THIN FILM MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY Sputtering of Compound Materials by Kiyotaka Wasa Yokohama City University Yokohama, Japan Makoto Kitabatake Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd Kyoto, Japan Hideaki Adachi Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd Kyoto, Japan Copyright © 2004 by William Andrew, Inc No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher Cover Art © 2004 by Brent Beckley / William Andrew, Inc Cover photo: Chamber for sputtering amorphous thin film on substrate cooled by liquid nitrogen Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2003018016 ISBN: 0-8155-1483-2 Printed in the United States William Andrew, Inc 13 Eaton Avenue Norwich, NY 13815 1-800-932-7045 www.williamandrew.com www.knovel.com (Orders from all locations in North and South America) Co-published by: Springer-Verlag GmbH & Co KG Tiergartenstrasse 17 D-69129 Heidelberg Germany springeronline.com ISBN: 3-540-21118-7 (Orders from all locations outside North and South America) 10 This book may be purchased in quantity at discounts for education, business, or sales promotional use by contacting the Publisher NOTICE To the best of our knowledge the information in this publication is accurate; however the Publisher does not assume any responsibility or liability for the accuracy or completeness of, or consequences arising from, such information This book is intended for informational purposes only Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the Publisher Final determination of the suitability of any information or product for any use, and the manner of that use, is the sole responsibility of the user Anyone intending to rely upon any recommendation of materials or procedures mentioned in this publication should be independently satisfied as to such suitability, and must meet all applicable safety and health standards ISBN: 0-8155-1483-2 (William Andrew, Inc.) ISBN: 3-540-21118-7 (Springer-Verlag GmbH & Co KG) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wasa, Kiyotaka Thin film materials technology : sputtering of compound materials / by Kiyotaka Wasa, Makoto Kitabatake, Hideaki Adachi p cm ISBN 0-8155-1483-2 (alk paper) Cathode sputtering (Planing process) Thin films I Kitabatake, Makoto II Adachi, Hideaki III Title TS695.W38 2003 621.3815'2 dc21 2003018016 Related Electronic Materials and Process Technology COATING MATERIALS FOR ELECTRONIC APPLICATIONS: by James J Licari CHARACTERIZATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS, Volume 1: edited by Gary E McGuire CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION FOR MICROELECTRONICS: by Arthur Sherman CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION OF TUNGSTEN AND TUNGSTEN SILICIDES: by John E J Schmitz CHEMISTRY OF SUPERCONDUCTOR MATERIALS: edited by Terrell A Vanderah CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS AND PLASTICS: edited by Larry Rupprecht CONTACTS TO SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Leonard J Brillson DIAMOND CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION: by Huimin Liu and David S Dandy DIAMOND FILMS AND COATINGS: edited by Robert F Davis DIFFUSION PROCESSES IN ADVANCED TECHNOLOGICAL MATERIALS: edited by Devenda Gupta ELECTROCHEMISTRY OF SEMICONDUCTORS AND ELECTRONICS: edited by John McHardy and Frank Ludwig ELECTRODEPOSITION: by Jack W Dini FOUNDATIONS OF VACUUM COATING TECHNOLOGY: by Donald Mattox HANDBOOK OF CARBON, GRAPHITE, DIAMONDS AND FULLERENES: by Hugh O Pierson HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION, Second Edition: by Hugh O Pierson HANDBOOK OF COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Paul H Holloway and Gary E McGuire HANDBOOK OF CONTAMINATION CONTROL IN MICROELECTRONICS: edited by Donald L Tolliver HANDBOOK OF DEPOSITION TECHNOLOGIES FOR FILMS AND COATINGS, Second Edition: edited by Rointan F Bunshah HANDBOOK OF HARD