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© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
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Environmental Engineers’ Handbook CRCnetBASE
1999
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consequences of their uses.
© 1999 by CRC Press LLC
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©1999 CRC Press LLC
On behalf of my late husband, David Liu, I would like to
convey his sincere gratitude and respect for all the coau-
thors who helped, directly or indirectly, currently or in the
past, in this product’s development. With your help, he ac-
complished his goal: a comprehensive, authoritative, and
current reference. The valuable expertise, strong support,
and dedication of all the coauthors will make the Environ-
mental Engineers’ Handbook an unqualified success.
Special appreciation is extended to Béla Lipták and Paul
Bouis, who did the final technical review of manuscript,
art and page proofs, sharing their valuable time and ad-
vice to complete David’s work.
Irene Liu
Princeton, New Jersey
Acknowledgments
©1999 CRC Press LLC
Contents
CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
The Condition of the Environment
The Condition of the Waters
The Condition of the Air
The Condition of the Land
Energy
Population
FOREWORD
1Environmental Laws and Regulations
1.1 Administrative Laws
1.2 Information Laws
1.3 Natural Resource Laws
1.4 Pollution Control Laws
2Environmental Impact Assessment
2.1 Background Conceptual and Administration Information
2.2 EIA Methods: The Broad Perspective
2.3 Interaction Matrix and Simple Checklist Methods
2.4 Techniques for Impact Prediction
2.5 Decision-Focused Checklists
2.6 Preparation of Written Documentation
2.7 Environmental Monitoring
2.8 Emerging Issues in the EIA Process
2.9 International Activities in Environmental Impact Assessment
3Pollution Prevention in Chemical Manufacturing
3.1 Regulations and Definitions
3.2 Pollution Prevention Methodology
3.3 Pollution Prevention Techniques
3.4 Life Cycle Assessment
3.5 Sustainable Manufacturing
3.6 R & D for Cleaner Processes
©1999 CRC Press LLC
3.7 Reaction Engineering
3.8 Separation and Recycling Systems
3.9 Engineering Review
3.10 Process Modifications
3.11 Process Integration
3.12 Process Analysis
3.13 Process Control
3.14 Public Sector Activities
4Standards
Air Quality Standards
4.1 Setting Standards
4.2 Technology Standards
4.3 Other Air Standards
Noise Standards
4.4 Noise Standards
Water Standards
4.5 Water Quality Standards
4.6 Drinking Water Standards
4.7 Groundwater Standards
International Standards
4.8 ISO 14000 Environmental Standards
5Air Pollution
Pollutants: Sources, Effects, and Dispersion Modeling
5.1 Sources, Effects, and Fate of Pollutants
5.2 VOCs and HAPs Emission from Chemical Plants
5.3 HAPs from Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industries
5.4 Atmospheric Chemistry
5.5 Macro Air Pollution Effects
5.6 Meteorology
5.7 Meteorologic Applications in Air Pollution Control
5.8 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling
Air Quality
5.9 Emission Measurements
5.10 Air Quality Monitoring
5.11 Stack Sampling
5.12 Continuous Emission Monitoring
5.13 Remote Sensing Techniques
Pollutants: Minimization and Control
5.14 Pollution Reduction
5.15 Particulate Controls
5.16 Dry Collectors
5.17 Electrostatic Precipitators
5.18 Wet Collectors
5.19 Gaseous Emission Control
5.20 Physical and Chemical Separation
©1999 CRC Press LLC
5.21 Thermal Destruction
5.22 Biofiltration
Fugitive Emissions: Sources and Controls
5.23 Fugitive Industrial Particulate Emissions
5.24 Fugitive Industrial Chemical Emissions
5.25 Fugitive Dust
Odor Control
5.26 Perception, Effect, and Characterization
5.27 Odor Control Strategy
Indoor Air Pollution
5.28 Radon and Other Pollutants
5.29 Air Quality in the Workplace
6Noise Pollution
6.1 The Physics of Sound and Hearing
6.2 Noise Sources
6.3 The Effects of Noise
6.4 Noise Measurements
6.5 Noise Assessment and Evaluation
6.6 Noise Control at the Source
6.7 Noise Control in the Transmission Path
6.8 Protecting the Receiver
7Wastewater Treatment
Sources and Characteristics
7.1 Nature of Wastewater
7.2 Sources and Effects of Contaminants
7.3 Characterization of Industrial Wastewater
7.4 Wastewater Minimization
7.5 Developing a Treatment Strategy
Monitoring and Analysis
7.6 Flow and Level Monitoring
7.7 pH, Oxidation-Reduction Probes and Ion-Selective Sensors
7.8 Oxygen Analyzers
7.9 Sludge, Colloidal Suspension, and Oil Monitors
Sewers and Pumping Stations
7.10 Industrial Sewer Design
7.11 Manholes, Catch Basins, and Drain Hubs
7.12 Pumps and Pumping Stations
Equalization and Primary Treatment
7.13 Equalization Basins
7.14 Screens and Comminutors
