Sources and Effects 11.1 HAZARDOUS WASTE DEFINED Purpose and Scope Definition of Solid Waste Definition of Hazardous Waste Exclusions Small Quantity Generators Recyclable Materials Container Residue 11.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES HazardousWastefromSpecific Sources Wood Preservation Inorganic Pigments Organic Chemicals Inorganic Chemicals Pesticides Explosives Petroleum Refining Iron and Steel Secondary Lead Veterinary Pharmaceuticals Ink Formulation Coking Hazardous Wastes from Nonspecific Sources 11.3 EFFECTS OF HAZARDOUS WASTE Human Health Hazards Site Safety Environmental Contamination Characterization, Sampling, and Analysis 11.4 HAZARDOUS WASTE CHARACTER- IZATION Criteria Characteristics Characteristic of Ignitability Characteristic of Corrosivity Characteristic of Reactivity Characteristic of Toxicity Specific Compounds 11.5 SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Sampling Equipment and Procedures Safety Sampling Equipment Procedures Sample Preservation Quality Assurance and Quality Control Sample Custody Precision and Accuracy Analysis 11.6 COMPATIBILITY 11 Hazardous Waste Paul A. BouisԽMary A. EvansԽLloyd H. Ketchum, Jr.ԽDavid H.F. LiuԽWilliam C. Zegel ©1999 CRC Press LLC Risk Assessment and Waste Management 11.7 THE HAZARD RANKING SYSTEM AND THE NATIONAL PRIORITY LIST 11.8 RISK ASSESSMENT Review of Basic Chemical Properties RA Paradigms Hazard Identification Dose-Response Relationship Exposure Analysis Risk Characterization Public Perception of Risk Risk Management Pure-Risk Standards Technology-Based Standards No Unreasonable Risk 11.9 WASTE MINIMIZATION AND REDUC- TION Source Reduction and Control Input Materials Technology Changes Procedural Changes Product Changes Waste Exchange Recycling and Reuse Direct On-Site Reuse Additional On-Site Recovery Off-Site Recovery Sale for Reuse Off-Site 11.10 HAZARDOUS WASTE TRANSPORTATION Generator Requirements EPA ID Number Pretransport Regulations Waste Accumulation The Manifest Recordkeeping and Reporting Export and Import of Hazardous Waste Transporters and Carriers Hazardous Materials Transportation Act and Other Regulations Modes of Transport Treatment and Disposal 11.11 TREATMENT, STORAGE, AND DISPOSAL REQUIREMENTS General Facility Standards Preparedness and Prevention Contingency Plan and Emergency Procedure General Technical Standards for Interim Status Facilities Groundwater Monitoring Closure Financial Requirements 11.12 STORAGE Containers Tanks Surface Impoundments Waste Piles Landfills Underground Injection 11.13 TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL ALTER- NATIVES 1302 Available Processes Process Selection 11.14 WASTE DESTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY Incineration Incinerator System Design Liquid Injection Incinerators Rotary Kiln Incinerators Fixed Hearth Incinerators Fluidized Bed Incinerators Process Performance Wet Air Oxidation Process Description Process Characteristics Applicability/Limitations Supercritical Water Oxidation Process Description Applicability/Limitations 11.15 WASTE CONCENTRATION TECHNOLOGY Gravity Separation Sedimentation ©1999 CRC Press LLC ©1999 CRC Press LLC Centrifugation Flocculation Oil/Water Separation Dissolved Air Flotation Heavy Media Separation Phase Change Evaporation Air Stripping Steam Stripping Distillation Dissolution Soil Flushing/Soil Washing Chelation Liquid/Liquid Extraction Supercritical Extraction Size/Adsorptivity/Ionic Characteristics Filtration Carbon Adsorption Reverse Osmosis Ion Exchange Electrodialysis Chemical Treatment Processes Neutralization Chemical Precipitation Oxidation and Reduction Hydrolysis Chemical Oxidation Electrolytic Oxidation Alkaline Metal Dechlorination Alkaline Metal/Polyethylene Glycol (APEG) Based-Catalyzed Decomposition 11.16 SOLIDIFICATION AND STABILIZATION TECHNOLOGIES Applications Technology Description Cement-based Processes Pozzolanic Processes Thermoplastic Processes Organic Polymer Processes Technology Limitations Performance Testing 11.17 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT Aerobic Biological Treatment Description Applicability/Limitations Activated Sludge Description Applicability/Limitations Rotating Biological Contractors Description Applicability/Limitations Bioreclamation Description Applicability/Limitations Anaerobic Digestion Description Applicability/Limitations White Rot Fungus