COATINGS: edited by Rointan F Bunshah HANDBOOK OF ION BEAM PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY: edited by Jerome J Cuomo, Stephen M Rossnagel, and Harold R Kaufman HANDBOOK OF MAGNETO-OPTICAL DATA RECORDING: edited by Terry McDaniel and Randall H 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Second Edition: edited by John N Helbert HIGH DENSITY PLASMA SOURCES: edited by Oleg A Popov HYBRID MICROCIRCUIT TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK, Second Edition: by James J Licari and Leonard R Enlow IONIZED-CLUSTER BEAM DEPOSITION AND EPITAXY: by Toshinori Takagi MOLECULAR BEAM EPITAXY: edited by Robin F C Farrow NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS: edited by Carl C Koch SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND PROCESS TECHNOLOGY HANDBOOK: edited by Gary E McGuire THIN FILM MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY: edited by Kiyotaka Wasa ULTRA-FINE PARTICLES: edited by Chikara Hayashi, Ryozi Ueda and Akira Tasaki WIDE BANDGAP SEMICONDUCTORS: edited by Stephen J Pearton Other Related Titles CRYSTAL GROWTH TECHNOLOGY: by K Byrappa HANDBOOK OF ELLIPSOMETRY: edited by Harland G Tompkins and Eugene A Irene HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION OF MATERIALS: edited by Myer Kutz HANDBOOK OF FILLERS, Second Edition: edited by George Wypych HANDBOOK OF HYDROTHERMAL TECHNOLOGY: edited by K Byrappa and Masahiro Yoshimura HANDBOOK OF INDUSTRIAL REFRACTORIES TECHNOLOGY: by Stephen C Carniglia and Gordon L Barna HANDBOOK OF MATERIAL WEATHERING: edited by George Wypych HANDBOOK OF PLASTICIZERS: edited by George Wypych HANDBOOK OF SOLVENTS: edited by George Wypych MECHANICAL ALLOYING FOR FABRICATION OF ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS: by M Sherif El-Eskandarany MEMS: A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO DESIGN, ANALYSIS, AND APPLICATIONS: edited by Oliver Paul and Jan Korvink SOL-GEL TECHNOLOGY FOR THIN FILMS, FIBERS, PREFORMS, ELECTRONICS AND SPECIALTY SHAPES: edited by Lisa C Klein SOL-GEL SILICA: by Larry L Hench TRIBOLOGY OF ABRASIVE MACHINING PROCESSES: by Ioan Marinescu, Brian Rowe, Boris Dimitrov, Ichiro Inasaki WEATHERING OF PLASTICS: edited by George Wypych Preface Bunsen and Grove first observed sputtering over 150 years ago in a discharge tube Since then the basic level of understanding of the sputtering phenomena has been refined The applications of sputtering, however, are still being developed on a daily basis Sputtering deposition and sputtering etching have become common manufacturing processes for a wide variety of industries First and foremost is the electronics industry, which uses sputtering technology to produce integrated circuits and magneto-optical recording media This book describes many of the sputtering applications that are relevant to electronics Sputtering processes are also present in many other disparate areas For example, sputter deposition is used to coat the mirrorlike reflective windows in many buildings The hard coating of a machine tool is a well-known application of sputtering Sputtering is essential for the creation of new materials such as diamond thin films, high-Tc superconductors, and ferroelectric and magnetic materials like those used in random access memories Nanometer materials are also provided by sputtering It is important that the sputtering process is considered an environmentally benign production technology The sputtering process is a key technology for material engineering in the twenty-first century In the last ten years, radical progress has been seen in sputtering technology For production, an example is the high-rate sputtering technology using pulsed DC/MF dual-magnetron sputtering for coating large areas vii viii Preface like window glass Another production technology is the sputter-etching of deep trench structures using plasma-assisted long-throw magnetron