© 1999 by CRC Press LLC Product Manager: Maureen Aller Project Editor: Susan Fox Packaging design: Jonathan Pennell Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Catalog record is available from the Library of Congress. These files shall remain the sole and exclusive property of CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W., Boca Raton, FL 33431. The contents are protected by copyright law and international treaty. No part of the Environmental Engineers’ Handbook CRCnetBASE 1999 CD-ROM product may be duplicated in hard copy or machine-readable form without prior written authorization from CRC Press LLC, except that the licensee is granted a limited, non-exclusive license to reproduce limited portions of the context for the licensee’s internal use provided that a suitable notice of copyright is included on all copies. This CD-ROM incorporates materials from other sources reproduced with the kind permission of the copyright holder. Credit to the original sources and copyright notices are given with the figure or table. No materials in this CD-ROM credited to these copyright holders may be reproduced without their written permission. WARRANTY The information in this product was obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Every reasonable effort has been made to give reliable data and information, but the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their uses. © 1999 by CRC Press LLC No claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 0-8493-2157-3 International Standard Series Number 1523-3197 ©1999 CRC Press LLC On behalf of my late husband, David Liu, I would like to convey his sincere gratitude and respect for all the coau- thors who helped, directly or indirectly, currently or in the past, in this product’s development. With your help, he ac- complished his goal: a comprehensive, authoritative, and current reference. The valuable expertise, strong support, and dedication of all the coauthors will make the Environ- mental Engineers’ Handbook an unqualified success. Special appreciation is extended to Béla Lipták and Paul Bouis, who did the final technical review of manuscript, art and page proofs, sharing their valuable time and ad- vice to complete David’s work. Irene Liu Princeton, New Jersey Acknowledgments ©1999 CRC Press LLC Contents CONTRIBUTORS PREFACE The Condition of the Environment The Condition of the Waters The Condition of the Air The Condition of the Land Energy Population FOREWORD 1Environmental Laws and Regulations 1.1 Administrative Laws 1.2 Information Laws 1.3 Natural Resource Laws 1.4 Pollution Control Laws 2Environmental Impact Assessment 2.1 Background Conceptual and Administration Information 2.2 EIA Methods: The Broad Perspective 2.3 Interaction Matrix and Simple Checklist Methods 2.4 Techniques for Impact Prediction 2.5 Decision-Focused Checklists 2.6 Preparation of Written Documentation 2.7 Environmental Monitoring 2.8 Emerging Issues in the EIA Process 2.9 International Activities in Environmental Impact Assessment 3Pollution Prevention in Chemical Manufacturing 3.1 Regulations and Definitions 3.2 Pollution Prevention Methodology 3.3 Pollution Prevention Techniques 3.4 Life Cycle Assessment 3.5 Sustainable Manufacturing 3.6 R & D for Cleaner Processes ©1999 CRC Press LLC 3.7 Reaction Engineering 3.8 Separation and Recycling Systems 3.9 Engineering Review 3.10 Process Modifications 3.11 Process Integration 3.12 Process Analysis 3.13 Process Control 3.14 Public Sector Activities 4Standards Air Quality Standards 4.1 Setting Standards 4.2 Technology Standards 4.3 Other Air Standards Noise Standards 4.4 Noise Standards Water Standards 4.5 Water Quality Standards 4.6 Drinking Water Standards 4.7 Groundwater Standards International Standards 4.8 ISO 14000 Environmental Standards 5Air Pollution Pollutants: Sources, Effects, and Dispersion Modeling 5.1 Sources, Effects, and Fate of Pollutants 5.2 VOCs and