UNIT 2 ETYMOLOGY HANU English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M A Lexicology 2014 34 UNIT 3 WORD FORMATION Word formation or word building is the process of creation of new words from the resources of a.
HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 UNIT WORD FORMATION Word formation or word building is the process of creation of new words from the resources of a particular language Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning The line between word formation and semantic change is sometimes a bit blurry; what one person views as a new use of an old word, another person might view as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form Word formation can also be contrasted with the formation of idiomatic expressions, though sometimes words can form from multi-word phrases BASIC CONCEPTS Morpheme In linguistics, a morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit It is the smallest component of word, or other linguistic unit, that has semantic meaning Structurally, types of morphemes are distinguished: Free morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes can stand by themselves (i.e they are what we conventionally call words) Bound morphemes cannot stand on their own, but need to be attached to a free morpheme e.g in “teacher, artist, re-do”,”teach”, “art”, “do” are free morphemes while “-er,-ist, re-“ are bound morphemes Derivational morphemes Morphemes that derive new words or that are used to create new words Thus, in the examples above, -er, -ist, re- are derivational morphemes Root A root, also the base form, is the basic part of a word which can not be further analyzed without total loss of identity It is the part of the word left when all affixes are removed e.g., heartlessly, unwanted, disagreement - 34 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Stem A stem is that part of the word to which grammatical/inflectional affixes are added A stem consists minimally of a root, but may be analyzable into a root plus derivational morphemes Tables, teachers, blackboards, Base Every form to which an affix can be added is a base Every root and every stem is thus a base Affix Affix is a collective term referring to a bound morpheme that is joined before, after, or within a root or stem Prefix is that occurs in the front of a root or stem: e.g Unfamiliar, disconnect, irregular Suffix is that occurs at the end of a root or stem: e.g Happiness, development, arrival Infix is that occurs inside of a root or stem Infixation is not a morphological process in English Paradigm Paradigm is the system of grammatical forms of a word For example, the verbal paradigm of learn includes learns (3rd person singular), learned (past indefinite and past participle), learning (gerund and present participle) TYPES OF WORDS Structurally, English words consist of four main types namely, Root words Words that have only a root morpheme in its structure e.g, chair, pen, tree, plant, man, woman, boy, girl Derived words Words that have a root and an affix (or several affixes) e.g., investor, modernization, development, successfully Compound words Words that have two or more stems - 35 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 e.g., dancing-hall, lady-in-waiting, mother-in-law, forget-me-not Shortenings/contracted words Words that are formed by contracting certain elements of an existing word or word group e.g., lab, exam, flu, phone, ASEAN, APEC, WTO, UNO, UNDP MAJOR TYPES OF WORD FORMATION There are four major types of word formation in English namely, affixation or derivation, composition or compounding, conversion or zeroderivation, and shortening or contraction We shall in turn investigate each type of word formation now AFFIXATION/DERIVATION Derivation or affixation is the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes e.g., able → unable – ability – inability – disable – … learn → learnable – learned – learner – learning … Some of the most common English derivational patterns : adjective-to-noun: -ness → ready → readiness, careless- carelessness adjective-to-verb: -ise/ize → industrial→ industrialize, social –socialize adjective-to-adjective: -ish → white → whitish, blue- bluish adjective-to-adverb: -ly → quick → quickly, final- finally noun-to-adjective: -al → season → seasonal, profession - professional noun-to-verb: - (i)fy → beauty → beautify, terror - terrify verb-to-adjective: -able→ understand → understandable, love, lovable verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance → resist → resistance, assist - assistance verb-to-noun (concrete): -er → learn → learner, teach - teacher Classification of affixes Affixes play the key role in this way of word-formation Let us have closer look at them Affixes can be classified on the basis of four main criteria: - 36 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Etymologically, affixes