sputtering systems At the basic research level, epitaxial processing of complex oxides such as layered perovskite for high-Tc superconductors and ferroelectric superlattices of perovskites at the nanometer level were extensively studied, and commercial sputtering systems were developed The material in this book is based on the author’s research works at Panasonic, Research Institute of Innovative Technology for the Earth, RITE (Japanese government institute for global environment issues), and Yokohama City University, for over forty years This edition includes experimental sputtering data according to the author’s recent experiments, and up-to-date references The theoretical descriptions of the sputtering and film growth processes are geared to graduate students of materials engineering disciplines based on the author’s lectures at Yokohama City University Production level engineering data are included for engineers in industry Chapter describes the special features of thin films from a materials science and engineering viewpoint This chapter also reviews some of the devices and applications of sputtered thin films Chapter shows overviews of the thin film growth mechanisms, and basic deposition processes are discussed Tables are included giving the properties of crystal substrates and summarizing the epitaxial relationships The basic concepts of sputtering phenomena are described in Ch including discussions of ion energy, collisions, and sputtering yields The systems used for sputtering deposition are characterized in Ch This chapter includes information on discharges, targets, and process monitoring Chapter shows a basic process design for the sputtering deposition of complex compound materials and a variety of experimental data for the application of thin films in electronics industry Chapter describes the basic sputtering process for a controlled microstructure showing examples of the deposition of perovskite ferroelectric thin films with a controlled microstructure, the application of the sputtering for nanometer thin film materials, and the interfacial control of high-k Si gate oxides by magnetron sputtering Chapter shows microfabrication methods using the sputtering etching process In the last ten years, several excellent tutorial texts on thin films have been published for young scholars However, for the practical use of thin films, we should understand the physics and chemistry of thin film Preface ix materials including crystal chemistry, vacuum engineering, and gas discharge and plasma physics The study of thin film material engineering should include both the tutorial phenomena and practical engineering data, and few textbooks cover both This text will act as a bridge between tutorial textbooks and practical application, and will be useful as a sub-textbook for graduated students and as an experimental guidebook for young scientists or engineers I owe my thanks to many senior material scientists including K L Chopra (Indian Institute of Technology), R Roy, L E Cross, R E Newnham (Penn State University), and T H Geballe (Stanford University) for continuous discussion on ceramic thin films I am also grateful to K Uchino, S Trolier-McKinstry, D G Schlom (Penn State University), and C B Eom (Wisconsin-Madison University), and S Kisaka (Kanazawa Institute of Technology) for their helpful discussion and evaluation of the thin films I also want to thank S M Rossnagel (IBM Watson Res Center) whose kindly help has been invaluable Thanks are due to many vacuum materials and equipment companies who supplied the practical data I wish to thank students R Ai, R Suzuki, and K Maeda at Wasa’s Thin Film Lab., Yokohama City University, and my daughter Yasuko Hirai, for their help with the manuscript Finally, I pray for the repose of the souls of R F Bunshah (former professor, University of California, Los Angeles) and G Narita (former Vice President, Executive