Description Applicability/Limitations 11.18 BIOTREATMENT BY SEQUENCING BATCH REACTORS Process Description Modes of Operation Idle Static, Mixed, and Aerated Fill React Settle Draw Laboratory Treatability Studies Storage and Leak Detection 11.19 UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS Problems and Causes Galvanic Corrosion Faulty Installation Piping Failures Spills and Overfills Compatibility of UST and Contents UST Regulations Design, Construction, and Installation Spills and Overfills Control Repairs Leak Detection Out of Service Systems and Closure Financial Responsibility 11.20 LEAK DETECTION AND REMEDIATION Tank Monitoring Volumetric Leak Testing Nonvolumetric Leak Testing Inventory Monitoring Environmental Monitoring Corrective Technologies Radioactive Waste 11.21 PRINCIPLES OF RADIOACTIVITY Types of Radioactivity Alpha Particles Beta Particles Gamma Rays Half-Life and Decay of Radioisotopes 11.22 SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Nuclear Fuel Cycle Mining Activities Medical and Laboratory Facilities Nuclear Weapons Testing Natural Deposits 11.23 SAFETY STANDARDS Protection from Exposure Basic Radiation Safety External Radiation Internal Radiation 11.24 DETECTION AND ANALYSIS Radiation Monitoring Survey Instruments Device Calibration Radioactivity Analysis Analytical Counting Instruments Analytical Methods 11.25 MINING AND RECOVERY OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS 11.26 LOW-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE Waste Classification Sources of Low-Level Radioactive Waste Nuclear Fuel Cycle Waste Industrial Waste Government Waste Medical Waste Academic Waste Greater Than Class C Waste Below Regulatory Concern Waste Mixed Waste Quantities of LLRW Generated LLRW Commercial Disposal Sites LLRW Reduction Processes Waste Minimization Segregation Decay Sewage Disposal Deregulation Dewatering Compaction Incineration Liquid and Gaseous Effluent Treatment Liquid Effluents Gaseous Effluents Conditioning Techniques Cementation Bituminization Polymerization Vitrification Disposal Techniques Shallow Land Burial Disposal Vaults Earth-Mounded Concrete Bunkers 11.27 HIGH-LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE 11.28 TRANSPORT OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS Materials Subject to DOT Regula- tions Regulations for Safe Transport Quantity Limits and Packaging External Radiation and Contamination Levels ©1999 CRC Press LLC Purpose and Scope Hazardous waste is often defined as waste material that everyone wants picked up but no one wants put down. The legal and scientific definitions have become more com- plex as more compounds are found and more is learned about the toxicity of compounds and elements. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) haz- ardous waste regulations (40 CFR §261 1987) provide the legal definition of hazardous waste. This definition is not always clear because the regulations are written in lan- guage general enough to apply to all possible situations, including unusual terminology, several exemptions, and exclusions. The purpose of this section is to present the various de- finitions of hazardous waste in a manner useful to the en- vironmental engineer. To be a hazardous waste, material must first conform to the definition of waste; second, it must fit the definition of solid waste; and third, it must fit the definition of hazardous waste.The environmental en- gineer must test the material against each of these defini- tions. This section assumes that the generator can demon- strate whether the material is indeed a waste. Definition of Solid Waste Solid waste need not literally be a solid. It may be a solid, a semisolid, a liquid, or a contained gaseous material. In accordance with RCRA regulations, a solid waste is any discarded material that is not specifically excluded by the regulation or excluded by granting of a special variance by the regulatory agency. Discarded material is considered abandoned, recycled, or inherently wastelike. Materials are considered abandoned if they are disposed of, burned or incinerated, or accumulated, stored, or treated (but not re- cycled) before being abandoned. Materials are considered recycled if they are recycled or accumulated, stored, or treated before recycling. However, materials are considered solid waste if they are used in a manner constituting disposal, burned for