Pollutants: Sources, Effects, and Dispersion Modeling 5.1 SOURCES, EFFECTS, AND FATE OF POLLUTANTS Sources of Air Pollution Point, Area, and Line Sources Gaseous and Particulate Emissions Primary and Secondary Air Pollut- ants Emission Factors Emission Inventories Nationwide Air Pollution Trends Effects of Air Pollution Economic Losses Visible and Quantifiable Effects Biodiversity Deterioration of Exposed Materials Health Effects Atmospheric Effects Rainfall Quality Tropospheric Ozone—A Special Prob- lem Brief Synopsis of Fate of Air Pollutants Effects of Wind Speed and Direc- tion Effects of Atmospheric Turbulence Effects of Atmospheric Stability Effects of Topography on Air Motion Other Factors 5.2 VOCs AND HAPs EMISSION FROM CHEMICAL PLANTS Emission Points Process Point Sources Process Fugitive Sources Area Fugitive Sources Classification of VOCs and HAPs 5.3 HAPs FROM SYNTHETIC ORGANIC CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Hazardous Organic NESHAP Process Vents Storage Vessels Transfer Operations Wastewater Solid Processing Toxic Pollutants 5.4 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY Basic Chemical Processes Catalytic Oxidation of SO 2 Photochemical Reactions Particulates Long-Range Planning 5.5 MACRO AIR POLLUTION EFFECTS Acid Rain Effects Effects on Forests Effects on Soil 5 Air Pollution Elmar R. AltwickerԽLarry W. CanterԽSamuel S. ChaԽKarl T. ChuangԽDavid H.F. LiuԽGurumurthy RamachandranԽRoger K. RauferԽParker C. ReistԽAlan R. SangerԽAmos TurkԽCurtis P. Wagner ©1999 CRC Press LLC Effects on Groundwater Effects on Surface Water Effects on Materials Effects on Health Losses in Stratospheric Ozone Layer Global Warming Ecological Impact Impact on Water Resources Impact on Agriculture Impact on Air Quality Impact on Human Health 5.6 METEOROLOGY Wind Scales of Air Motion Wind Rose Turbulence Lapse Rates and Stability Lapse Rates Stability Inversions Precipitation Topography Land-Sea Breeze Mountain-Valley Winds Urban-Heat-Island Effect 5.7 METEOROLOGIC APPLICATIONS IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Air Pollution Surveys Selection of Plant Site Allowable Emission Rates Stack Design 5.8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING The Gaussian Model Plume Characteristics Dispersion Coefficients Stability Classes Wind Speed Plume Rise and Stack Height Considera- tions Plume Rise Briggs Plume Rise Downwash Tall Stacks Computer Programs for Dispersion Model- ing Guideline Models Model Options Screening and Refined Models Simple and Complex Terrain Urban and Rural Classification Averaging Periods Single and Multiple Sources Type of Release Additional Plume Influences Meteorology Other Models Mobile and Line Source Modeling CALINE3 Model CAL3QHC Model BLP Model Air Quality 5.9 EMISSION MEASUREMENTS Planning an Emissions Testing Pro- gram Analyzing Air Emissions Stack Sampling Air Toxics in Ambient Air Equipment Emissions Monitoring Area Emissions Direct Measurements Indirect Methods 5.10 AIR QUALITY MONITORING Sampling of Ambient Air Sampling Method Selection General Air Sampling Problems Gas and Vapor Sampling Collection in Containers or Bags Absorption Adsorption Freeze-Out Sampling Particulate Matter Sampling Filtration Impingement and Impaction Electrostatic Precipitation Thermal Precipitators Air Quality Monitoring Systems Purpose of Monitoring Monitoring in Urban Areas Sampling Site Selection Static Methods of Air Monitoring Manual Analyses Instrumental Analyses Sensors Data Transmission ©1999 CRC Press LLC ©1999 CRC Press LLC Data Processing Portable and Automatic Analyzers 5.11 STACK SAMPLING Pitot Tube Assembly Installation Operation Two-Module Sampling Unit Heated Compartment Ice-Bath Compartment Operating or Control Unit Sampling for Gases and Vapors 5.12 CONTINUOUS EMISSION MONITORING Requirements