Editor, Noyes Publications) who passed away before the publication of this edition November 2003 Kiyotaka Wasa Yokohama, Japan Table of Contents Thin Film Materials and Devices .1 1.1 THIN FILM MATERIALS 1.2 THIN FILM DEVICES 10 REFERENCES 14 Thin Film Processes 17 2.1 THIN FILM GROWTH PROCESS 17 2.1.1 Structural Consequences of the Growth Process 23 2.1.1.1 2.1.1.2 2.1.1.3 2.1.1.4 Microstructure 24 Surface Roughness and Density 26 Adhesion 29 Metastable Structure 31 2.1.2 Solubility Relaxation 33 2.2 THIN FILM DEPOSITION PROCESS 33 2.2.1 Classification of Deposition Processes 33 2.2.1.1 PVD Processes 33 2.2.1.1 CVD Processes 44 2.2.2 Deposition Conditions 47 2.3 CHARACTERIZATION 60 REFERENCES 66 Sputtering Phenomena 71 3.1 SPUTTER YIELD 3.1.1 Ion Energy 3.1.2 Incident Ions, Target Materials 3.1.3 Effects of Incidence Angle xi 71 72 78 79 xii Contents 3.1.4 Crystal Structure of Target 84 3.1.5 Sputter Yields of Alloys 87 3.2 SPUTTERED ATOMS 90 3.2.1 Features of Sputtered Atoms 90 3.2.2 Velocity and Mean Free Path 91 3.2.2.1 Velocity of Sputtered Atoms 91 3.2.2.2 Mean Free Path 97 3.3 MECHANISMS OF SPUTTERING 97 3.3.1 Sputtering Collisions 98 3.3.2 Sputtering .100 3.3.2.1 Classical Empirical Formula of Sputtering Yield 101 3.3.2.2 Linear Cascade Collision Theory 103 3.3.2.3 Simplified Model and Modern Yield Formula 109 REFERENCES 111 Sputtering Systems 115 4.1 DISCHARGE IN A GAS 115 4.1.1 Cold Cathode Discharge 115 4.1.2 Discharge in a Magnetic Field 124 4.1.2.1 Spark Voltage in a Magnetic Field 124 4.1.2.2 Glow Discharge in a Magnetic Field 127 4.1.2.3 Glow Discharge Modes in a Transverse Magnetic Field 129 4.1.2.4 Plasma in a Glow Discharge 133 4.2 SPUTTERING SYSTEMS .135 4.2.1 DC Diode Sputtering 136 4.2.2 RF Diode Sputtering 137 4.2.3 Magnetron Sputtering 139 4.2.4 Ion Beam Sputtering 151 4.2.5 ECR Plasma 153 4.2.6 Medium-Frequency Sputtering 154 4.3 PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF SPUTTERING SYSTEMS 156 4.3.1 Targets for Sputtering 157 4.3.1.1 Compound Targets 157 4.3.1.2 Powder Targets 160 4.3.1.3 Auxiliary Cathode 161 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.5 4.3.6 Sputtering Gas 162 Thickness Distribution 168 Substrate Temperature 173 Off-Axis Sputtering; Facing-Target Sputtering 173 Monitoring 177 4.3.6.1 Gas Composition 177 Contents 4.3.6.2 4.3.6.3 4.3.6.4 4.3.6.5 4.3.6.6 xiii Sputtering Discharge 178 Plasma Parameters 179 Substrate Temperature Monitoring 183 Thickness Monitoring 184 Film Structure 185 REFERENCES 187 Deposition of Compound Thin Films 191 5.1 OXIDES 219 5.1.1 ZnO Thin Films 219 5.1.1.1 Deposition of ZnO 221 5.1.1.2 Electrical Properties and Applications 236 5.1.2 Sillenite Thin Films 248 5.1.2.1 Amorphous/Polycrystalline Films 249 5.1.2.2 Single-Crystal Films 252 5.1.3 Perovskite Dielectric Thin Films 254 5.1.3.1 PbTiO3 Thin Films 255 5.1.3.2 PLZT Thin Films 271 5.1.4 Perovskite Superconducting Thin Films .295 5.1.4.1 5.1.4.2 5.1.4.3 5.1.4.4 5.1.4.5 5.1.4.6 Studies of Thin Film Processes 301 Basic Thin Film Processes 302 Synthesis Temperature 308 Low-Temperature Processes, In-Situ Deposition 309 Deposition of Rare-Earth, High-Tc Superconductors 311 Deposition of Rare-Earth-Free, High-Tc Superconductors 320 5.1.4.7 Structure and Structural Control 324 5.1.4.8 Phase Control by Layer-by-Layer Deposition 329 5.1.4.9 Diamagnetization Properties 332 5.1.4.10 Passivation of Sputtered High-Tc Thin Films 334 5.1.4.11 Multilayers and Superconducting Devices 338 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.1.5 Transparent Conducting Films .340 NITRIDES 342 5.2.1 TiN Thin Films .342 5.2.2 Compound Nitride Thin Films 343 5.2.3 Si-N Thin Films 344 CARBIDES AND SILICIDES .345 5.3.1 SiC Thin Films .346 5.3.2 Tungsten Carbide Thin Films 355 5.3.3 Mo-Si Thin Films 359 DIAMOND .359 SELENIDES 365 AMORPHOUS THIN FILMS 368 517 Index Terms Mobility of adatoms Modulation wavelength and deposition period Molecular beam