energy recovery, reclaimed, or accumulated speculatively. Table 11.1.1 pre- sents various classes of materials and general situations in which they would be considered solid wastes. Inherently wastelike materials are solid wastes when they are recycled in any manner. This includes: • Certain wastes associated with the manufacturing of tri-, tetra-, or pentachlorophenols or tetra-, penta-, or hexachlorobenzenes (for listed wastes F020, F021, F022, F023, F026, and F028, see the following section for an explanation of F desig- nations • Secondary materials that, when fed to a halogen acid furnace, exhibit characteristics of hazardous waste or are listed as hazardous waste (see section 2.2) • Other wastes that are ordinarily disposed of, burned, or incinerated • Materials posing a substantial hazard to human health and the environment when they are recy- cled. For a material to be considered recycled and not a solid waste, the material must be used or reused in making a product without reclamation. The material is also consid- ered recycled if it is used as an effective substitute for com- mercial products or returned to the process from which it was generated without reclamation. In this latter case, the material must be a substitute for raw material feedstock, and the process must use raw materials as its principal feedstocks. The process for determining whether a waste is a solid waste is summarized in Figure 11.1.1. Definition of Hazardous Waste A solid waste is classified as a hazardous waste and is sub- ject to regulation if it meets any of the following four con- ditions: The waste is a characteristic hazardous waste, exhibiting any of the four characteristics of a hazardous waste: ig- nitability, corrosivity, reactivity, or toxicity (see Section 11.4 Hazardous Waste Characterization). The waste is specifically listed as hazardous in one of the four tables in Part 261, Subpart D of the RCRA regu- lations: Hazardous Wastes From Nonspecific Sources, ©1999 CRC Press LLC Sources and Effects 11.1 HAZARDOUS WASTE DEFINED Hazardous Wastes From Specific Sources, Acute Hazardous Wastes, or Toxic Wastes. The waste is a mixture of a listed hazardous waste and a nonhazardous waste. The waste is declared hazardous by the generator of the waste. This is true even if the waste is not hazardous by any other definition and was declared hazardous in error. The environmental engineer is referred to Section 261.3 of the RCRA regulations (40 CFR §261.3) for more infor- mation on exceptions to these criteria. A hazardous waste must be a solid waste and thus may be in the form of a solid, semisolid, liquid, or contained gas. The EPA developed listed wastes by examining differ- ent types of wastes and chemical products to see if they exhibited one of the characteristics of a hazardous waste, then determining whether these met the statutory defini- tion of hazardous waste, were acutely toxic or acutely haz- ardous, or were otherwise toxic. The following series let- ters denote the origins of such wastes. F Series includes hazardous wastes from nonspecific sources (e.g., halogenated solvents, nonhalogenated solvents), electroplating sludges, cyanide solutions from plating batches). These are generic wastes com- ©1999 CRC Press LLC TABLE 11.1.1 CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH COMMON MATERIALS ARE SOLID WASTES Use Constituting Energy Speculative Material Disposal* Recovery Fuel† Reclamation‡ Accumulation§ Spent Materials Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Sludge Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Sludge Solid Waste Solid Waste NOT a Solid Waste Solid Waste Exhibiting Characteristics of Hazardous Waste By-products Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste By-products Solid Waste Solid Waste NOT a Solid Waste Solid Waste Exhibiting Characteristics of Hazardous Waste Commercial Solid Waste Solid Waste NOT a Solid Waste NOT a Solid Waste Chemical Products Scrap Metal Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste Solid Waste *Use constituting disposal includes application to or placement on the land, and use in the production of (or incorporation in) products that are applied to or placed on the land. Exceptions are made for materials that are applied to the land in ordinary use. †Energy recovery fuel includes direct burning, use in producing a fuel, and incorporation in a fuel. However, selected