are classified into two groups: native and borrowed a Native affixes: Prefixes: A- (in, on): abed, asleep, aboard, ashore Be- (by): beside, behind, betimes For (thoroughly): forbear, forgive In (in): inland, income, inlay Mis (wrongly): misunderstand, mislead, misspell Over (above, beyond): overdo, overwork, oversleep Un (not, reverse): unhappy, uninteresting – untie, unload, unfold Suffixes: -er/or (person, doer): fighter, writer, translator, conductor -ster: gangster, spinster, youngster -hood/dom/ship (state, action, condition, being, etc.): sisterhood, livelihood /boredom, gangsterdom/ relationship, kinship -ness/th (state, action, condition, being, etc.): happiness, hopelessness/ strength, width, depth -en/ling/ let (diminutives): Kitten, chicken/booklet, leaflet/pigling/duckling -ed (having): gifted, talented, learned -en (made of): earthen, leaden, wooden -full (full of): beautiful, peaceful, joyful -ish (somewhat like): whitish, bluish, womanish, bookish -less (without): hopeless, homeless, careless -ly (like, characterized by): manly, motherly, friendly -some (with the quality of): troublesome, worrisome, wholesome -en (cause/make): blacken, brighten, soften -ly (in a…way): quickly, awfully, rarely - 37 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 b Borrowed affixes Latin Affixes Prefixes: A /ab- (from, away): atypical, abnormal, avert Am/ambi- (on both sides, around): ambiguous, ambition, An/ante/anti - (before): antenatal, antenna, anticipate, ancestor Bi/bin - (twice/two): biannual, bicentennial, binocular Con /col/com/cor- (with, together): collect, combine, correspond Contra/counter- (against): contraband, counter-attack, contradict Extra- (beyond): extra-time, extra-curriculum, extraordinary In/il/im/ir- (not): incorrect, illegal, impolite, irregular Mal/male- (ill, bad): malnutrition, malnourish, malevolent Inter/intro- (among, within): interprovincial, interchange, introvert Trans/tres- (across): transplant, transport, trespass Suffixes: -an/ain/en/on (person, doer): artisan, chieftain, citizen, surgeon -ar/eer/ary/ee : scholar, engineer, revolutionary, employee -age/ance/ence/cy/ion/ment (state, action, result of an action, etc.): marriage, breakage/ existence, assistance, tension, pension/development -al/ar/ary: developmental, national/regular, familiar/ ordinary, necessary -ant/ant/al : ignorant, pleasant, fragrant/ present, recent/ paternal, filial -ble/able/ible: feeble/sensible, responsible/lovable, drinkable, eatable -ive/ous: tentative, decisive, sportive/dangerous, enormous, populous -ate/fy : terminate, associate, activate/purify, terrify, electrify Greek Affixes Prefixes: Anti- (against): anti-democracy, anti-fascism, Auto- (self): automobile, autograph, autobiography Di- (twice, two): diode, dioxide, dioxin, dilemma - 38 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Dia- (though): diagonal, diameter Eu- (well): euphemism, eugenics Ex/ec- (out of): export, ex-president, eccentric Hetero- (different): heterogeneous, heterosexual Homo/hom- (like): homonym, homophone, homogeneous Hyper- (over, beyond): hypertension, hyperbole Macro- (large): microorganism, microscope Micro- (small): microorganism, microscope Mono- (alone, single): monotone, monopoly, monoculture Pan- (all): pandemic, pantheism, panorama Philo/phil- (love): philosophy, philanthropy Suffixes: -ic/ique: phonetic, economic, unique -ist: activist, communist, chemist -ism: tourism, communism, patriotism -ize/ise; economize, civilize, industrialize -sis/sy : synthesis, analysis, crisis Productively, affixes are classified into two groups: productive and nonproductive Some Productive Affixes noun-forming suffixes -er, -ing, -ness, -ism, -ist , -ance adjective-forming suffixes -y, -ish, -ed, -able, -less adverb-forming suffix -ly verb-forming suffixes -ize/-ise, -ate prefixes un-, re-, dis- Some Non-Productive Affixes noun-forming suffixes -th, -hood adjective-forming suffixes -ly, -some, -en, -ous verb-forming suffix -en - 39 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Productivity refers to the ability of being used to form (after specific patterns) new, occasional or potential words which are readily understood by the speakers of a language Productive affixes are often used to form new words or neologisms (completely new words) and the so-called nonce-words (words made up for one occasion and not likely to be encountered again) Semantically, affixes are classified into various groups: a Negative prefixes Affixes Meaning Examples de opposite, reduce decrease, degrade in not inability, incorrect im(before p,b,m) not immature, improper il (before l) not illegal, illiterate ir (before r) not irregular, irresponsible mis wrong, mistakenly misspell, misinform non/n not nonsense, never un not, reverse unscrupulous, untie under lower, not enough