System Options In Situ Systems Extractive Systems System Selection Continuous Emission Monitors Location of Systems Maintenance of Systems 5.13 REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES Open-Path Optical Remote Sensing Systems Instrumentation Bistatic Systems Unistatic Systems Limitations Pollutants: Minimization and Control 5.14 POLLUTION REDUCTION Raw Material Substitution Process Modification Marketing Pollution Rights Demand Modification Gas Cleaning Equipment 5.15 PARTICULATE CONTROLS Control Equipment Particulate Size Other Factors 5.16 PARTICULATE CONTROLS: DRY COLLECTORS 336 Gravity Settling Chambers Cyclones Gas Flow Patterns Tangential Gas Velocity Radial and Axial Gas Velocity Modeling Gas Flows Collection Efficiency Pressure Drop Dust Loading Cyclone Design Optimization Filters Fiber Filters Fabric Filters (Baghouses) 5.17 PARTICULATE CONTROLS: ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS Corona Generation Current-Voltage Relationships Particle Charging Field Charging Diffusion Charging Migration Velocity ESP Efficiency Dust Resistivity Precipitator Design 5.18 PARTICULATE CONTROLS: WET COLLECTORS General Description Scrubber Types Spray Collectors—Type I Impingement on a Wetted Surface—Type II Bubbling through Scrubbing Liquid— Type III Scrubbers Using a Combination of Designs Factors Influencing Collection Efficiency Contacting Power Rule Use of the Aerodynamic Cut Diam- eter Determination of d ac as a Function of Scrubber Operating Parameters 5.19 GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL Energy Source Substitution Process Modifications Combustion Control Other Modifications Design Feature Modifications Modified Burners Burner Locations and Spacing Tangential Firing Steam Temperature Control Air and Fuel Flow Patterns Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Com- bustion Pollution Monitoring 5.20 GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL: PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SEPARATION Absorption Absorption Operations Commercial Applications Condensation Adsorption Adsorption Isotherm Adsorption Equipment Adsorber Design Chemical Conversion VOCs Hydrogen Sulfide Nitrogen Oxides 5.21 GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL: THERMAL DESTRUCTION Overview of Thermal Destruction Thermal Combustion and Incinera- tion Flaring Emerging Technologies Source Examples Petroleum Industry Chemical Wood Pulping Landfill Gas Emissions Rendering Plants Combustion Chemistry Stoichiometry Kinetics Design Considerations Thermal Incinerators Flares Emerging Technologies Conclusions 5.22 GASEOUS EMISSION CONTROL: BIOFILTRATION Mechanisms Fixed-Film Biotreatment Systems Applicability and Limitations Fugitive Emissions: Sources and Controls 5.23 FUGITIVE INDUSTRIAL PARTICULATE EMISSIONS Sources Emission Control Options Process Modification Preventive Measures Capture and Removal 5.24 FUGITIVE INDUSTRIAL CHEMICAL EMISSIONS Sources Source Controls Valves Pumps Compressors Pressure-Relief Devices Sampling Connection Systems Open-Ended Lines Flanges and Connectors Agitators 5.25 FUGITIVE DUST Sources Prevention and Controls Wind Control Wet Suppression Vegetative Cover Chemical Stabilization Odor Control 5.26 PERCEPTION, EFFECT, AND CHARACTERIZATION Odor Terminology Threshold Intensity Character Hedonic Tone Human Response to Odors and Odor Perception Sensitization, Desensitization, and Tolerance of Odors Odor Mixtures Other Factors Affecting Odor Percep- tion Odor and Health Effects ©1999 CRC Press LLC ©1999 CRC Press LLC 5.27 ODOR CONTROL STRATEGY Activated Carbon Adsorption Adsorption with Chemical Reaction Biofiltration Wet Scrubbing Combustion Dispersion Indoor Air Pollution 5.28 RADON AND OTHER POLLUTANTS Radon Source and Effects Radon Detection Radon Control Techniques Other