Field techniques in glaciology and glaci

Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology Bryn Hubbard Neil Glasser Centre for Glaciology University of Wales, Aberystwyth Copyright Ó 2005 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (ỵ44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The 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Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hubbard, Bryn Field techniques in glaciology and glacial geomorphology / Bryn Hubbard, Neil Glasser p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN-13 978-0-470-84426-7 (cloth : alk paper) — ISBN-13 978-0-470-84427-4 (pbk : alk paper) ISBN-10 0-470-84426-4 (cloth : alk paper) — ISBN-10 0-470-84427-2 (pbk : alk paper) Glaciology—Field work I Glasser, Neil F II Title GB2402.3.H64 2005 551.310 0720 3—dc22 2004028501 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN-13 978-0-470-84426-7 (HB) 978-0-470-84427-4 (PB) ISBN-10 0-470-84426-4 (HB) 0-470-84427-2 (PB) Typeset in 10/12pt Sabon by Integra Software Services Pvt Ltd, Pondicherry, India Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production Contents Preface ix Acknowledgements xi 1 1 Introduction 1.1 Aim 1.2 The scope of this book 1.3 Book format and content 1.4 The role of fieldwork in glaciology and glacial geomorphology 1.5 The relationship between field glaciology and glaciological theory Planning and conducting glaciological fieldwork 2.1 Aim 2.2 Designing and planning field-based research 2.3 Logistical preparations for fieldwork 2.4 Fieldwork data 15 15 15 20 26 Glacier ice: Character, sampling and analysis 3.1 Aim 3.2 Ice masses and ice facies: Principles, definition and identification 3.3 Sampling glacier ice 3.4 Ice analysis 3.5 Student projects 30 30 Glacier meltwater: Character, sampling and analysis 4.1 Aim 4.2 Background 4.3 Measuring bulk meltwater discharge: Stage-discharge rating curves 4.4 Sampling and analysing glacial meltwaters 4.5 Automated measurements by sensors and loggers 4.6 Tracer investigations 4.7 Student projects 65 65 65 30 38 55 63 68 79 96 101 112 vi CONTENTS Hot-water borehole drilling and borehole instrumentation 5.1 Aim 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Hot-water drilling 5.4 Borehole instrumentation 5.5 Summary 5.6 Student projects 115 115 115 116 124 146 146 Ice radar 6.1 Aim 6.2 Background and physical principles 6.3 Ice radar equipment 6.4 Radar data presentation 6.5 Field radar surveys 6.6 Processing 6.7 Field application and interpretation of ice radar 6.8 Student projects 148 148 148 155 159 161 171 174 177 Glacier mass balance and motion 7.1 Aim 7.2 Surface energy budget 7.3 Mass balance 7.4 Glacier motion and ice velocity 7.5 Student projects 179 179 180 187 199 216 Glacigenic sediments 8.1 Aim 8.2 Introduction to field sedimentology 8.3 Colour and organic content 8.4 Sediment texture 8.5 Particle morphology: The shape and roundness of sedimentary particles 8.6 Bedding 8.7 Sedimentary structures 8.8 Palaeocurrent data 8.9 Other properties 8.10 Field sampling techniques 8.11 Fabric analysis: General considerations 8.12 Clast macrofabrics 8.13 Clast microfabrics and microstructural description 8.14 Clast mesofabrics 8.15 Laboratory analysis 8.16 Interpreting the environment of deposition of sediments 217 217 217 226 229 232 239 243 245 246 247 251 252 259 260 260 262 CONTENTS 8.17 8.18 10 vii Presentation of sedimentological data Student projects Mapping glaciers and glacial landforms 9.1 Aim 9.2 General considerations 9.3 Aims of the mapping and the areal extent of the map 9.4 Desk-based studies 9.5 Remotely sensed data 9.6 Geomorphological mapping 9.7 Field mapping 9.8 Field surveying techniques 9.9 Ground-penetrating radar and shallow seismic reflection investigations of sediment bodies 9.10 Electrical resistivity surveys 9.11 Aquatic (marine and lacustrine) geophysical techniques 9.12 Mapping glacier structures (structural glaciology) 9.13 Final map compilation 9.14 Mapping and measurement of landforms change over time 9.15 Student projects Monitoring and reconstructing glacier fluctuations 10.1 Aim 10.2 Remotely sensed images 10.3 Fieldwork mapping and historical