commercial chemical products are not solid wastes if their common use is fuel. ‡Reclamation includes materials processed to recover useable products, or regenerated. Examples are recovery of lead from old automobile batteries or used wheel weights and regeneration of spent catalysts or spent solvents. §Speculative accumulation refers to materials accumulated before the precise mechanism for recycle is known. This designation can be avoided if: the material is po- tentially recyclable; a feasible means for recycle is available; and during each calendar year the amount of material recycled or transferred to another site for recycling equals at least 75% of the material accumulated at the beginning of the period. All Materials YES NO Does §261.4(a) exclude your material from regulation under RCRA because it is one of the following: 1. Domestic sewage 2. CWA point source discharge 3. Irrigation return flow 4. AEC source, special nuclear or by-product material 5. In situ mining waste THE MATERIAL IS NOT A RCRA SOLID WASTE THE MATERIAL IS A RCRA SOLID WASTE whether it is: 1. Discarded 2. Used 3. Reused 4. Recycled 5. Reclaimed 6. Stored or accumulated for purposes 1-5 above Solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained gaseous material that is: 1. Discarded 2. Used for its intended purpose 3. A manufacturing or mining by-product Garbage, refuse or sludge Other FIG. 11.1.1 Definition of a solid waste. monly produced by manufacturing and industrial processes. K Seriesis composed of hazardous waste from specific sources (e.g., brine purification muds from the mercury cell process in chlorine production where separated, pu- rified brine is not used and API separator sludges). These are wastes from specifically identified industries, such as wood preserving, petroleum refining and organic chemical manufacturing. P Seriesdenotes acutely hazardous waste of specific com- mercial chemical products (e.g., potassium silver cyanide, toxaphene, or arsenic oxide) including dis- carded and off-specification products, containers, and spill residuals. U Seriesincludes toxic hazardous wastes that are chemi- cal products, (e.g., xylene, DDT, and carbon tetrachlo- ride) including discarded products, off-specification products, containers, and spill residuals. Acute hazardous wastes are defined as fatal to humans in low doses, or capable of causing or contributing to seri- ous irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness. They are subject to more rigorous controls than other listed haz- ardous wastes. Toxic hazardous wastes are defined as containing chem- icals posing substantial hazards to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of. Scientific studies show that they have toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic effects on humans or other life forms. The environmental engineer needs to understand when a waste becomes a hazardous waste, since this change initiates the regulatory process. A solid waste that is not excluded from regulation (see previous sections) becomes a hazardous waste when any of the following events occur: • For listed wastes—when the waste first meets the listing description • For mixtures of solid waste and one or more listed wastes—when a listed waste is first added to the mixture • For other wastes—when the waste first exhibits any of the four characteristics of a hazardous waste After a waste is labeled hazardous, it generally remains a hazardous waste forever. Some characteristic hazardous wastes may be declared no longer hazardous if they cease to exhibit any characteristics of a hazardous waste. However, wastes that exhibit a characteristic at the point of generation may still be considered hazardous even if they no longer exhibit the characteristic at the point of land disposal. Figures 11.1.2 and 11.1.3 summarize the process used to determine whether a solid waste is a hazardous waste and whether it is subject to special provisions for certain hazardous wastes. EXCLUSIONS The regulations allow several exemptions and exclusions when determining whether a waste is hazardous. These ex- clusions center on recycled wastes and several large-vol- ©1999 CRC Press LLC YES NO Is the solid waste excluded from regulation under §261.4(b)? Is the solid waste listed in Part 261, Subpart D, or is it a mixture that contains a waste listed in Subpart D? Has the waste or mixture been excluded