underestimate, underfoot b Prefixes of Location Affixes Meaning Examples ex out export, exile extra outside extramural, extramarital infra below infrared, infrastructure inter between, among international, interchange peri around periscope, perimeter pro/pur forward, before, for proceed, pursue re/retro back return, retroactive sub under below subnormal super/sur above, beyond supervise, surface - 40 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 trans across transplant, translate ultra in a excessive degree ultrasound, ultrasonic c Prefixes of time and order Affixes Meaning Examples ex formerly ex-president, ex-husband ante before ante-meridiem post after postpone, postgraduate pre before premature, preliminary prime first primary, primitive re again replica, rediscover retro backwards, back retroactive, retrograde d Prefixes of size Affixes Meaning Examples equi equal equi-distant, equivalent macro large, long, on a large scale macrobiotic, macrophone maxi big maximum, maximal mega great, large, million megaproject, megabyte mini little, small minibus, miniproject micro small, on a small scale microchip, microcomputer semi half, partly semi-final, semi-model pan all, on large scale Pandemic, panorama e Prefixes of number Affixes Meaning Examples semi half, partly semicircle, semicolon mono one/single monoculture, monotone bi two bilingual, bigamous - 41 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 tri three triangle, triangulate quad four quadrangle, quadrant penta five pentagon, pentameter hexa six hexagon, hexagram Sept(em) seven septet, septuplet oct eight octagon, octahedron nona/nov nine November, nonagenarian dec ten decade, decagon multi many multiform, multicolored f Prefixes of attitude Affixes Meaning Examples co together co-author, cooperate, cohabit counter against counter-attack, counter-revolution anti against antisocial, antinuclear con, contra against contrary, contra-band pro for, in favor of pro-Vietnam, pro-democracy g Pejorative affixes Affixes Meaning Examples mis wrongly misconduct, misleading mal badly maltreat, malfunction pseudo false pseudoscientific, pseudonymous It should be noted that the meaning of a derived word is normally that of the root and the affix However, this is not always the case For instance, the prefix ―in-‖ means ―not‖ in invisible, indivisible, incorrect, inconvenient, etc but invaluable does not mean not valuable and infamous does not mean not famous - 42 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Functionally, affixes are classified into four groups a Noun-forming Affixes Meaning -ance, ance state, quality of Examples independence, attendance -er,-or,-yst person or thing writer, actor, analyst, artist -action act of transaction, production -tion, -ion state, action satisfaction, execution, -ing activity learning, writing -ment state/action amazement, movement -ness condition fairness, quietness -ity state, quality clarity, stupidity -ism condition/domain/doctrine tourism, socialism, optimism -dom,-ship condition/state Freedom, boredom, friendship b Verb-forming Affixes Meaning Examples -ize/-ise make computerize, modernize -ate make automate, activate -fy make simplify, electrify -en, en- make enlarge, enrich; harden, widen be- make bewitch, bedazzle, befriend c Adverb-forming Affixes Meaning Examples -ly in the manner of electronically, logically, rapidly -ward(s) motion towards downward, homeward -wise direction/ manner clockwise, likewise - 43 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 d Adjective-forming Affixes Meaning Examples -al,-ar,-ary having quality of logical, circular, stationary -ic, ical having quality of automatic, electrical, -able, ible capable of being changeable, divisible, visible -ous like, full of dangerous, poisonous -ing making, causing interesting, threatening -ed having, caused by punched, worried -full characterized by helpful, careful, fearful -y characterized by, full of foxy, rainy, windy -ish having taint shade of yellowish, bluish, childish -ive having quality of interactive, passive CONVERSION (Zero-derivation) Conversion (Zero-derivation) is the formation of new words by changing the category of part of speech of existing ones with their morphemic shape remaining unchanged Conversion is also referred to as a special type of derivation where the word forming means is the paradigm of the word itself, i.e derivation achieved by bringing a stem into a different formal paradigm Consider the italicized words in the following sentences: The government has legitimate grounds to cut expenditure, but the minimal saving from the pay cut gives rise to suspicion that it is politically motivated ―Is the deficit caused only by civil servants, should it be shouldered only by civil servants?‖ asked a lawmaker and labor activist in the Legislative Council debate ―Why not raise taxes? Why not tax the rich more?