documents 10.4 Dating glacier fluctuations using ‘absolute age’ (numerical-age) and ‘relative age’ estimates 10.5 Numerical-age dating techniques 10.6 Relative-age dating techniques 10.7 Dating glacier fluctuations – concluding remarks 10.8 Student projects 266 267 269 269 269 270 271 274 287 290 304 308 311 313 321 325 327 329 331 331 332 335 339 340 350 364 364 References 367 Index 396 386 REFERENCES McCarroll, D and Nesje, A 1993 Vertical extent of ice sheets in Nordfjord, western Norway: Measuring degree of rock 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Field Experiments and Measurement Programs in Geomorphology Rotterdam, Balkema, 17–59 Wang, Y and Azuma, N 1999 A new automatic ice-fabric analyzer which uses imageanalysis techniques Annals of Glaciology, 29, 155–162 Warburton, J and Beecroft, I 1993 Use of meltwater stream material loads in the estimation of glacial erosion rates Zeitschrift fuăr Geomorphologie, 37, 19–28 Warren, C.R., Glasser, N.F., Kerr, A.R., Harrison, S., Winchester, V and Rivera, A 1995 Characteristics of tidewater calving activity at Glaciar San Rafael, Chile Journal of Glaciology, 41(138), 273–289 Watchman, A.L and Twidale, C.R 2002 Relative and ‘absolute’ dating of land surfaces Earth Science Reviews, 58, 1–49 Waters, R.S 1958 Morphological mapping Geography, 43, 10–18 394 REFERENCES Watts, R.D and England, A.W 1976 Radio-echo sounding of temperate glaciers: Ice properties and sounder design criteria Journal of Glaciology, 17(75), 39–48 Weertman, J 1957 On the sliding of glaciers Journal of Glaciology, 3(21), 33–38 Weertman, J 1964 The theory of glacier sliding Journal of Glaciology, 5(39), 287–303 Welch, R and Howarth, P.J 1968 Photogrammetric measurements of glacial landforms Photogrammetric Record, 7, 75–96 Welch, B.C., Pfeffer, W.T., Harper, J.T and Humphrey, N.F 1998 Mapping subglacial surfaces of temperate valley glaciers by two-pass migration of a radio-echo sounding survey Journal of Glaciology, 44(146), 164–170 Wellner, J.S., Lowe, A.L., Shipp, S.S and Anderson, J.B 2001 Distribution of glacial geomorphic features on the Antarctic continental shelf and correlation with substrate: Implications for ice behavior Journal of Glaciology, 47, 397–411 Wentworth, C.K 1922 A scale of grade and class terms of clastic sediments Journal of Geology, 377–390 Wentworth, C.K 1935 An analysis of the shapes of glacial cobbles Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 6, 85–96 Wessels, R.L., Kargel, J.S and Kieffer, H.H 2002 ASTER measurements of supraglacial lakes in the Mount Everest region of the Himalaya Annals of Glaciology, 34, 399–408 Whalley, W.B and Krinsley, D.H 1974 A scanning electron microscope study of surface textures of quartz grains from glacial environments Sedimentology, 21, 87–105 Whalley, W.B and Palmer, C.F 1998 A glacial interpretation for the origin and formation of the Marinet Rock Glacier, Alpes Maritimes, France Geografiska Annaler, 80A, 221–236 Whitehouse, I.E and McSaveney, M.J 1983 Diachronous talus surfaces in the Southern Alps, New Zealand, and their implications to talus accumulation Arctic and Alpine Research, 15, 53–64 Whitehouse, I.E., McSaveney, M.J., Knuepfer, P.L.K and Chinn, T.J 1986 Growth of weathering rinds on Torlesse sandstone, Southern Alps, New Zealand In S.M Colman and D.P Dethier (eds) Rates of Chemical Weathering of Rocks and Minerals Orlando, Academic Press, 419–435 Wilhelms, F., Kipfstuhl, J., Miller, H., Firestone, J and Heinloth, K 1998 Precise dielectric profiling of ice cores: A new device with improved guarding and its theory Journal of Glaciology, 44(146), 171–174 Williams, R.S., Hall, D.K and Benson, C.S 1991 Analysis of glacier facies using satellite techniques Journal of Glaciology, 37, 120–128 Williams, R.S., Jr, Hall, D., Sigurðsson, O and Chien, J.Y.L 1997 Comparison of satellite-derived with ground-based measurements of the fluctuations of the margins of Vatnajoăkull, Iceland, 1973–92 Annals of Glaciology, 24, 72–80 Wilson, C.J.L 2004 Fabric Analyser & Investigator School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne Wilson, C.J.L and Sim, H.M 2002 The localization of strain and c-axis