from the lists in Subpart D or §261.3 in accordance with §§260.20 and 260.22? Does the waste exhibit any of the characteristics specified in Part 261, Subpart C? THE WASTE IS SUBJECT TO CONTROL UNDER SUBTITLE D (if land disposed) THE WASTE IS A HAZARDOUS WASTE (see Figure 12.1) YES NO YES NO NO YES YES YES Is it generated by a small quantity generator as defined in §261.5? Is it intended to be legitimately and beneficially used, re-used, recycled, or reclaimed? Is it a sludge or is it listed in Part 261, Subpart D or is it a mixture containing a waste listed in Part 261, Subpart D? IT IS SUBJECT TO THE FOLLOWING REQUIREMENTS WITH RESPECT TO ITS TRANSPORTATION OR STORAGE: —Notification under Section 3010 —Parts 262 and 263 —Parts 264, Subparts A through E —Part 265, Subparts A through E, and G,H,I,J,& L —Parts 270 and 124 It is subject to the special requirements of §261.5 Therefore, it must be intended to be discarded. IT IS SUBJECT TO THE SUBTITLE C REGULATIONS IT IS NOT SUBJECT TO REGULATION UNDER SUBTITLE C THE WASTE IS A HAZARDOUS WASTE (see Figure 12.2) NO YES YES NO NO FIG. 11.1.2Definition of a hazardous waste. FIG. 11.1.3Special provisions for certain hazardous waste. ume or special-interest wastes. Wastes specifically excluded from regulation include industrial wastewater discharges, nuclear materials, fly ash, mining overburden, drilling flu- ids, and ore processing wastes. A major exemption is also granted to small-quantity generators of hazardous wastes (i.e., those generating less than 100 kg/month [220 lb/month] of hazardous wastes). The exclusions cover materials that are not solid wastes, solid wastes that are not hazardous wastes, hazardous wastes that are exempt from certain regulations, and sam- ples associated with chemical and physical testing or treata- bility studies. For regulatory purposes, the following are not considered solid wastes: Domestic sewage, or any mixture of domestic sewage and other wastes, passing through a sewer system to a pub- licly-owned treatment works Industrial wastewater point discharges regulated under Section 402 of the Clean Water Act Irrigation return flows Source, special nuclear, or by-product material as defined by the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended Materials subject to in situ mining techniques but not re- moved from the ground as part of the extraction process Pulping liquids that are reclaimed in a pulping liquor re- covery furnace and reused in the pulping process Spent sulfuric acid used to produce virgin sulfuric acid Secondary materials that are reclaimed and, with certain restrictions, returned to their original generation process(es) and reused in the production process Spent wood-preserving solutions that are reclaimed and reused for their original intended purpose Wastewaters from the wood-preserving process that are reclaimed and reused to treat wood Listed hazardous wastes from coking and coke by-prod- ucts processes that are hazardous only because they ex- hibit toxicity characteristics when, after generation, they are (1) recycled to coke ovens, (2) recycled to the tar re- covery process as a feedstock to produce coal tar, or (3) mixed with coal tar prior to the tar’s sale or refining Nonwastewater splash condenser dross residue resulting from treating emission control dust and sludge in high- temperature metals-recovery units in primary steel pro- duction (a listed waste) The following solid wastes are not considered hazardous by the RCRA regulations: Household wastes, including garbage, trash, and sanitary wastes in septic tanks Solid wastes generated in growing and harvesting agricul- tural crops or raising animals; this includes animal ma- nures that are returned to the soil as fertilizers Mining overburden returned to the mine site Fly ash waste, bottom ash waste, slag waste, and flue gas emission control waste, generated from coal or other fossil fuels combustion Drilling fluids, produced waters, and other wastes associ- ated with the exploration, development, or production of crude oil, natural gas, or geothermal energy Waste that could be considered hazardous based on the presence of chromium if it can be demonstrated that the chromium is not in the hexavalent state. Such a demonstration is based on information showing only trivalent chromium in the processing and handling of the waste in a non-oxidizing environment, or a specific list