Indoor Pollutants Source and Effects Control Techniques 5.29 AIR QUALITY IN THE WORKPLACE Exposure Limits Occupational Exposure Monitoring Color Change Badges Color Detector (Dosimeter) Tubes Other Monitoring Techniques MSDSs Air pollution is defined as the presence in the outdoor at- mosphere of one or more contaminants (pollutants) in quantities and duration that can injure human, plant, or animal life or property (materials) or which unreasonably interferes with the enjoyment of life or the conduct of busi- ness. Examples of traditional contaminants include sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hydrogen sulfide, particulate matter, smoke, and haze. This list of air pol- lutants can be subdivided into pollutants that are gases or particulates. Gases, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen ox- ides exhibit diffusion properties and are normally formless fluids that change to the liquid or solid state only by a combined effect of increased pressure and decreased tem- perature. Particulates represent any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual aggregates are larger than single small molecules (about 0.0002 m in diameter) but smaller than about 500 micrometers ( m). Of recent at- tention is particulate matter equal to or less than 10 m in size, with this size range of concern relative to poten- tial human health effects. (One m is 10 Ϫ4 cm). Currently the focus is on air toxics (or hazardous air pollutants [HAPs]). Air toxics refer to compounds that are present in the atmosphere and exhibit potentially toxic ef- fects not only to humans but also to the overall ecosys- tem. In the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAAs), the air toxics category includes 189 specific chemicals. These chemicals represent typical compounds of concern in the industrial air environment adjusted from workplace standards and associated quality standards to outdoor at- mospheric conditions. The preceding definition includes the quantity or con- centration of the contaminant in the atmosphere and its associated duration or time period of occurrence. This con- cept is important in that pollutants that are present at low concentrations for short time periods can be insignificant in terms of ambient air quality concerns. Additional air pollutants or atmospheric effects that have become of concern include photochemical smog, acid rain, and global warming. Photochemical smog refers to the formation of oxidizing constituents such as ozone in the atmosphere as a result of the photo-induced reaction of hydrocarbons (or VOCs) and nitrogen oxides. This phe- nomenon was first recognized in Los Angeles, California, following World War II, and ozone has become a major air pollutant of concern throughout the United States. Acid rain refers to atmospheric reactions that lead to precipitation which exhibits a pH value less than the nor- mal pH of rainfall (the normal pH is approximately 5.7 when the carbon dioxide equilibrium is considered). Recently, researchers in central Europe, several Scandinavian countries, Canada, and the northeastern United States, have directed their attention to the poten- tial environmental consequences of acid precipitation. Causative agents in acid rain formation are typically as- sociated with sulfur dioxide emissions and nitrogen oxide emissions, along with gaseous hydrogen chloride. From a worldwide perspective, sulfur dioxide emissions are the dominant precursor of acid rain formation. Another global issue is the influence of air pollution on atmospheric heat balances and associated absorption or reflection of incoming solar radiation. As a result of in- creasing levels of carbon dioxide and other carbon-con- taining compounds in the atmosphere, concern is growing that the earth’s surface is exhibiting increased