evolution in anisotropic ice Journal of Glaciology, 48(163), 601–610 Winchester, V and Harrison, S 1994 A development of the lichenometric method applied to the dating of glacially influenced debris flows in Southern Chile Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 19, 137–151 Winchester, V and Harrison, S 1996 Recent oscillations of the San Quintin and San Rafael Glaciers, Patagonian Chile Geografiska Annaler, 78A, 35–49 REFERENCES 395 Winchester, V., Harrison, H and Warren, C.R 2001 Recent retreat Glaciar Nef, Chilean Patagonia, dated by lichenometry and dendrochronology Arctic, Antarctic and Alpine Research, 33, 266–273 Wingtes, T 1985 Studies on crescentic fractures and crescentic gouges with the help of close-range photography Journal of Glaciology, 31, 340–349 Winkler, S 2000 The ‘Little Ice Age’ maximum in the Southern Alps, New Zealand: Preliminary results at Mueller Glacier The Holocene, 10, 643–647 Winkler, S 2003 A new interpretation of the date of the ‘Little Ice Age’ glacier maximum at Svartisen and Okstindan, northern Norway The Holocene, 13, 83–95 Wolfe, P.R 1983 Elements of Photogrammetry 2nd edition New York, McGraw-Hill Woodruff, J.F and Evenden, L.J 1962 Geomorphic measurement from aerial photos Professional Geographer, 14, 23–26 Worsley, P 1990 Tree-ring dating (dendrochronology) In A.S Goudie (ed.) Geomorphological Techniques London, Unwin Hyman, 415–421 Yingkui, L., Gengnian, L and Zhijiu, C 2001 Longitudinal variations in cross-section morphology along a glacial valley: A case-study from the Tien Shan, China Journal of Glaciology, 47, 243–250 Young, J.A.T 1969 Variations in till macrofabric over very short distances Geological Society of America Bulletin, 80, 2343–2352 Zingg, T 1935 Beitrag zur Schotteranalyse Schweizerische Mineralogische und Petrographische Mitteilungen, 15, 39–140 Index turbidity sensor 137 video 125–7 water pressure sensor 133–5 water sampler (Niskin type) 132–3 Ablation area 184–5 measurement stakes 191–3 ultrasonic depth gauge 193 Abney level 305–6 Accumulation area 187–8 measurement coffee-can method 195 neutron probe 197 snow density measurement 194 snow pits 194 stakes 193 ultrasonic depth gauge 193 Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) 72 Activity index 188 Aerial photography 275–9, 332–3 Albedo 284 Amino-acid geochronology 363–4 Chainsaw use to cut ice 40–4 Clast data presentation 256 fabrics 218, 250–60 lithology 218, 237–41 morphology 218, 232–9 roundness 218, 234–6, 296 shape 218, 232–4 surface features 218, 237 Coffee-can vertical ice velocity measurement 195 Common mid-point radar survey 163–5 Common offset radar survey 162–3 Compass clinometer 305 Cosmogenic nuclide dating 347–50 Balance gradient 188 Bedrock morphology/roughness 291–9, 301–4 Biogeography of glacier forefields 363 Borehole instrumentation 124–45 drag spool 143–5 electrical conductivity (EC) sensor 135–7 englacial tilt cells 129–32 inclinometry 127 operational requirements 125 penetrometer 139 ploughmeter 142–3 radar 166–70 repeat inclinometry 128–9 subglacial sediment sampler 139, 141 subglacial tilt cells 139–41 Dating techniques amino-acid geochronology 363–4 cosmogenic nuclide dating 347–50 dendrochronology/ dendroglaciology 360–3 historical documents 338 ice core dating 55–7 lichenometry 356–60 luminescence dating 345–7 numerical-age dating techniques 339–50 optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating 345–7 radiocarbon dating 341–5 relative-age dating techniques 339–40, 350–64 Dendrochronology/ Dendroglaciology 360–3 Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology Ó 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Bryn Hubbard and Neil Glasser INDEX DGPS, see Global positioning system (GPS) Diatoms 363 Dilution gauging 73–9 Drag spool 143–5 Drift limit 291 Drumlins 292 Dye tracing 101–12 breakthrough curve 104, 107–8 dispersion coefficient 108 dye concentration measurement 110–12 dye dispersion 107–8 dye recovery 107 dye transit velocity 102 fluorometer station establishment and operation 111–12 injecting dye on a glacier surface 108, 110–12 velocity–discharge relations 104–6 EC, see Electrical conductivity (EC) ECM, see