HAPs Emission from Chemical Plants 5.3 HAPs from Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing Industries 5.4 Atmospheric Chemistry 5.5 Macro Air Pollution Effects 5.6 Meteorology 5.7 Meteorologic Applications in Air Pollution Control 5.8 Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling Air Quality 5.9 Emission Measurements 5.10 Air Quality Monitoring 5.11 Stack Sampling 5.12 Continuous Emission Monitoring 5.13 Remote Sensing Techniques Pollutants: Minimization and Control 5.14 Pollution Reduction 5.15 Particulate Controls 5.16 Dry Collectors 5.17 Electrostatic Precipitators 5.18 Wet Collectors 5.19 Gaseous Emission Control 5.20 Physical and Chemical Separation ©1999 CRC Press LLC 5.21 Thermal Destruction 5.22 Biofiltration Fugitive Emissions: Sources and Controls 5.23 Fugitive Industrial Particulate Emissions 5.24 Fugitive Industrial Chemical Emissions 5.25 Fugitive Dust Odor Control 5.26 Perception, Effect, and Characterization 5.27 Odor Control Strategy Indoor Air Pollution 5.28 Radon and Other Pollutants 5.29 Air Quality in the Workplace 6Noise Pollution 6.1 The Physics of Sound and Hearing 6.2 Noise Sources 6.3 The Effects of Noise 6.4 Noise Measurements 6.5 Noise Assessment and Evaluation 6.6 Noise Control at the Source 6.7 Noise Control in the Transmission Path 6.8 Protecting the Receiver 7Wastewater Treatment Sources and Characteristics 7.1 Nature of Wastewater 7.2 Sources and Effects of Contaminants 7.3 Characterization of Industrial Wastewater 7.4 Wastewater Minimization 7.5 Developing a Treatment Strategy Monitoring and Analysis 7.6 Flow and Level Monitoring 7.7 pH, Oxidation-Reduction Probes and Ion-Selective Sensors 7.8 Oxygen Analyzers 7.9 Sludge, Colloidal Suspension, and Oil Monitors Sewers and Pumping Stations 7.10 Industrial Sewer Design 7.11 Manholes, Catch Basins, and Drain Hubs 7.12 Pumps and Pumping Stations Equalization and Primary Treatment 7.13 Equalization Basins 7.14 Screens and Comminutors 7.15 Grit Removal 7.16 Grease Removal and Skimming 7.17 Sedimentation 7.18 Flotation and Foaming 7.19 Sludge Pumping and Transportation ©1999 CRC Press LLC Conventional Biological Treatment 7.20 Septic and Imhoff Tanks 7.21 Conventional Sewage Treatment Plants Secondary Treatment 7.22 Wastewater Microbiology 7.23 Trickling Filters 7.24 Rotating Biological Contactors 7.25 Activated-Sludge Processes 7.26 Extended Aeration 7.27 Ponds and Lagoons 7.28 Anaerobic Treatment 7.29 Secondary Clarification 7.30 Disinfection Advanced or Tertiary Treatment 7.31 Treatment Plant Advances 7.32 Chemical Precipitation 7.33 Filtration 7.34 Coagulation and Emulsion Breaking Organics, Salts, Metals, and Nutrient Removal 7.35 Soluble Organics Removal 7.36 Inorganic Salt Removal by Ion Exchange 7.37 Demineralization 7.38 Nutrient (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) Removal Chemical Treatment 7.39 Neutralization Agents and Processes 7.40 pH Control Systems 7.41 Oxidation-Reduction Agents and Processes 7.42 ORP Control (Chrome and Cyanide Treatment) 7.43 Oil Separation and Removal Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering 7.44 Stabilization: Aerobic Digestion 7.45 Stabilization: Anaerobic Digestion 7.46 Sludge Thickening 7.47 Dewatering Filters 7.48 Dewatering: Centrifugation 7.49 Heat Treatment and Thermal Dryers Sludge Disposal 7.50 Sludge Incineration 7.51 Lagoons and Landfills 7.52 Spray Irrigation 7.53 Ocean Dumping 7.54 Air Drying 7.55 Composting 8Removing Specific Water Contaminants 8.1 Removing Suspended Solid Contaminants 8.2 Removing Organic Contaminants 8.3 Removing Inorganic Contaminants 8.4 Inorganic Neutralization and Recovery ©1999 CRC Press LLC 8.5 Oil Pollution 8.6 Purification of Salt Water 8.7 Radioactive Liquid Waste Treatment 9Groundwater and Surface Water Pollution Principles of Groundwater Flow 9.1 Groundwater and Aquifers 9.2 Fundamental Equations of Groundwater Flow 9.3 Confined Aquifers 9.4 