temperature levels, and this increase has major implications in shifting climatic conditions throughout the world. Sources of Air Pollution Air pollutant sources can be categorized according to the type of source, their number and spatial distribution, and the type of emissions. Categorization by type includes nat- ural and manmade sources. Natural air pollutant sources include plant pollens, wind-blown dust, volcanic eruptions, and lightning-generated forest fires. Manmade sources in- clude transportation vehicles, industrial processes, power plants, municipal incinerators, and others. ©1999 CRC Press LLC Pollutants: Sources, Effects, and Dispersion Modeling 5.1 SOURCES, EFFECTS, AND FATE OF POLLUTANTS POINT, AREA, AND LINE SOURCES Source categorization according to number and spatial dis- tribution includes single or point sources (stationary), area or multiple sources (stationary or mobile), and line sources. Point sources characterize pollutant emissions from in- dustrial process stacks and fuel combustion facility stacks. Area sources include vehicular traffic in a geographical area as well as fugitive dust emissions from open-air stock piles of resource materials at industrial plants. Figure 5.1.1 shows point and area sources of air pollution. Included in these categories are transportation sources, fuel combus- tion in stationary sources, industrial process losses, solid waste disposal, and miscellaneous items. This organization of source categories is basic to the development of emis- sion inventories. Line sources include heavily travelled highway facilities and the leading edges of uncontrolled forest fires. GASEOUS AND PARTICULATE EMISSIONS As stated earlier, air pollution sources can also be catego- rized according to whether the emissions are gaseous or particulates. Examples of gaseous pollutant emissions in- clude carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. Examples of particulate emissions include smoke and dust emissions from a variety of sources. Often, an air pollution source emits both gases and particulates into the ambient air. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY AIR POLLUTANTS An additional source concept is that of primary and sec- ondary air pollutants. This terminology does not refer to the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQSs), nor is it related to primary and secondary impacts on air quality that result from project construction and opera- tion. Primary air pollutants are pollutants in the atmos- phere that exist in the same form as in source emissions. Examples of primary air pollutants include carbon monox- ide, sulfur dioxide, and total suspended particulates. Secondary air pollutants are pollutants formed in the at- mosphere as a result of reactions such as hydrolysis, oxi- dation, and photochemical oxidation. Secondary air pol- lutants include acidic mists and photochemical oxidants. In terms of air quality management, the main strategies are directed toward source control of primary air pollu- tants. The most effective means of controlling secondary air pollutants is to achieve source control of the primary air pollutant; primary pollutants react in the atmosphere to form secondary pollutants. EMISSION FACTORS In evaluating air quality levels in a geographical area, an environmental engineer must have accurate information on the quantity and characteristics of the emissions from numerous sources contributing pollutant emissions into the ambient air. One approach for identifying the types and estimating the quantities of emissions is to use emission factors. An emission factor is the average rate at which a pollutant is released into the atmosphere as a result of an activity, such as combustion or industrial production, di- vided by the level of that activity. Emission factors relate the