7.15 Grit Removal
7.16 Grease Removal and Skimming
7.17 Sedimentation
7.18 Flotation and Foaming
7.19 Sludge Pumping and Transportation
©1999 CRC Press LLC
Conventional Biological Treatment
7.20 Septic and Imhoff Tanks
7.21 Conventional Sewage Treatment Plants
Secondary Treatment
7.22 Wastewater Microbiology
7.23 Trickling Filters
7.24 Rotating Biological Contactors
7.25 Activated-Sludge Processes
7.26 Extended Aeration
7.27 Ponds and Lagoons
7.28 Anaerobic Treatment
7.29 Secondary Clarification
7.30 Disinfection
Advanced or Tertiary Treatment
7.31 Treatment Plant Advances
7.32 Chemical Precipitation
7.33 Filtration
7.34 Coagulation and Emulsion Breaking
Organics, Salts, Metals, and Nutrient Removal
7.35 Soluble Organics Removal
7.36 Inorganic Salt Removal by Ion Exchange
7.37 Demineralization
7.38 Nutrient (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) Removal
Chemical Treatment
7.39 Neutralization Agents and Processes
7.40 pH Control Systems
7.41 Oxidation-Reduction Agents and Processes
7.42 ORP Control (Chrome and Cyanide Treatment)
7.43 Oil Separation and Removal
Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering
7.44 Stabilization: Aerobic Digestion
7.45 Stabilization: Anaerobic Digestion
7.46 Sludge Thickening
7.47 Dewatering Filters
7.48 Dewatering: Centrifugation
7.49 Heat Treatment and Thermal Dryers
Sludge Disposal
7.50 Sludge Incineration
7.51 Lagoons and Landfills
7.52 Spray Irrigation
7.53 Ocean Dumping
7.54 Air Drying
7.55 Composting
8Removing Specific Water Contaminants
8.1 Removing Suspended Solid Contaminants
8.2 Removing Organic Contaminants
8.3 Removing Inorganic Contaminants
8.4 Inorganic Neutralization and Recovery
©1999 CRC Press LLC
8.5 Oil Pollution
8.6 Purification of Salt Water
8.7 Radioactive Liquid Waste Treatment
9Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution
Principles of Groundwater Flow
9.1 Groundwater and Aquifers
9.2 Fundamental Equations of Groundwater Flow
9.3 Confined Aquifers
9.4 Unconfined Aquifers
9.5 Combined Confined and Unconfined Flow
Hydraulics of Wells
9.6 Two-Dimensional Problems
9.7 Nonsteady (Transient) Flow
9.8 Determining Aquifer Characteristics
9.9 Design Considerations
9.10 Interface Flow
Principles of Groundwater Contamination
9.11 Causes and Sources of Contamination
9.12 Fate of Contaminants in Groundwater
9.13 Transport of Contaminants in Groundwater
Groundwater Investigation and Monitoring
9.14 Initial Site Assessment
9.15 Subsurface Site Investigation
Groundwater Cleanup and Remediation
9.16 Soil Treatment Technologies
9.17 Pump-and-Treat Technologies
9.18 In Situ Treatment Technologies
Storm Water Pollutant Management
9.19 Integrated Storm Water Program
9.20 Nonpoint Source Pollution
9.21 Best Management Practices
9.22 Field Monitoring Programs
9.23 Discharge Treatment
10Solid Waste
Source and Effect
10.1 Definition
10.2 Sources, Quantities, and Effects
Characterization
10.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics
10.4 Characterization Methods
10.5 Implications for Solid Waste Management
Resource Conservation and Recovery
10.6 Reduction, Separation, and Recycling
©1999 CRC Press LLC
10.7 Material Recovery
10.8 Refuse-Derived Fuel
Treatment and Disposal
10.9 Waste-to-Energy Incinerators
10.10 Sewage Sludge Incineration
10.11 Onsite Incinerators
10.12 Pyrolysis of Solid Waste
10.13 Sanitary Landfills
10.14 Composting of MSW
11Hazardous Waste
Sources and Effects
11.1 Hazardous Waste Defined
11.2 Hazardous Waste Sources
11.3 Effects of Hazardous Waste
Characterization, Sampling, and Analysis
11.4 Hazardous Waste Characterization
11.5 Sampling and Analysis
11.6 Compatibility
Risk Assessment and Waste Management
11.7 The Hazard Ranking System and the National Priority List
11.8 Risk Assessment
11.9 Waste Minimization and Reduction
11.10 Hazardous Waste Transportation
Treatment and Disposal
11.11 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Requirements
11.12 Storage
11.13 Treatment and Disposal Alternatives
11.14 Waste Destruction Technology
11.15 Waste Concentration Technology
11.16 Solidification and Stabilization Technologies
11.17 Biological Treatment
11.18 Biotreatment by Sequencing Batch Reactors
Storage and Leak Detection
11.19 Underground Storage Tanks
11.20 Leak Detection and Remediation
Radioactive Waste
11.21 Principles of Radioactivity
11.22 Sources of Radioactivity in the Environment
11.23 Safety Standards
11.24 Detection and Analysis
11.25 Mining and Recovery of Radioactive Materials
11.26 Low-Level Radioactive Waste
11.27 High-Level Radioactive Waste
11.28 Transport of Radioactive Materials
©1999 CRC Press LLC
Irving M. Abrams
BCh, PhD; Manager, Technical Development,
Diamond Shamrock Chemical Company
Carl E. Adams, Jr.