epitaxy Molecular dynamic method Momentum-transfer theory Monitoring in situ sputtering conditions substrate temperature thickness Monocrystalline target MOS devices Multidomain structure Multilayered PLT/PT Multilayered structures Multiphoton resonance ionization (MPRI) Multisource deposition Multitarget sputtering of Bi Multitarget systems Mutual diffusion 517 Links 434 280 36 111 98 148 177 183 184 85 193 414 453 452 95 191 261 422 338 488 301 191 277 452 329 317 375 350 N N-type superconductors NaCl structures Nanofabrication process Nanomaterials defined Nanometer composites Nanometer materials Nanometer structures Nanometer superlattice Nanostructures Narrow-gap technology Nb/NbN alternating layers Negative bias Negative glow Negative space-charge Ni-Cr Nitrides compound families deposition Nitrogen 337 31 448 448 409 448 455 448 11 376 133 122 130 87 342 343 148 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 518 Index Terms reactive gas species Nitrogen doping Nitrogen equivalent value Noncrystalline diffraction patterns Nonuniform films Normal orientation NSC mode Nuclear fusion Nucleation Nucleation and growth stages Nucleation barrier Nucleation density saturation Nucleation sites Nucleation time 518 Links 41 248 166 20 415 225 130 141 18 26 21 18 448 436 25 131 132 451 O Off-axis sputtering Operating pressure Optical absorption Optical absorption constant Optical absorption depth Optical absorption edge Optical bandgap Optical integrated circuits Optical monitoring Optical spectrometric analysis Optical-channel waveguides Orbital motion Organic polymer films Orientations crystallographic Oriented films Orthorhombic phase Orthorhombic superconductors Oxidation of copper degree of promoter of superconductors Oxide mode Oxide superconductors Oxides of cathode metals deposition Oxygen partial pressure reactive gas species 174 132 383 36 35 251 33 252 184 178 474 124 378 225 225 25 313 305 137 308 226 307 303 163 295 258 148 225 41 264 341 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 519 519 Index Terms Oxygen partial pressure Oxygen pressure critical Links 434 163 P P-E hysteresis P-E hysteresis curve P-type superconductors Parallel orientation Partial pressure oxygen Particles ultrafine Paschen’s Law Passivation films deposition conditions Passivation layer Pb content Pb crystallites Pb deficiency Pb-rich PbTiO3 Pb/Ti ratios PbO (red) crystallites PbTiO3 amorphous dielectric properties diffraction pattern epitaxially grown ferroelectric perovskite temperature dependence Penning type ion source Penning-type ion source Permalloy magnetic circuit sheets Perovskite crystal phase crystal structure diffraction peaks ferroelectric heteroepitaxial layered microstructure structure superconducting superlattice temperature dependence Phase control 283 445 337 225 225 116 334 335 302 275 258 271 451 265 374 258 371 256 259 261 266 266 470 470 87 171 169 185 418 254 260 266 442 193 409 275 295 454 266 331 119 123 259 372 372 414 260 174 171 405 406 279 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 520 520 Index Terms Phase retardation shift Phase velocity SAW Photoresist pattern Photoresists Physical etching Physical vapor deposition (PVD) Piezoelectric materials ZnO Piezoelectric properties epitaxial ZnO measurement of PbTiO3 PIXE See Proton-induced x-ray emission Planar magnetron Planar magnetron sputtering Planar sputtering system Plasma inductively coupled Plasma instability Plasma ionization secondary Plasma parameters Plasma plume Plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition (PACVD) Plasma-assisted deposition Plasmatron Plasmatrons PLT ([Pb, La]TiO3) thin films PLT-PT structure ferroelectric superlattice PLT/PT on ST substrates PLZT([Pb,La][Zr,Ti]O3) crystallites dielectric properties electro-optic properties lattice parameters magnetron sputtering phase diagram piezoelectric properties on sapphire stoichiometric