Unconfined Aquifers 9.5 Combined Confined and Unconfined Flow Hydraulics of Wells 9.6 Two-Dimensional Problems 9.7 Nonsteady (Transient) Flow 9.8 Determining Aquifer Characteristics 9.9 Design Considerations 9.10 Interface Flow Principles of Groundwater Contamination 9.11 Causes and Sources of Contamination 9.12 Fate of Contaminants in Groundwater 9.13 Transport of Contaminants in Groundwater Groundwater Investigation and Monitoring 9.14 Initial Site Assessment 9.15 Subsurface Site Investigation Groundwater Cleanup and Remediation 9.16 Soil Treatment Technologies 9.17 Pump-and-Treat Technologies 9.18 In Situ Treatment Technologies Storm Water Pollutant Management 9.19 Integrated Storm Water Program 9.20 Nonpoint Source Pollution 9.21 Best Management Practices 9.22 Field Monitoring Programs 9.23 Discharge Treatment 10Solid Waste Source and Effect 10.1 Definition 10.2 Sources, Quantities, and Effects Characterization 10.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics 10.4 Characterization Methods 10.5 Implications for Solid Waste Management Resource Conservation and Recovery 10.6 Reduction, Separation, and Recycling ©1999 CRC Press LLC 10.7 Material Recovery 10.8 Refuse-Derived Fuel Treatment and Disposal 10.9 Waste-to-Energy Incinerators 10.10 Sewage Sludge Incineration 10.11 Onsite Incinerators 10.12 Pyrolysis of Solid Waste 10.13 Sanitary Landfills 10.14 Composting of MSW 11Hazardous Waste Sources and Effects 11.1 Hazardous Waste Defined 11.2 Hazardous Waste Sources 11.3 Effects of Hazardous Waste Characterization, Sampling, and Analysis 11.4 Hazardous Waste Characterization 11.5 Sampling and Analysis 11.6 Compatibility Risk Assessment and Waste Management 11.7 The Hazard Ranking System and the National Priority List 11.8 Risk Assessment 11.9 Waste Minimization and Reduction 11.10 Hazardous Waste Transportation Treatment and Disposal 11.11 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Requirements 11.12 Storage 11.13 Treatment and Disposal Alternatives 11.14 Waste Destruction Technology 11.15 Waste Concentration Technology 11.16 Solidification and Stabilization Technologies 11.17 Biological Treatment 11.18 Biotreatment by Sequencing Batch Reactors Storage and Leak Detection 11.19 Underground Storage Tanks 11.20 Leak Detection and Remediation Radioactive Waste 11.21 Principles of Radioactivity 11.22 Sources of Radioactivity in the Environment 11.23 Safety Standards 11.24 Detection and Analysis 11.25 Mining and Recovery of Radioactive Materials 11.26 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 11.27 High-Level Radioactive Waste 11.28 Transport of Radioactive Materials ©1999 CRC Press LLC Irving M. Abrams BCh, PhD; Manager, Technical Development, Diamond Shamrock Chemical Company Carl E. Adams, Jr. BSCE, MSSE, PhDCE, PE; Technical Director, Associated Water & Air Resources Engineers, Inc. Elmar R. Altwicker BS, PhD; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Donald B. Aulenbach BSCh, MS, PhDS; Associate Professor, Bio-Environmental Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Richard C. Bailie BSChE, MSChE, PhDChE; Professor of Chemical Engineering, West Virginia University Edward C. Bingham BSCh, MBA; Technical Assistant to General Manager, Farmers Chemical Association, Inc. L. Joseph Bollyky PhD; President, Pollution Control Industries Ozone Corp. David R. Bookchin, Esq. BA, JD, MSL; private practice, Montpelier, Vermont Paul A. Bouis BSCh, PhDCh; Assistant Director, Research & Development, Mallinckrodt-Baker, Inc. Jerry L. Boyd BSChE; Chief Process Application Engineer, Eimco Corp. Contributors Thomas F. Brown, Jr. BSAE, EIT; Assistant Director, Environmental Engineering, Commercial Solvents Corp. Barrett Bruch BSME, BSIE; Oil Spill Control Project Leader, Lockheed Missiles & Space Company Robert D. Buchanan BSCE, MSCE, PE; Chief Sanitary Engineer, Bureau of Indian Affairs Don E. Burns BSCE, MSCE, PhD-SanE; Senior Research