‖ In these sentences ―cut‖, ―shoulder‖, ―rich‖ are no longer a verb, a noun, an adjective, respectively are they usually are Conversion has furnished English with countless new expressions, e.g "access", as in "access the file", which was previously a noun, as in "gain access to the file" Similar mainstream examples include "host", as in "host a party", and "chair", as in "chair the meeting" Other formations, - 44 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 such as ―gift‖, are less widespread but nevertheless mainstream Examples of conversion in the English language number in the thousands, including some of the most common words, such as mail and e-mail, strike, beer, talk, salt, pepper, switch, bed, sleep, ship, train, stop, drink, cup, lure, mutter, dress, dizzy, divorce, fool, merge, and many more, to be found on virtually every page in the dictionary Conversion may be applied to almost all types of part of speech: Adverbs become nouns: My company has experienced so many ups and downs in the past years Conjunctions become nouns: If your ifs were true everyone would become millionaires Adjectives become nouns: He is not a native here Progressives not behave like that Verbs become nouns: "Don't talk the talk if you can't walk the walk." Adjectives become verbs: Our task is to green these bare hills in the years to come All the leaves are yellowing Nouns become verbs: It was not easy for us to access those villages during the high flood More foreign investors are eyeing Vietnam‟s market now Conversion is a fairly productive process Although most products of conversion are regarded as neologisms, and may meet considerable opposition from prescriptivist authorities, they are extremely common in colloquial speech, particularly specialized jargon, where words are needed to describe common actions or experiences Conversion is sometimes used to create nonce words or joking words Sometimes these jocular constructions gain favor and become used in serious discourse, due to a subtle shade of meaning which is present in the neologism but absent from similar standard verbs In other cases, simple conversion is involved, as with formations like beer, as in beer me (―give me a beer‖) and eye, as in eye it (―look at it‖) - 45 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Grammatically, when a word is formed by conversion, it is subject to all the grammatical changes of the new part of speech it has been converted into In another word, it has a new paradigm peculiar to its new category of part of speech For example, dog (n) → dog (v) Substantive paradigm Verbal paradigm Plural: dogs 3th person singular : dogs Possessive case: dog‘s (singular) Past indefinite, PII: dogged Possessive case: dogs‘ (plural) Gerund, PI: dogging Semantically, when a word is formed by conversion, its meaning may be slightly different from that of the word from which it was made However, there are usually certain semantic or logical associations between the two (which helps the listener or reader to deduce the meaning of the word) The following examples will demonstrate this If the noun is the name of a tool or implement, the verb denotes an action performed by the tool or related to that tool: The world economy was hammered by the financial crisis If the noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behavior typical of that animal: Last night on the way home from class she was dogged by a stranger If the noun is a part of human body, the verb indicates an action related to that part: Hand in your papers, please If the noun is the name of a container, the verb indicates the action of putting something into it This beer is canned by Viet Ha brewery If the noun is the name of a natural phenomenon, the verb indicates the action caused by it The whole city was severely flooded after the torrential rain COMPOSITION/COMPOUNDING Composition or compounding is the formation of new words by combining two or more existing words - 46 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 The products made through this process are known as compounds e.g., boy friend, earthquake, dragon-fruit, butter-fly, fastfood, pickpocket Common patterns to make compounds: Compound nouns: N + N: classroom, timetable, address book Adj + N: old-age, high-school, Adj + PII: newborn, new wed V+ N: pickpocket, V + particle: pick-up, press-down N+ V-ing: family-planning, ticket-booking, water-skiing Phrase compounds: whisky and soda, bread and butter Compound adjectives: Adj/ number + N + ―-ed‖: red-haired, blue-eyed, four-legged, one-eyed Adj/ adv + PII: low-paid, well-known, beautifully-written Adj/, adv + PI: good-looking, sweet-smelling, far-seeing Adj + adj: dark-blue, light-yellow N + adj: snow-white, bean-green, sky-blue, skin-deep Phrase compounds: happy-go-lucky, out-of-date, never-to-be-forgotten