composition transmission spectrum PMN (Pb[Mg 1/3,Nb2/3]O3) ferroelectric material Point defects Links 289 241 241 476 478 466 33 11 219 233 238 235 268 268 41 141 168 133 148 141 148 179 35 36 44 133 470 469 406 412 415 474 476 277 453 455 423 424 285 289 428 272 271 285 426 277 280 418 20 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 521 521 Index Terms Poisson’s ratio Poisson’s relationship Poling Polycrystalline diffraction pattern Polycrystalline SiC films Polycrystalline sillenites Polycrystalline ZnO Post-ionization by ECR plasma by electron beam Potential distribution Powder targets Power density Presputtering Pressure ECR sputtering system working Pressure range CVD process Probe characteristics Probe current Propagation loss for SAW Proton beam irradiation Proton-induced x-ray emission Proximity junction tunneling model PSC mode Pseudomorphic strained system PT (PbTiO3) crystallites epitaxial temperature lattice parameters lattices Pt electrodes Pulsed laser ablation Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) Pulsed magnetron Pyrochlore diffraction peaks Pyrochlore phase Pyrochlore structure Pyroelectrics materials Pyrometer PZT (Pb[Zr,Ti]O3) Links 31 121 285 20 347 249 221 95 95 119 160 178 303 242 380 132 153 148 195 44 181 181 182 182 242 219 72 328 130 410 406 438 429 429 415 353 191 79 131 132 437 35 156 302 259 302 275 270 183 406 260 419 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 522 522 Index Terms Links Q QCOM See Quartz crystal oscillator microbalance Quadrupole mass analyzer Quantum confinement Quantum dots Quantum wires Quartz crucibles Quartz balance method Quartz crystal oscillator microbalance Quenching rate 177 448 448 34 91 72 371 451 368 R Radial velocity Radiation resistance Radicals Rare-earth-free superconductors deposition Rare-earth superconductors deposition Rare-earth thin films RBS See Rutherford back scattering spectroscopy Reactive evaporation method (REM) Reactive gas density nonuniformity Reactive gas species Reactive gases Reactive ion etching Reactive sputtering Recapture of electrons Recrystallization Reflection electron diffraction (RED) patterns Refractory metals Relaxation Relaxor ferroelectrics REM See Reactive evaporation method (REM) Resistance monitoring Resistive heating Resistivity Gd-Ba-Cu-O film 132 11 466 311 320 327 328 466 478 154 163 311 308 334 166 41 153 466 41 132 22 221 375 33 418 376 420 184 34 336 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 523 523 Index Terms SiC films temperature dependence TiN films transparent conductive films Resistivity-temperature curves Resistors Resputter RF diode sputtering RF discharge RF ion-beam source RF magnetron sputtering RF sputtering system RF-SQUID susceptometer RHEED analysis RHEED monitoring RIBE See Reactive ion-beam etching RIE See Reactive ion etching Ring cathode target Rochell salt Roller-quenched a-PbTiO3 Rough surface Roughness of the surface Roughness factor Rutherford back scattering spectroscopy (RBS) Rutherford scattering Links 350 317 343 341 478 359 174 40 129 480 154 137 332 185 148 221 133 478 168 406 267 185 26 28 72 99 103 S S-gun Sapphire substrates PLZT thin films Satellite peaks perovskite SAW (surface acoustic wave) high-frequency properties SAW coupling factors SAW devices for UHF ZnO Sawyer-Tower circuit Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Schottky gate materials SCLC See Space charge limited current Se amorphous 141 476 422 279 246 244 244 10 246 242 283 72 359 288 242 245 32 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 524 Index Terms Secondary electron coefficient Secondary electrons Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) Secondary phase Selenides Self-bias voltage Self-cleaning anode SEM See Scanning electron microscope Semiconducting devices Semiconductive properties ZnO thin films Semiconductors narrow-bandgap wide-bandgap Shadowing Shapiro steps Shield