Electrical conductivity (EC) EDM, see Electro-optical (or Electronic) Distance Measurer (EDM) Eigenvalues 258 Eigenvectors 258 Electrical conductivity (EC) definition 87, 96 measurement along boreholes 135–7 measurement in ice (ECM) 58–9 measurement in meltwater streams 96–9 mixing models 87–8 probe construction 97–8 Electrical Conductivity Method (ECM) 58–9 Electrical resistivity surveys 311–13 Electro-optical (or Electronic) Distance Measurer (EDM) ice surface survey 209–10 properties 305 Electronic Distance Measurer (EDM) 305 Engineer’s level 305 Equilibrium line 188, 294 Esker 292 Feature tracking 205 Field research aims and objectives 16 397 data 26–9 health and safety 23–6 planning 20 Filtration (of meltwater) for chemical analysis 94–5 for suspended sediment concentration 84–5 Fluorescein dye 101 Fluted moraine 292 Folds 243–4 Geomorphological mapping 287–304, 327–9 Glacier ablation 184–5 accumulation 187–8 accumulation-area ratio (AAR) 271 activity index 188 albedo 284 balance gradient 188 basal motion measurement 212–15 drag spool 143–5 linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 212 tilt cell 139–41 within cavities 212–15 equilibrium line altitude (ELA) 294 fluctuations 282–366 hypsometry 273 inventories 280–3 mapping 269–87, 328 mass balance 187–98, 283–4 striae/striations 300–3 structures in 276, 279, 284–6, 321–5 surface energy budget 180–3 surface motion measurement calculation from survey data 210–11 feature tracking 205 survey 205–11, 286 synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) 205 see also Ice Global positioning system (GPS) 209–10, 305, 307–8, 335–6 GPR, see Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) GPS, see Global positioning system (GPS) Graphic logs 221–6 398 INDEX Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) air wave 159 antennae 157–8 construction 157–8 principles 156–7 A-scope 159, 161 field survey borehole transmission 166–70 common mid-point 163–5 common offset 162–3 field examples 174–7 parameter summary 163 time-series 170 gain 171 geomorphic mapping by GPR 308–11 ground wave 159 migration 156, 171–3 phase polarity 153 power reflection coefficient 152 radargram 159, 161 resolution 155 signal absorption 154 amplification 171 attenuation 151–4 dewow 171 filtering 171 migration 156, 171–3 scattering 152–3 Z-scope 159, 161 Historical documents of glacier change 338–9 Hot-water borehole drilling construction and operation 115–24 drill stem and nozzle 121–3 drilling rate 124 hot-water drill 116–19 instrumentation, see Borehole instrumentation water supply 119–21 Hummocky moraine 291 Hypsometry of glaciers 273 Ice cores dating 55–7 drilling 43–54 crystals 324 deformation measurement facies 32–8 211 basal 36–8 englacial 35–6 surface 32–5 sampling 38–54 chainsaw 40–4 coring 44–54 hand 38–9 ice screw 39 Icebergs 319 calving 320–1 sampling from 321 Ice-cored moraines 327 Ice radar, see Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) Ice-scoured bedrock 291 Ice screw use to sample ice 39 Inclinometer 127 Intact rock strength (IRS) 351–3, 356 Isotopic fractionation 60–1, 91 Kame 292 Kame terrace 292 Kubiena tins 250 Landform classification 287 mapping 295, 336 recognition 290–3 Lichenometry 356–60 growth curves 359 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) 212 Literature searches 271 Lithofacies 221 Luminescence dating 345–7 Maps bedrock roughness 297–304 digital data 273–4 digital elevation models (DEMs) 274, 280, 303 fieldwork 335–8 glacier 269–87, 328 scales 325 symbols 328 Marine geophysical surveys 313–17 Mass balance measurement accumulation area ratio 189 geodetic methods 188 glaciological methods 190–9 hydrological balance 189 INDEX Meltwater streams anions 86 automated sampling 91–4 carbonate hydrolyses 88–9 cations 86 channels 293 converting ionic concentration units 86 discharge measurement dilution gauging 73–9 rating relation 69 salt dilution gauging, see Dilution gauging velocity–area method 71–3 weir 69 EC-based mixing models 87–8 electrical conductivity (EC) definition 87, 96 measurement 96–9 probe construction 97–8 filtering 84–5 ionic chemistry 86–9 anions 86 carbonate hydrolyses 88–9 cations 86 converting