Compound verbs: N + V: sky-dive, ice-skate, window-shop, bottle-feed V + V ―freeze-dry‖, stir-fry A + V: double-book, ill-treat, deep-fry Particle + V: overbook, underestimate, back-comb Phrase compounds: take part in, take care of, pay attention to CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS For the classification of compounds, two main criteria can be based on namely, structural and semantic - 47 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Structural criterion Structurally, compounds can be divided into three types namely, neutral, morphological and syntactic a Neutral compounds Neutral compounds are those formed by combing two stems without using any linking elements Neutral compounds consist of three subtypes: - Simple neutral compounds Compounds whose components are root words e.g house-boat, blackboard, table-tennis, - Derivational compounds Compounds of which one or both components are derived words: e.g clear-sighted, stage-artist, eye-opener - Contracted compounds Compounds of which one component is a contracted word: e.g CIA- agent, U-turn, H-bomb b Morphological compounds Morphological compounds are those formed by combining stems with the help of a linking vowel or consonant e.g sportsman, handicraft, speedometer c Syntactic compounds Syntactic compounds are chunks or strings of words formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relation typical of speech: e.g., lady-in-waiting, you-know-what, know-all, good-for -nothing Syntactic compounds include so many neologisms, and nonce-words: e.g., in-a-gadda-da-meeting, chainsaw-consultant, starter-marriage Semantic criterion Semantically, compounds can be classified into two main types: non-idiomatic and idiomatic compounds - 48 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 a Non-idiomatic compounds: Non-idiomatic compounds are compounds whose meanings can be seen as the sum of the meanings of their components e.g., school-bag, toy-car, woman-teacher, classmate, family-planning b Idiomatic compounds: Idiomatic compounds are compounds whose meanings not correspond to the meanings of their components - The meanings of their components have partially changed: e.g., greengrocer, black-market, good-for-nothing, money-under-the-table - The meaning of their components have completely changed or lost: e.g., butter-fly, green-finger, happy-go-lucky, ladybird, lady‟s fingers, bluebottle COMPOUNDS VERSUS WORD COMBINATIONS To differentiate between compounds and word combinations, the following criteria can be based on: a Graphically, components of a compound are usually jointly written or hyphenated while words in a word combination are always separately written e.g., bluebottle, blue-bottle (compound) blue bottle (word combination) Note: In some cases, however, components of compounds are still written separately A few compound adjectives are made up of more than two words and they are often written with hyphens when they are used in front of nouns, and without hyphens when they are used as the complement of a link verb e.g., It was a free-and-easy relationship That book is out of date b Phonetically, a compound normally has only one stress falling on the first syllable while each word in word combination has a stress of its own e.g., a ‗bluebottle, ‗blue-bottle (compound) ‗blue ‗bottle (word combination) - 49 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Note: Compounds adjectives may be stressed in the way as word combinations That is to say compound adjectives may have stress on both components e.g., „open-„minded, „hard-„working, „well-„known c Semantically, a compound expresses only one concept while a word combination expresses two or more concepts (depending on the number of words in the word combination) e.g., “bluebottle / blue-bottle” denotes the concept of an insect ―blue bottle” denotes the concepts of color and container d Syntactically and morphologically, a compound is treated as a complete unity indivisible Each compound belongs to one certain part of speech and is therefore subject to the grammatical changes of that part of speech No extra word can be added between them In contrast, each word in a word combination is an independent unit, belonging to a certain part of speech and has all the grammatical changes of that part of speech Extra words can be added between them e.g., bluebottle → bluebottles; bluebottle‟s → bluebottles‟ blue bottle → bluer bottle(s); bluish bottle(s) → blue and red plastic bottle (s) SHORTENING/CONTRACTION Shortening is the formation of new words by contracting certain elements of existing words or word groups Shortening tends to be a very productive way of word formation, especially in American English It consists of three subtypes: a.Clipping is excluding certain part of the existing word Clipping includes: Initial clipping: the initial