BSCE, MSSE, PhDCE, PE; Technical Director,
Associated Water & Air Resources Engineers, Inc.
Elmar R. Altwicker
BS, PhD; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Donald B. Aulenbach
BSCh, MS, PhDS; Associate Professor,
Bio-Environmental Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Richard C. Bailie
BSChE, MSChE, PhDChE;
Professor of Chemical Engineering,
West Virginia University
Edward C. Bingham
BSCh, MBA; Technical Assistant to General Manager,
Farmers Chemical Association, Inc.
L. Joseph Bollyky
PhD; President,
Pollution Control Industries Ozone Corp.
David R. Bookchin, Esq.
BA, JD, MSL; private practice, Montpelier, Vermont
Paul A. Bouis
BSCh, PhDCh; Assistant Director, Research &
Development, Mallinckrodt-Baker, Inc.
Jerry L. Boyd
BSChE; Chief Process Application Engineer, Eimco
Corp.
Contributors
Thomas F. Brown, Jr.
BSAE, EIT; Assistant Director, Environmental Engineering,
Commercial Solvents Corp.
Barrett Bruch
BSME, BSIE; Oil Spill Control Project Leader,
Lockheed Missiles & Space Company
Robert D. Buchanan
BSCE, MSCE, PE; Chief Sanitary Engineer,
Bureau of Indian Affairs
Don E. Burns
BSCE, MSCE, PhD-SanE; Senior Research Engineer,
Eimco Corp.
Larry W. Canter
BE, MS, PhD, PE;
Sun Company Chair of Ground Water Hydrology,
University of Oklahoma
Paul J. Cardinal, Jr.
BSME; Manager, Sales Development, Envirotech Corp.
Charles A. Caswell
BS Geology, PE; Vice President,
University Science Center, Inc.
Samuel Shih-hsien Cha
BS, MS; Consulting Chemist, TRC Environmental Corp.
Yong S. Chae
AB, MS, PhD, PE; Professor and Chairman,
Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University
Karl T. Chuang
PhDChE; Professor, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Alberta
Richard A. Conway
BS, MSSE, PE; Group Leader, Research & Development,
Union Carbide Corp.
George J. Crits
BSChE, MSChE, PE; Technical Director,
Cochrane Division, Crane Company
Donald Dahlstrom
PhDChE; Vice President and Director of Research &
Development, Eimco Corp.
Stacy L. Daniels
BSChE, MSSE, MSChE, PhD; Development Engineer,
The Dow Chemical Company
Ernest W.J. Diaper
BSc, MSc; Manager,
Municipal Water and Waste Treatment,
Cochrane Division, Crane Company
Frank W. Dittman
BSChE, MSChE, PhD, PE;
Professor of Chemical Engineering, Rutgers University
Wayne F. Echelberger, Jr.
BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD; Associate Professor of Civil
Engineering, University of Notre Dame
Mary Anna Evans
BS, MS, PE; Senior Engineer, Water and Air Research,
Inc.
Jess W. Everett
BSE, MS, PhD, PE; Assistant Professor, School of Civil
Engineering and Environmental Engineering, University
of Oklahoma
David C. Farnsworth, Esq.
BA, MA, JD, MSL; Vermont Public Service Board
J.W. Todd Ferretti
President, The Bionomic Systems Corp.
Ronald G. Gantz
BSChE; Senior Process Engineer,
Continental Oil Company
William C. Gardiner
BA, MA, PhD, PE; Director, Electrochemical Development,
Crawford & Russell, Inc.
Louis C. Gilde, Jr.
BSSE; Director, Environmental Engineering,
Campbell Soup Company
Brian L. Goodman
BS, MS, PhD; Director, Technical Services,
Smith & Loveless Division, Ecodyne Corp.
Ahmed Hamidi
PhD, PE, PH, CGWP; Vice President,
Sadat Associates, Inc.