effect Si amorphous Si-O/Gd-Ba-Cu-O system SiC single crystal SiC thin films crystallization temperature SiC transistors Sigmund’s theory Silicides Silicon amorphous Silicon carbide (SiC) Sillenites sputtering conditions SIMS See Secondary ion mass spectrometry SiN film formation SiN thin films Single-crystal films epitaxial Single-crystal targets Sintered ZnO powder Sintered target Sintering Smith’s relationship Smoothness of the surface Solar cells Solar energy conversion Solubility relaxation 524 Links 119 118 83 415 365 135 154 126 47 152 248 36 36 27 339 333 10 336 354 345 374 345 108 359 10 11 248 249 337 344 252 302 85 32 346 32 307 221 157 305 287 26 10 341 33 367 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 525 Index Terms Space charge dominated mode Space charge limited current (SCLC) Spark voltage Specific charge Spectrum analyzer Spluttering Sputter etching depth Sputter rate Sputter yields fcc crystals of hcp crystals vs angle of incidence vs atomic number Sputtered species Sputtering 118 130 130 121 116 126 247 39 42 465 75 71–75 84 85 79 79 39 191 228 469 179 153 173 139 41 261 41 137 455 135 139 107 525 Links atmosphere chamber current defined ECR facing targets low-pressure medium frequency multitarget reactive rf superlattice structures systems targets theory Sputtering conditions monitoring optimum Sputtering parameters Sputtering rate and oxygen partial pressure Sputtering threshold Sputtering threshold energy Sputtering yield SRO (SrRuO3) on ST substrates ST (SrTiO3) substrates Stability long-term 177 224 194 131 264 73 74 109 441 414 367 126 466 78 79 137 87 195 100 107 174 155 221 156 157 195 224 109 432 442 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 526 Index Terms Stacking faults Step bunching Step height ST substrates Step-flow growth Strain critical Strained structure Stranski-Krastanov growth Strength of thin films Stress internal measurement Stress-free growth perovskite Structural properties of thin films Structures multidomain not found in bulk Stylus techniques Sublimation heat of Substrate holder Substrate location and composition Substrate position affects orientation Substrate temperature and composition and crystalline structures effect on grain size Substrates emissivity vicinal Superconducting ceramics lattice parameters Superconducting films Superconducting orthorhombic phase Superconducting properties Superconducting thin films physical properties Superconducting transition temperatures Superconductors deposition methods lattice parameters layered oxides 526 Links 20 441 432 432 444 411 410 19 63 417 30 31 183 418 184 267 195 414 31 72 73 231 303 231 173 224 275 275 24 183 432 295 296 476 327 314 140 337 317 310 302 296 329 478 428 338 193 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 527 Index Terms perovskite rare-earth-free synthesis thin films thin-film processes Superlattice films Superlattice structures perovskite PLT-PT Superlattices ferroelectric perovskite Supersaturation Surface acoustic wave See SAW Surface analysis techniques Surface charge Surface diffusion coefficient Surface diffusion energy Surface layer enrichment Surface migration Surface mobility of adatoms Surface roughness Switching diodes ZnO/Si Synthesis temperature 527 Links 296 311 301 301 324 277 376 279 277 452 454 26 72 137 436 22 89 259 24 434 26 383 308 278 453 107 436 28 185 325 T Ta fcc Tapered etching Target bias Target heating Targets ceramic for sputtering single crystal sintered powder for sputtering TBCC (Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O) systems Te amorphous Teflon films Temperature evaporation growth of substrate superconductor synthesis 32 474 153 157 168 221 195 84 160 157 307 475 311 32 378 50 195 173 308 418 221 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 528 Index Terms synthesis zero resistance (superconductor) Temperature anomaly Temperature range CVD process