖ one? - 33 -