of waste sources known to contain only trivalent chromium. Solid waste from extracting, beneficiating, and processing of ores and minerals Cement kiln dust waste, unless the kiln is used to burn or process hazardous waste Before an environmental engineer concludes a company or concern is not subject to regulation under RCRA, the en- gineer should confirm this conclusion via the RCRA Hotline (1-800-424-9346). Preferably, the decision should also be confirmed by an attorney or other qualified pro- fessional familiar with RCRA regulations. SMALL-QUANTITY GENERATORS (40 CFR §261.5) A small-quantity generator is conditionally exempt if it generates no more than 100 kg of hazardous waste in a calendar month. In determining the quantity of hazardous waste generated in a month, the generator does not need to include hazardous waste removed from on-site storage, only waste generated that month. Also excluded is waste that is counted more than once. This includes hazardous waste produced by on-site treatment of already-counted hazardous waste, and spent materials that are generated, reclaimed, and subsequently reused on site, so long as such spent materials have been counted once. The limits on generated quantities of hazardous waste are different for acute hazardous waste (P list). The limit is equal to the total of one kg of acute hazardous waste or a total of 100 kg of any residue or contaminated soil, waste, or other debris resulting from the clean-up of any spilled acute hazardous wastes. With exceptions, wastes generated by conditionally ex- empt small-quantity generators are not subject to regula- tion under several parts of RCRA (Parts 262 through 266, 268, and Parts 270 and 124 of Chapter 2, and the notifi- cation requirements of section 3010). The primary excep- tion is compliance with section 262.11, hazardous waste determination. Hazardous wastes subject to these reduced requirements may be mixed with nonhazardous wastes and remain conditionally exempt, even though the mixture ex- ceeds quantity limits. However, if solid waste is mixed with a hazardous waste that exceeds the quantity exclusion level, the mixture is subject to full regulation. If hazardous wastes are mixed with used oil and this mixture is to be ©1999 CRC Press LLC burned for energy recovery, the mixture is subject to used oil management standards (Part 279 of RCRA). RECYCLABLE MATERIALS (40 CFR §261.6) Recycled hazardous wastes are known as recyclable ma- terials. These materials remain hazardous, and their iden- tification as recyclable materials does not exempt them from regulation. With certain exceptions, recyclable ma- terials are subject to the requirements for generators, trans- porters, and storage facilities. The exceptions are wastes regulated by other sections of the regulations and wastes that are exempt, including: waste recycled in a manner constituting disposal; waste burned for energy recovery in boilers and industrial furnaces; waste from which precious metals are reclaimed; or spent lead-acid batteries being re- claimed. Wastes generally exempt from regulation are re- claimed industrial ethyl alcohol, used batteries or cells re- turned to a battery manufacturer for regeneration, scrap metal, and materials generated in a petroleum refining fa- cility. Recycled used oil is subject to used oil management standards (Part 279 of RCRA). CONTAINER RESIDUE (40 CFR §261.7) Any hazardous waste remaining in a container or an in- ner liner removed from an empty container is not subject to regulation. The problem is determining whether a con- tainer is empty or not. RCRA regulations consider a con- tainer empty when all possible wastes are removed using common methods for that type of container, and no more than an inch (2.5 cm) of residue remains on the bottom of the container or liner. Alternately, a container with a vol- ume of 110 gal or less can be considered empty if no more than 3% of the capacity, by weight, remains in the con- tainer or liner. Larger containers are considered empty when no more than 0.3% of capacity, by weight, remains in the container or liner. If the material in the container was a compressed gas, the container is considered empty when its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure. Regarding acute hazardous waste (P list), the test for an empty container is much more stringent. The container or inner liner must be triple-rinsed using a solvent capable of removing the commercial chemical product or manufac- turing chemical intermediate. Alternative cleaning methods can be used if they are demonstrated to be equivalent to or better than triple rinsing. Of course, a container can also be considered empty if a contaminated liner is removed. —Mary A. Evans William C. Zegel References Code of Federal Regulations. (1 July 1987): Title 40, sec. 261. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. RCRA orientation manual.” Office of Solid Waste, Washington, D.C. ©1999 CRC Press LLC 11.2 HAZARDOUS WASTE SOURCES The reported quantities of hazardous waste generated in the U.S. remained in the range of 250–270 million metric tn per year through most of the 1980s. Figure 11.2.1 in- dicates which industrial sectors generate these wastes. The majority of hazardous waste is generated by the chemical manufacturing, petroleum, and coal processing industries. As Figure 11.2.2 shows, waste generation is not broadly distributed throughout these industries; instead, a few dozen facilities account for most waste generation. While it is striking that a few dozen manufacturing facilities gen- erate most of the country’s hazardous wastes, these waste generation rates must be viewed in context. Figure 11.2.3 shows that 250–270 million tn of hazardous waste gener- ated annually are over 90% wastewater. Thus, the rate of generation of hazardous constituents in the waste is prob- Chemical Products Petroleum/Coal Electrical/Gas/Sanitary Primary Metals Machinery Other FIG. 11.2.1. Hazardous waste generation in 1986, classified by industry sector. (Reprinted from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1988, 1986 national survey of haz- ardous waste treatment, storage, disposal and recycle facilities, EPA/530-SW-88/035.) ably on the order of 10 to 100 million tons per year. In relation to the 300ϩ million tons of commodity chemicals produced annually and the 1000 million tons of petroleum refined annually (C&E News 1991), the mass of hazardous constituents in waste is probably less than 5% of all chem- ical production. Examples of basic industries and types of hazardous wastes produced are listed in Table 11.2.1, illustrating the ©1999 CRC Press LLC FIG. 11.2.3 Flow of industrial hazardous waste treatment operations (1986 data in tn per yr). Top 50 Units Top 40 Units Top 30 Units Top 20 Units Top 10 Units 100 80 60 40 20 0 Percentage of Hazardous Waste Managed FIG. 11.2.2 Percentages of hazardous waste managed in the 50 largest facilities in 1986. (Reprinted from U.S. EPA, 1988.) U.S Industry (Aggregated) 1.18 1.44 0.96 1.44 1.09 40 488 0.3 0.2 0.3 Air Emissions - 1 Discharge 0.77 0.38 3.17 0.68 28.73 Land Treatment Solidification Fuel Blending Reuse As Fuel Solvent Recovery Metals Recovery Other Recovery Incineration Landfills Waste Piles Wastewater Treatment Surface Impoundments Underground Injection Discharge wide range and complexity of the wastes. However, these few examples do not adequately suggest the numbers and kinds of hazardous chemical constituents in hazardous wastes to be managed. There are approximately 750 listed wastes in 40 CFR Part 261, and countless more charac- teristic wastes. The intensity of industrial competition con- stantly engenders the introduction of new products, thus wastes are generated at an awesome pace. Hazardous Waste from Specific Sources (40 CFR §261.32) The following solid wastes are listed as hazardous wastes from a specific source unless they meet an exclusion. Except for K044, K045, and K047, which are reactive wastes, they are toxic wastes. WOOD PRESERVATION Bottom sediment sludge from wastewater treatment in wood-preserving processes using creosote or pentachloro- phenol (K001) is a hazardous waste. [...]... benzo(k)fluoranthene 3,4-benzo-fluoranthene bis(2-chloroethoxy) methane bis(2-chloroethyl)ether bis(2-chloroisopropyl)ether bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate 4-bromophenyl phenyl ether butyl benzyl phthalate 2-chloro-naphthalene 4-chlorophenyl phenyl ether chrysene di-n-butyl phthalate di-n-octyl phthalate dibenzo(a,h)anthracene 1,2-dichlorobenzene 4,4Ј-DDT 1,4-dichlorobenzene diethyl phthalate dimethyl phthalate 2,4-dinitrotoluene... chloride methylene chloride 1,1,2,3-tetrachloroethane tetrachloroethylene toluene 1,2-trans-dichloroethylene 1,1,1-trichloroethane 1,1,2-trichloroethane trichloroethylene vinyl chloride Acid-Extractable Organics 2-chlorophenol 2,4-dichlorophenol 2,4-dimethylphenol 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol 2-nitrophenol 4-nitrophenol parachlorometacresol 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene phenol 2,4,6-trichlorophenol Base and Neutral... 