part o the word is excluded: violoncello - cello, telephone – phone, omnibus- bus Final clipping: the final part is excluded laboratory – lab, dormitory – dorm, gasoline – gas Initial-final-clipping: both the initial and final parts are excluded detective – tec, Elizabeth – Liz, influenza – flu - 50 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Medial clipping: the medial part is excluded mathematics – maths, pantaloons – pants, spectacles – specs Initial-final-clipping and medial clipping are not very productive processes b Abbreviation - is the process in which a word is formed from the initials of a word groups UNO from the United Nations Organization, BBC from the British Broadcasting Corporation Sonar from sound navigation and ranging Abbreviations may be pronounced differently: - Pronounced only as the names of letters USA, BBC, DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters AIDS, NATO, ASBO (Anti-Social Behaviour Order), Scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) - Pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters Interpol: International Criminal Police Organization Radar: radio detection and ranging - Pronounced as a word or names of letters, depending on speaker or context FAQ: (/fæk/ or F A Q) frequently asked questions SAT: (/sæt/ or S A T) Scholastic Achievement (or Aptitude) Test(s), - Pronounced as a combination of names of letters and a word CD-ROM: (C-D- /rɒm/ (Compact Disc read-only memory) - Pronounced as the names of letters but with a shortcut AAA: (triple A) American Automobile Association; (three As) Amateur Athletic Association IEEE: (I triple E) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Although the term acronym or abbreviation is widely used to describe any abbreviation formed from initial letters, some have used the - 51 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 term initialism or alphabetism to refer to an abbreviation formed simply from, and used simply as, a string of initials, and acronym to refer to an abbreviation pronounced as a single word c Blending is merging parts of existing words into one to form a new word binary + digit = bit camera + recorder = camcorder television + evangelist = televangelist European + television = Eurovision Most blends are formed in one of the following ways: The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other e.g., brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast, spoon + fork → spork The beginnings of two words are combined e.g., cyborg is a blend of cybernetic and organism Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds e.g., motel is a blend of motor and hotel, chunnel (channel and tunnel) MINOR TYPES OF WORD FORMATION ONOMATOPOEIA/SOUND IMITATION The creation of words from sounds that resemble those associated with the objects or actions to be named, or that seem suggestive of its qualities This type of word-formation is now also called echoism For examples, hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, splash The majority of onomatopoeic words serve to name sounds or movements Most of them are verbs easily turned into nouns: bang, boom, bump, hum, rustle, smack, thud, etc Onomatopoeias are not the same across all languages; they conform to some extent to the broader linguistic system they are part of; hence the sound of a clock ―tick tock”, the cry of a rooster ―cock-a-doodle-doo‖ and the bark of a dog “bowwow” in English may be “tích tắc”, “ị…ó… o…ị” and “gâu gâu” respectively in Vietnamese - 52 - HANU - English Department Nguyễn Mạnh Hùng, M.A - Lexicology - 2014 Like every other device of the writing art, onomatopoeia can be overdone, but it is effective in creating mood or pace Onomatopoeia every time I see ya My senses tell me hubba And I just can't disagree I get a feeling in my heart that I can't describe It's sort of whack, whir, wheeze, whine Sputter, splat, squirt, scrape Clink, clank, clunk, clatter Crash, bang, beep, buzz Ring, rip, roar, retch Twang, toot, tinkle, thud Pop, plop, plunk, pow Snort, snuck, sniff, smack Screech, splash, squish, squeak Jingle, rattle, squeal, boing Honk, hoot, hack, belch." (From "Onomatopoeia" by Todd Rundgren) Words of type of word-formation can be made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, insects, human beings and inanimate objects For animal sounds, words like quack (duck), bark (dog), roar (lion) and meow (cat) are typically used in English Some of these words are used both as nouns and as verbs REDUPLICATION Reduplication is the formation of words by repeating root or stem of a word, or part of it, either without any phonetic changes or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant There are main three types of reduplication: Rhyming reduplication: e.g., claptrap, hokey-pokey, honey-bunny, razzle-dazzle, super-duper, teenie-weenie - 53 -