Negib Harfouche
PhD; President, NH Environmental Consultants
R. David Holbrook
BSCE, MSCE; Senior Process Engineer, I. Krüger, Inc.
Sun-Nan Hong
BSChE, MSChE, PhD; Vice President, Engineering,
I. Krüger, Inc.
Derk T.A. Huibers
BSChE, MSChE, PhDChE, FAIChE; Manager,
Chemical Processes Group, Union Camp Corp.
Frederick W. Keith, Jr.
BSChE, PhDChE, PE; Manager, Applications Research,
Pennwalt Corp.
Edward G. Kominek
BS, MBA, PE; Manager, Industrial Water & Waste Sales,
Eimco Processing Machinery Division, Envirotech Corp.
Lloyd H. Ketchum, Jr.
BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD, PE; Associate Professor,
Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences,
University of Notre Dame
Mark K. Lee
BSChE, MEChE; Project Manager,
Westlake Polymers Corp.
David H.F. Liu
PhD, ChE; Principal Scientist, J.T. Baker, Inc. a division
of Procter &Gamble
Béla G. Lipták
ME, MME, PE; Process Control and Safety Consultant,
President, Liptak Associates, P.C.
©1999 CRC Press LLC
[...]... environmental legislation represents two costs: the effort and expenditure required to achieve compliance and the fines, penalties, and liabilities that may be incurred as a result of noncompliance Whether preparing for environmental audits, developing an emergency response plan, or participating in an environmental impact study, environmental engineers must be conversant in environmental law and environmental. .. reflect on its implications carefully as we try to decide the cost-tobenefit ratio of environmental control technology Following the Preface, Environmental Engineers Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 begins with a thorough review of environmental law and regulations that are then further detailed in individual chapters The chapter on environmental impact assessment is the bridge between the release of pollutants... because I know that this handbook made a small contribution to that progress I am optimistic because we are beginning to understand that nature should not be conquered, but protected, that science and technology should not be allowed to evolve as “value-free” forces, but should be subordinated to serve human values and goals This second edition of the Environmental Engineers Handbook contains most of... Foreword The revised, expanded, and updated edition of the Environmental Engineers Handbook covers in depth the interrelated factors and principles which affect our environment and how we have dealt with them in the past, how we are dealing with them today, and how we might deal with them in the future Although the product is clearly aimed at the environmental professional, it is written and structured... President, John R Snell Engineers BS, MA, PhD; Professor Emeritus, Department of Chemistry, The City College of New York Paul L Stavenger BSChE, MSChE; Director of Technology, Process Equipment Division, Dorr-Oliver, Inc Curtis P Wagner BA, MS; Senior Project Manager, TRC Environmental, Inc Michael S Switzenbaum BA, MS, PhD; Professor, Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental. .. sciences Some engineers might end up working on these tools instead of working with them Environmental engineers are in a privileged and challenging position, because their tools are the totality of man’s scientific knowledge, and their target is nothing less than human survival through making man’s peace with nature When, in 1974, I wrote the preface to the three-volume first edition of this handbook, ... National Environmental Policy Act The Freedom of Information Act The Occupational Safety and Health Act The Emergency Planning and Community Rightto-Know Act National Environmental Policy Act The National Environmental Policy Act (42 USC §§4321–4370; 40 CFR Parts 1500–1508) STATUTORY ROADMAP §4321 SUBCHAPTER Congressional declaration of purpose 1 §4331 Congressional declaration of national environmental. .. the NEPA Council of Environmental Quality The NEPA (§202, 42 USC §4342) created the Council of Environmental Quality (CEQ), composed of three members appointed by the president The CEQ’s functions include: Assisting the president in preparing an annual environmental quality report to Congress Gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information about current and prospective trends in environmental quality... environment and [for] which, therefore, neither an environmental assessment nor an environmental impact statement is required” (40 CFR §1508.4) Thus, under limited circumstances, neither an EIS nor an EA is required SUMMARY The NEPA establishes a broad, protective national environmental policy as a goal to be furthered by the procedural mandates of it and other environmental statutes (NEPA §101) The NEPA... federal agencies to prepare an environmental impact statement for major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the environment (NEPA §102) The NEPA requires the president to submit an annual environmental quality report to Congress (NEPA §201) The NEPA creates the CEQ to assist the president in preparing the environmental quality report, to develop national environmental policies, and . cost-to- benefit ratio of environmental control technology. Following the Preface, Environmental Engineers Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 begins with a thorough re- view of environmental law and regulations. should be subordinated to serve human values and goals. This second edition of the Environmental Engineers Handbook contains most of the technical know-how needed to clean up the environment trends. ©1999 CRC Press LLC Foreword The revised, expanded, and updated edition of the Environmental Engineers Handbook covers in depth the interrelated factors and principles which affect our envi- ronment
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