2,4-dinitrotoluene 2,6-dinitrotoluene 1,2-diphenylhyrazine fluoranthene fluorene hexachlorobenzene hexachlorobutadiene hexachlorocyclopentadiene hexachloroethane indeno(1,2,3-cd)-pyrene isophorone naphthalene nitrobenzene N-nitrosodi-npropylamine N-nitrosodimethylamine N-nitrosodiphenylamine phenathrene pyrene 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenso-p-dioxin Pesticides and PCBs aldrin alpha-BHC beta-BHC gamma-BHC delta-BHC chlordane... delta-BHC chlordane 4,4Ј-DDD 4,4Ј-DD chloroethane dieldrin alpha-endosulfan beta-endosulfan endosulfan sulfate endrin endrin aldehyde heptachlor heptachlor epoxide PCB-1016 PCB-1221 PCB-1232 PCB-1242 PCB-1248 PCB-1254 PCB-1260 toxaphene Metals antimony arsenic beryllium cadmium chromium copper lead mercury nickel selenium silver thallium zinc Cyanides Asbestos Source: Reprinted from U.S Environmental Protection... TABLE 11. 4.1 MAXIMUM CONCENTRATION OF CONTAMINANTS FOR RCRA TOXICITY CHARACTERISTICS EPA Hazardous Waste Number D004 D005 D019 D006 D022 D023 D024 D025 D007 D026 D027 D028 D016 D030 D031 D032 D033 D012 D034 D035 Contaminant Arsenica Bariuma Benzene Cadmiuma Carbon tetrachloride Chlordane Chlorobenzene Chloroform Chromium o-Cresol m-Cresol p-Cresol 2,4-Da 1,4-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1-Dichloroethylene... wastes are generated in reaction by-product water from the drying column (K112) and condensed liquid light ends (K113), vicinals (K114), and heavy ends (K115) from the purification of toluenediamine In the production of ethylene dibromide via bromination of ethylene, hazardous wastes result from reactor vent gas scrubber wastewater (K117), spent adsorbent solids (K118), and still bottoms (K136) from... Purpose of sampling effort TABLE 11. 5.1 CATEGORIZATION OF PRIORITY POLLUTANTS Volatile Organics acrolein acrylonitrile benzene bis(chloromethyl)ether bromoform carbon tetrachloride chlorobenzene chlorodibromomethane pentachlorophenol 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether chloroform dichlorobromomethane 1,2-dichloroethane 1,1-dichloroethane 1,1,-dichloroethylene 1,2-dichloropropane 1,2-dichloropropylene ethylbenzene... containing less than 24% alcohol by volume, and has flash point less than 60°C (140°F), as determined by a Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester (using the test method specified in ASTM Standard D-9 3-7 9 or D-9 3-8 0) or by a Setaflash Closed Cup Tester (using the test method specified in ASTM Standard D-327 8-7 8) 2 It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard temperature and pressure, of causing fire through... for up to 14 days Little other preservation can be performed on solid samples Proper chain-of-custody procedures allow sample processing and handling to be traced and identified from the time containers are initially prepared for sampling to the final disposition of the sample A chain-of-custody record (Figure 11. 5.1) should accompany each group of samples from the time of collection to their destination... spark from equipment A site safety plan is needed to establish policies and procedures for protecting workers and personnel during clean-up and day-to-day waste-handling activities The minimum contents of a site safety plan are listed in Table 11. 3.2 TABLE 11. 3.1 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SELECTED HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Chemical Source Health Effects DDT Insecticides Cancer; damage to liver, embryos, bird eggs . Toxaphene a 0.5 D031 1,2-Dichloroethane 0.5 D052 Trichloroethylene 0.5 D032 1,1-Dichloroethy- 0.7 D053 2,4,5-Trichloro- 400.0 lene phenol D033 2,4-Dinitrotoluene 0.13 D054 2,4,6-Trichloro- 2.0 D012 Endrin a 0.02. Standard D-9 3-7 9 or D-9 3-8 0) or by a Setaflash Closed Cup Tester (using the test method specified in ASTM Standard D-327 8-7 8). 2. It is not a liquid and is capable, under standard tem- perature. 2.0 D026 o-Cresol 200.0 D042 Pentachlorophenol 100.0 D027 m-Cresol 200.0 D044 Pyridine 5.0 D028 p-Cresol 200.0 D010 Selenium 1.0 D016 2,4-D a 10.0 D 011 Silver a 5.0 D030 1,4-Dichloroben- 7.5 D047