types and quantities of pollutants emitted to an indi- cator such as production capacity, quantity of fuel burned, or miles traveled by an automobile. EMISSION INVENTORIES An emission inventory is a compilation of all air pollution quantities entering the atmosphere from all sources in a geographical area for a time period. The emission inven- tory is an important planning tool in air quality manage- ment. A properly developed inventory provides informa- tion concerning source emissions and defines the location, FIG. 5.1.1Source categories for emission inventories. Area and point sources Chemical process industries Food and agricultural industries Metallurgical industries Mineral product industries Petroleum refining industries Residential fuel Commercial and institutional fuel Industrial fuel Steam electric power plant fuel Motor vehicles Off-highway fuel usage Aircraft Trains Vessels Gasoline-handling evaporative losses Onsite and municipal incineration Open burning Forest fires Structural fires Coal refuse burning Agricultural burning Fuel combustion in stationary sources Transportation sources Emissions from industrial process losses Solid waste disposal Miscellaneous ©1999 CRC Press LLC ©1999 CRC Press LLC magnitude, frequency, duration, and relative contribution of these emissions. It can be used to measure past successes and anticipate future problems. The emission inventory is also a useful tool in designing air sampling networks. In many cases, the inventory is the basis for identifying air quality management strategies such as transportation con- trol plans, and it is useful for examining the long-term ef- fectiveness of selected strategies. NATIONWIDE AIR POLLUTION TRENDS Based on source emission factors and geographically based emission inventories, nationwide information can be de- veloped. Figure 5.1.2 summarizes nationwide air pollution emission trends from 1970 to 1991 for six key pollutants. The figure shows significant emission reductions for total suspended particulates, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and lead. The greatest reduction from 1982–1991 was an 89% reduction in lead levels in the air resulting primarily from 1970 1980 1991 Sulfur dioxide emissions Total suspended particulates Nitrogen oxides emissions VOCs Carbon monoxide emissions Lead emissions Million Tons Per Year Million Tons Per Year Million Tons Per Year Million Tons Per Year Million Tons Per Year Thousand Tons Per Year 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 25 20 15 10 5 0 25 20 15 10 5 0 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1970 1980 1991 1970 1980 1991 1970 1980 1991 1970 1980 1991 1970 1980 1991 1970 1980 1991 250 200 150 100 50 0 FIG. 5.1.2Air pollution emission trends in the United States, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality, 1993, Environmental quality,23rd Annual Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office [January].) 0 20 40 60 80 100 Millions of People PM-10 SO 2 CO NO 2 Ozone Lead Any NAAQS PM-10 = particulate matter less than 10 m in diameter (dust and soot). FIG. 5.1.3People residing in counties that fail to meet NAAQS. Numbers are for 1991 based on 1990 U.S. county population data. Sensitivity to air pollutants can vary from individual to in- dividual. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) the removal of lead from most gasoline. In addition, the gradual phase in of cleaner automobiles and powerplants reduced atmospheric levels of carbon monoxide by 30%, nitrogen oxides by 6%, ozone by 8%, and sulfur dioxide by 20%. Levels of fine particulate matter (PM-10, other- wise known as dust and soot) dropped 10% since the PM- 10 standard was set in 1987 (Council on Environmental Quality 1993). Despite this progress, 86 million people live in U.S. counties where the pollution levels in 1991 exceeded at least one national air quality standard, based on data for a single year. Figure 5.1.3 shows this data. Urban smog continues to be the most prevalent problem; 70 million people live in U.S. counties where the 1991 pollution lev- els exceeded the standard for ozone. Many areas release toxic pollutants into the air. The latest EPA toxics release inventory shows a total of 2.2 bil- lion lb of air toxics released nationwide in 1990 (Council on Environmental Quality 1993). The primary sources of major air pollutants in the United States are transportation, fuel combustion, indus- trial processes, and solid waste disposal. Figures 5.1.4 through 5.1.9 show the relative contribution of these sources on a nationwide basis for particulates, sulfur ox- ides, nitrogen oxides, VOCs, carbon monoxide, and lead. Table 5.1.1 contains statistics on the emissions from key sources of these six major pollutants. Figure 5.1.10 shows anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide emissions, mainly fuel combustion, from 1950–1990. Table 5.1.2 contains information on the source contributions. Solid and liquid fuel combustion have been the major contributors. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1970 1975 1980 1983 1985 1987 1991 Million Metric Tons Transportation SolidWaste Fuel Combustion Miscellaneous Industrial Processes FIG. 5.1.4U.S. emissions of particulates by source, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 1970 1975 1980 1983 1985 1987 1991 Million Metric Tons Transportation Fuel Combustion Miscellaneous Industrial Processes FIG. 5.1.5U.S. emissions of sulfur oxides by source, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) ©1999 CRC Press LLC ©1999 CRC Press LLC 0 5 10 15 20 25 1970 1975 1980 1983 1985 1987 1991 Million Metric Tons Transportation Solid Waste Fuel Combustion Miscellaneous Industrial Processes FIG. 5.1.6 U.S. emissions of nitrogen oxides by source, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1970 1975 1980 1983 1985 1987 1991 Transportation Solid Waste Fuel Combustion Miscellaneous Industrial Processes Million Metric Tons FIG. 5.1.7 U.S. emissions of VOCs by source, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) 140 120 100 80 60 20 0 1970 1975 1980 1983 1985 1987 1991 Transportation Solid Waste Fuel Combustion Miscellaneous Industrial Processes Million Metric Tons 40 FIG. 5.1.8 U.S. emissions of carbon monoxide by source, 1970–1991. (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality 1993.) [...]... 347.1 334 .5 296.6 294.3 252 .2 283.3 2 95. 0 282.7 2 45. 3 251 .5 253 .4 2 45. 0 254 .2 272 .5 289.7 301.1 312.7 321.1 314.8 319.7 322.4 3 05. 7 310.4 334.0 330.1 317.6 351 .6 355 .6 361.2 378.7 394.6 403.0 390.1 4 05. 5 427.8 448.0 439.7 463.3 491.4 498.4 50 8.1 244.8 262.2 273.2 286.6 290.2 313.3 328 .5 3 25. 8 333.0 343 .5 349.8 354 .1 364.3 378.8 389.7 4 05. 6 4 25. 9 443.6 471.9 497.4 51 4.8 53 0 .5 5 75. 5 6 05. 4 58 0.7 56 5.1 608.1... 641.9 655 .0 634.6 58 1.0 53 3.1 50 2.2 50 0.1 50 7.1 50 5.6 53 1.1 54 5.3 56 6.3 56 6 .5 542.9 (million metric tons of carbon) 87.1 5. 3 11.8 102.7 5. 7 11.7 109.9 5. 8 12 .5 1 15. 5 6.1 11.9 121.2 6.3 10.6 130.8 7.2 11.4 138.1 7.6 12.7 147.6 7.1 1.9 155 .8 7 .5 9.3 169.9 8.1 8.4 180.4 7.6 8.3 187.4 7.7 7.7 198.7 8.0 6.3 210.3 8.4 5. 6 219.8 8.8 5. 0 228.0 8.9 4.7 246.4 9.1 5. 5 258 .5 8.8 7.2 277.4 9.4 7.6 297.8 9 .5 7.7... 1146.9 1149.4 1187 .5 1201.3 1204 .5 1 253 .8 1313.8 1328.9 1310.3 Per Capita (metric tons) 4 .57 4.63 4.44 4.46 4.18 4 .50 4.63 4 .51 4.29 4.40 4.43 4.37 4.46 4.63 4.76 4.88 0.08 5. 23 5. 38 5. 58 5. 68 5. 66 5. 86 6.03 5. 76 5. 46 5. 78 5. 76 5. 80 5. 77 5. 53 5. 26 4.93 4.89 5. 01 5. 02 4.99 5. 15 5. 35 5.37 5. 26 Source: Council on Environmental Quality, 1993 pH levels, various impacts include leaf spotting, acceleration... 