Engineer, Eimco Corp. Larry W. Canter BE, MS, PhD, PE; Sun Company Chair of Ground Water Hydrology, University of Oklahoma Paul J. Cardinal, Jr. BSME; Manager, Sales Development, Envirotech Corp. Charles A. Caswell BS Geology, PE; Vice President, University Science Center, Inc. Samuel Shih-hsien Cha BS, MS; Consulting Chemist, TRC Environmental Corp. Yong S. Chae AB, MS, PhD, PE; Professor and Chairman, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Rutgers University Karl T. Chuang PhDChE; Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Alberta Richard A. Conway BS, MSSE, PE; Group Leader, Research & Development, Union Carbide Corp. George J. Crits BSChE, MSChE, PE; Technical Director, Cochrane Division, Crane Company Donald Dahlstrom PhDChE; Vice President and Director of Research & Development, Eimco Corp. Stacy L. Daniels BSChE, MSSE, MSChE, PhD; Development Engineer, The Dow Chemical Company Ernest W.J. Diaper BSc, MSc; Manager, Municipal Water and Waste Treatment, Cochrane Division, Crane Company Frank W. Dittman BSChE, MSChE, PhD, PE; Professor of Chemical Engineering, Rutgers University Wayne F. Echelberger, Jr. BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD; Associate Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Notre Dame Mary Anna Evans BS, MS, PE; Senior Engineer, Water and Air Research, Inc. Jess W. Everett BSE, MS, PhD, PE; Assistant Professor, School of Civil Engineering and Environmental Engineering, University of Oklahoma David C. Farnsworth, Esq. BA, MA, JD, MSL; Vermont Public Service Board J.W. Todd Ferretti President, The Bionomic Systems Corp. Ronald G. Gantz BSChE; Senior Process Engineer, Continental Oil Company William C. Gardiner BA, MA, PhD, PE; Director, Electrochemical Development, Crawford & Russell, Inc. Louis C. Gilde, Jr. BSSE; Director, Environmental Engineering, Campbell Soup Company Brian L. Goodman BS, MS, PhD; Director, Technical Services, Smith & Loveless Division, Ecodyne Corp. Ahmed Hamidi PhD, PE, PH, CGWP; Vice President, Sadat Associates, Inc. Negib Harfouche PhD; President, NH Environmental Consultants R. David Holbrook BSCE, MSCE; Senior Process Engineer, I. Krüger, Inc. Sun-Nan Hong BSChE, MSChE, PhD; Vice President, Engineering, I. Krüger, Inc. Derk T.A. Huibers BSChE, MSChE, PhDChE, FAIChE; Manager, Chemical Processes Group, Union Camp Corp. Frederick W. Keith, Jr. BSChE, PhDChE, PE; Manager, Applications Research, Pennwalt Corp. Edward G. Kominek BS, MBA, PE; Manager, Industrial Water & Waste Sales, Eimco Processing Machinery Division, Envirotech Corp. Lloyd H. Ketchum, Jr. BSCE, MSE, MPH, PhD, PE; Associate Professor, Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences, University of Notre Dame Mark K. Lee BSChE, MEChE; Project Manager, Westlake Polymers Corp. David H.F. Liu PhD, ChE; Principal Scientist, J.T. Baker, Inc. a division of Procter &Gamble Béla G. Lipták ME, MME, PE; Process Control and Safety Consultant, President, Liptak Associates, P.C. ©1999 CRC Press LLC [...]... 19 05, 19 10, 19 15, 19 18, 19 26; Title 40, sec 355.40, parts 15 00 15 08 Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act 19 86 Secs 3 01, 304, 311 – 313 , 3 21 322, 324, 329 U.S Code Vol 42, secs 11 0 01 11 050 Freedom of Information Act 19 88 U.S Code Vol 5, secs 5 51 552 Freedom of Information Reform Act 19 86 U.S Public Law 99–570, secs 18 01 18 04, Stat 3207, 3207–48 National Environmental Policy Act Secs 2, 10 1 10 2,... (§§657–660) 11 See Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, sec 19 10 .12 00(i) 12 See ibid., sec 19 10 .12 00(g)(2) 13 See United Steelworkers of America v Auchter, 763 F.2d 728 (3rd Cir 19 85); see also Gade v National Solid Waste Management Ass’n, 11 2 S.Ct 2374 (19 92) CHAP1.QXD 1/ 20/99 7:50 AM Page 12 Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act The Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act of 19 86... including: • The Endangered Species Act • The Coastal Zone Management Act Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 19 73 (16 USC 15 31 et seq., 50 CFR 17 .3) STATUTORY ROADMAP 15 31 15 32 15 33 15 34 15 35 15 36 15 37 15 37(a) 15 38 15 39 15 40 15 41 15 42 15 43 15 44 Purposes and policy Definitions Determinations Land acquisition Cooperation with states Interagency cooperation International... 