Temperature sensors Terrace length ST substrates Tetragonal phase Thermal diffusion depth Thermal equilibrium Thermal evaporation Thermal expansion coefficients sapphire ZnO Thermal lattice vibration Thermal printer heads Thermistors SiC Thermocouple Thermodynamic theory of ferroelectrics Thick films defined Thickness critical Thickness distribution Thickness monitoring Thickness variation wafer Thin films chemical composition crystal properties defined properties structural properties transistors Thin-film compounds Thin-film deposition process sputtering Thin-film devices Thin-film resonators Thomas-Fermi potential Thomson’s linear cascade theory Time-of-flight measurement TiN thin films TiO2 film Titanium nitride (TiN) 528 Links 301 321 445 447 44 11 432 313 36 133 33 234 234 371 343 353 354 183 445 191 359 184 31 168 184 410 171 174 232 194 194 195 10 474 140 17 135 10 238 98 108 92 342 163 342 143 139 104 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 529 Index Terms Tl2Ba2CaCu 2Ox structure Townsend discharge Transducer ZnO Transistors Transition temperature tetra/ortho Transparency model Transparent films conduction resistive Transverse magnetic field Traveling distance of adatoms Trench structures Trenching TRIM simulation software TRIMSP Tungsten carbide films sputtering conditions Tunnel junction Tunneling-magnetoresistance (TMR) Twin boundaries Twin magnetron cathode Twins 529 Links 324 118 236 10 338 308 476 85 341 340 360 126 22 474 474 111 219 355 355 339 11 20 155 430 372 415 129 139 487 475 488 438 U UHF SAW devices Ultrasonic microscope Ultraviolet laser Unbalanced magnetron Unstrained structure 246 239 35 148 410 V Vapor-phase epitaxy Vapor quenching Variable-leak valves Velocity of sputtered atoms of sputtered particles of vacuum-evaporated particles Vertical etching Vicinal substrates 307 368 166 91 95 91 475 432 480 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 530 Index Terms Video intermediate frequency (VIF) filters Volmer-Weber growth Von Ardene type ion sources 530 Links 245 19 23 28 417 151 W W fcc Water-cooled backing plate Waveguides curved optical channel optical-channel ridge type ridge-type switches Wear resistance SiC films Wehner’s sputtering stand Weight loss experiments Windows reflective coatings Working gas pressure Working pressure of sputtering system Wurtzite compounds Wurtzite hexagonal structure 32 252 476 477 474 475 476 293 477 349 78 72 195 148 31 219 Y YBC YBC (Y-Ba-Cu-O) system deposition processes YBC films ceramics crystallizing temperature diamagnetization epitaxial sputtering conditions Young’s modulus 308 305 303 305 325 332 315 311 30 308 313 Z Zero-resistance temperature (superconductor) Zinc cathode 310 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 531 Index Terms oxidation Zinc oxide Zirconia crucibles ZnO BAW resonator conductivity crystals devices growth mechanism highly oriented polycrystalline SAW acousto-optic devices SAW Bragg diffractor SAW devices SAW filters SAW resonators sputtering conditions transducer ZnO films conductivity deposition hexagonal structure physical properties semiconductive properties ZnO targets Li-doped ZnSe synthesis temperature Zr films ZrO2 layer Links 380 219 34 174 238 383 219 10 232 231 221 247 247 245 245 245 235 236 383 219 380 244 248 228 235 365 367 32 422 246 231 This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation 531 ... of Contents Thin Film Materials and Devices .1 1.1 THIN FILM MATERIALS 1.2 THIN FILM DEVICES 10 REFERENCES 14 Thin Film Processes 17 2.1 THIN FILM GROWTH PROCESS... Nitride Thin Films 343 5.2.3 Si-N Thin Films 344 CARBIDES AND SILICIDES .345 5.3.1 SiC Thin Films .346 5.3.2 Tungsten Carbide Thin Films 355 5.3.3 Mo-Si Thin Films ... 5.1.3.2 PLZT Thin Films 271 5.1.4 Perovskite Superconducting Thin Films .295 5.1.4.1 5.1.4.2 5.1.4.3 5.1.4.4 5.1.4.5 5.1.4.6 Studies of Thin Film Processes 301 Basic Thin Film Processes