0 .55 0 .55 0 .58 0 .56 0 .56 0 .56 0 .58 0 .59 0 .59 0.60 Total 18.96 20.33 23 .56 21. 35 20.37 19.80 20.11 19.39 18.83 19.03 19. 65 19.29 19.38 18.76 Reactive VOCs Transpor- Fuel Com- Industrial Solid Miscel- Year tation bustion Processes Waste laneous 1970 19 75 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 19 85 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 12.76 10.32 8.10 8.94 8.32 8.19 8.07 7.47 6.88 6 .59 6.26 5. 45 5 .54 5. 08 0.61 0.60 0. 95 0. 95. .. 8 na 10 35 na 10 13 220 119 52 20 2 33 38 9 2 3 12 51 18 32 7 228 100 29 17 1 42 23 5 5 31 11 52 19 25 0 1 95 69 44 14 2 19 25 (number of PSI days greater than 100) 23 8 9 17 19 16 6 2 0 5 14 8 4 5 9 17 10 12 5 6 67 59 37 43 34 18 7 2 6 9 43 30 30 28 31 4 12 4 8 5 184 208 196 210 187 65 53 21 16 16 56 31 25 21 36 36 24 6 9 15 4 2 5 4 1 19 4 26 18 13 53 30 15 11 23 15 11 18 3 18 17 31 3 226 35 34 31 1... 0.73 0 .54 0.66 0.96 0. 65 0.87 0.73 Total 18.99 10.96 9.06 8 .58 7.67 7.77 8.08 7. 85 7.31 7.42 7.94 7 .57 7.40 7.41 National PM-10 Particulates Year 19 85 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 Transportation 1.32 1.31 1. 35 1.43 1.47 1.48 1 .51 Fuel Combustion 1.46 1.48 1.49 1. 45 1.49 1.04 1.10 Industrial Processes (million metric tons) 1.90 1.74 1.70 1.73 1.77 1.81 1.84 Total 5. 61 5. 27 5. 40 5. 76 5. 59 5. 42 5. 45 National... 260 .5 9.7 2.0 264.7 10.4 2.2 274.8 10.4 2.4 272 .5 9.3 1.8 264.2 8.8 1.4 2 45. 4 7.8 1.4 233.8 8.7 1.4 241 .5 9.6 1.6 236.7 9.6 1.4 222.6 9.7 1.4 233.8 9.6 1.8 244.6 9 .5 2.1 252 .4 9 .5 2.1 247.9 9 .5 1.9 Total 696.1 716.7 697.9 714 .5 680 .5 746.0 781.9 7 75. 1 750 .8 781.4 799 .5 801.9 831 .5 8 75. 6 912.9 948.3 990.7 1039.2 1081.0 1132.0 11 65. 5 1173.2 1227.3 12 75. 4 1231.1 1179.0 1262.0 1269.7 1293.4 1300.9 1 259 .3... (1, 4-) Naphthylamine sulfonic acid (2, 1-) Naphthylamine ( 1-) Naphthylamine ( 2-) Nitroaniline (m-) Nitroaniline (o-) Nitroanisole (o-) Nitroanisole (p-) Nitrobenzene Nitronaphthalene ( 1-) Nitrophenol (p-) Nitrophenol (o-) Nitropropane ( 2-) Nitrotoluene (all isomers) Nitrotoluene (o-) Nitrotoluene (m-) Nitrotoluene (p-) Nitroxylene Nonylbenzene (branched) Nonylphenol N-Vinyl-2-Pyrrolidine Octene-1 Octylphenol... 0.19 0.26 0.21 Total 28.42 25. 51 23.78 22 .51 21.21 20.62 21.47 21.67 21. 15 20.97 21.30 21 .51 21. 05 20.73 Nitrogen Oxides Year Transportation 1970 19 75 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 19 85 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 8. 45 10.02 12.46 10.42 9.74 9. 35 9.10 9. 15 8.49 8.14 8.19 7. 85 7.83 7.26 Fuel Combustion 9.11 9.33 10.10 10.01 9.84 9.60 10.16 9.38 9 .55 10. 05 10 .52 10 .59 10.63 10 .59 Industrial Processes (million... sources, 1 950 –1990 (Reprinted from Council on Environmental Quality, 1993.) ©1999 CRC Press LLC TABLE 5. 1.2 U.S EMISSIONS OF CARBON DIOXIDE FROM ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCES 1 950 –1990 Cement Gas Flaring Year Solid Liquid Gas 1 950 1 951 1 952 1 953 1 954 1 955 1 956 1 957 1 958 1 959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 19 65 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 19 75 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 19 85 1986 1987 . 4.63 1 957 282.7 3 25. 8 147.6 7.1 1.9 7 75. 1 4 .51 1 958 2 45. 3 333.0 155 .8 7 .5 9.3 750 .8 4.29 1 959 251 .5 343 .5 169.9 8.1 8.4 781.4 4.40 1960 253 .4 349.8 180.4 7.6 8.3 799 .5 4.43 1961 2 45. 0 354 .1 187.4. 5. 01 19 85 448.0 50 5.6 236.7 9.6 1.4 1201.3 5. 02 1986 439.7 53 1.1 222.6 9.7 1.4 1204 .5 4.99 1987 463.3 54 5.3 233.8 9.6 1.8 1 253 .8 5. 15 1988 491.4 56 6.3 244.6 9 .5 2.1 1313.8 5. 35 1989 498.4 56 6 .5 252 .4. 7. 05 4.66 1.84 6.36 87.60 19 85 63 .52 6.29 4.38 1. 85 7.09 83.12 1986 58 .71 6.27 4.20 1.70 5. 15 76.03 1987 56 .24 6.34 4.33 1.70 6.44 75. 05 1988 53 . 45 6.27 4.60 1.70 9 .51 75. 53 1989 49.30 6.40 4 .58