3207–48 National Environmental Policy Act Secs 2, 10 1 10 2, 202, 204 U.S Code Vol 42, secs 43 21 4370 Occupational Safety and Health Act 19 70 Secs 2, 4–6, 9 10 , 17 U.S Code Vol 29, sec 6 51 et seq Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, Title III 19 86 U.S Public Law 99–499, 10 0 Stat 16 13 U.S Code Vol 42, secs 11 0 01 11 050 CHAP1.QXD 1/ 20/99 7:50 AM Page 14 1. 3 NATURAL RESOURCE LAWS This section discusses... Right-To-Know Act of 19 86 (42 USC § 11 0 01 11 050) STATUTORY ROADMAP SUBCHAPTER I EMERGENCY PLANNING AND NOTIFICATION SUBCHAPTER SUBCHAPTER II III REPORTING REQUIREMENTS GENERAL PROVISIONS PURPOSE The Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) was enacted in 19 86 as Title III of the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (EPCRA 0 01, 42 USC § 11 0 01 11 050) Despite its origin, the EPCRA... (Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act sec 329[5] U.S Code Vol 42, sec 11 049[5].) CHAP1.QXD 1/ 20/99 7:50 AM Page 13 provided in all instances, and tier II information, which is provided upon special request (EPCRA §§ 312 [a][2], [e], 42 USC § 11 022[a][2], [e]) The EPA can also request information on individual hazardous chemicals (EPCRA § 312 [d] [1] [C], 42 USC 11 022[d] [1] [C]) As with the MSDS, this... guidelines with official regulations pur- 1 See also, Whitney 19 91 The role of the president’s Council on Environmental Quality in the 19 90’s and Beyond J Envtl L 6: 81 CHAP1.QXD 1/ 20/99 7:50 AM Page 8 suant to Executive Order 11 9 91 The new regulations apply to all federal agencies and seek to improve implementing the NEPA’s procedural mandates (40 CFR 15 00 15 08) Environmental Impact Statements The NEPA... References Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments of 19 90 U.S Public Law 10 1–508, sec 62 01 17 U.S Code, Congressional Administrative News Coastal Zone Management Act Secs 302–304 U.S Code Vol 16 , secs 14 51 et seq Code of Federal Regulations Title 15 , parts 923, 926, 930–9 31, Title 50, sec 17 .3 Endangered Species Act Secs 2–4, 7 U.S Code Vol 16 , secs 15 31 et seq ... Federal Register 43, (19 78):49726 7 See also Code of Federal Regulations Title 29, part 19 11 8 See Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, sec 19 10 .10 00 9 See also Code of Federal Regulations Title 29, sec 19 05 10 See also ibid 19 99 CRC Press LLC SUMMARY The OSH Act assures safe and healthful working conditions in the nation’s workplace and preserves the nation’s human resources (§6 51) The OSH Act requires... which requires facilities to file a MSDS must at least comply with the format and content requirements under the EPCRA (§3 21[ b], 42 USC 11 0 41[ b]) 17 See also Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act Sec 313 (f) U.S Code Vol 42, sec 11 023(f) (threshold for reporting) 19 99 CRC Press LLC SUMMARY Facilities must complete an MSDS containing the name and hazardous characteristics of each applicable . Assessment 11 .9 Waste Minimization and Reduction 11 .10 Hazardous Waste Transportation Treatment and Disposal 11 .11 Treatment, Storage, and Disposal Requirements 11 .12 Storage 11 .13 Treatment. Disposal Alternatives 11 .14 Waste Destruction Technology 11 .15 Waste Concentration Technology 11 .16 Solidification and Stabilization Technologies 11 .17 Biological Treatment 11 .18 Biotreatment by. Incinerators 10 .12 Pyrolysis of Solid Waste 10 .13 Sanitary Landfills 10 .14 Composting of MSW 11 Hazardous Waste Sources and Effects 11 .1 Hazardous Waste Defined 11 .2 Hazardous Waste Sources 11 .3 Effects