ionic concentration units 86 sampling for 93–6 sulphide oxidation 89 partial pressure of CO2 89 pH 89–90 relative turbidity 101 sampling for chemical analysis 93–6 sampling for isotopic analysis 95–6 stable isotope chemistry 90–1 sampling for 95–6 sulphide oxidation 89 suspended sediment concentrations 317 manual sampling 84 USDH-48 sampler 82–4 turbidity measurement definition 99 measurement 99–101 probe construction 99–101 relative turbidity 101 velocity measurement Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) 72 float 72 uniform flow formulae 73 399 velocimeter, see Acoustic Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) Micro-roughness meter 303 Moraine ridges 291 Morphometry of glaciated basins 271–3 Niskin-type (borehole) water sampler 132–3 Numerical-age dating techniques 339–50 Optical surveying, see Surveying Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating 345–7 Penetrometer (borehole) 139 Photogrammetry 278, 286, 303 Photography borehole 125–7 field 226 underwater 319 Ploughmeter 142–3 RA/C40 plots 234, 296 Radar, see Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) Radiocarbon dating 341–5 calibration 344 reservoir correction 344 sampling for 342 Relative-age dating techniques 339–40, 350–64 Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) 319 Remotely sensed data 274–87, 332–5 Rhodamine dye 101 Rock glaciers 312 Salt dilution gauging 73–9 Schmidt hammer 351–3 Schmidt stereonets 256, 325 Sea floor morphology 316 Sediment 217–68 bedding 239–42 chemical properties of 251, 261–2 colour 226–8 coring 318 data presentation 266–7 deformation 243–4 depositional environments 262–6 dry sieving 248–50 400 Sediment (Continued ) faults 245 glacial 217 laboratory analysis 259–62 logging 221–6 magnetic susceptibility 246, 261 mechanical properties of 218, 246, 251, 260 microstructural analysis 218 organic content 228 palaeocurrent data 245–6 particle size distribution 218, 229, 260 physical properties of 260–1 sampling 247–51, 318 sorting 231 structures 221 texture 221, 229–31 thin sections 218, 250 traps 317 Sedimentary facies 221, 226 Sedimentary logging 221–6 Seismic reflection methods 313–16 Shallow seismic methods 310 interpretation of 278, 286 Sidescan sonar 314–17, 320 Snow density measurement 194 Snowmelt 284 Stereographic projections 256, 324 Stereoscope 277 Striation mapping 300–3 Structural glaciology 276–9, 284–6, 321–5 Subglacial hammer 137–9 Subglacial sediment sampler 139, 141 Subglacial tilt cells 139–41 Surface energy budget albedo measurement 182–3 principles 181 latent heat of fusion 181 latent heat of vaporization 182 longwave radiation definition 180 measurement and approximation 182–3 shortwave radiation definition 180 INDEX measurement and approximation 182–3 specific heat capacity 182 turbulent fluxes definition 181–2 measurement and approximation 182–4 Surveying 205–10, 304–8 calculation of glacier surface velocities from positional data 211 equipment 304–6, 335 abney level 305–7 Electro-optical (or Electronic) Distance Measurer (EDM) 305 engineer’s level 305 global positioning system (GPS) 209–10, 305, 307–8, 335–6 error calculation 210 methods of glacier motion survey 205–11 night-time surveying of glacier motion 207–9 slope angles 304 slope profiles 304 Swath bathymetry 314, 316 Synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) 205 Till sheet 292 Tilt cells englacial 129–32 subglacial 139–41 Time-series ice radar/GPR survey Trimlines 293, 338 Turbidity sensor 137 Ultrasonic depth gauge 193 USDH-48 sampler 82–4 Video along borehole/englacial 125–7 at the glacier bed/subglacial 212–13 Weathering pits 355 Weathering rinds 353–5 170 ... format and content 1.4 The role of fieldwork in glaciology and glacial geomorphology 1.5 The relationship between field glaciology and glaciological theory Planning and conducting glaciological fieldwork... following tasks: Hypothesizing and predicting Designing an investigation Observing Describing Measuring Classifying Collecting and organizing data Analysing Interpreting Evaluating Formulating... Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology Bryn Hubbard Neil Glasser Centre for Glaciology University