Global Donors and English Language Teaching in Kiribati

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TESOL Quarterly, 30, 616–622 Global Donors and English Language Teaching in Kiribati INDIKA LIYANAGE Griffith University Brisbane, Queensland, Australia & The processes of globalization are ubiquitous and hegemonic in developing countries, bringing their economic, social, and educational policies in line with capitalist agendas (Phillipson, 2001) The Pacific Island nations, of which Kiribati (pronounced keer-ah-bhass) is one, are no exception Under pressure from external sources such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Asian Development Bank, and TEACHING ISSUES 733 Tesol Quarterly tesol_teaching issues.3d 31/12/09 18:23:57 The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield +44(0)1924 369598 - Rev 7.51n/W (Jan 20 2003) regional donor countries like Australia and New Zealand, structural adjustment policies in Kiribati and other Pacific Island states are well under way (Asian Development Bank, 2008a, 2008b; Firth, 2005; Purfield, 2005; Tisdel, 2000, 2002; World Bank, 2006) Based on a review of current conditions and past examples, it can be predicted that economic liberalization along with privatization of services and institutions will lead to a competitive economy in which policy decisions are influenced by various forms of international ‘‘aid’’ and foreign ‘‘expertise.’’ Among other institutions, education will likely be privatized and made less accessible to the masses In terms of language, English will gain superiority over the vernaculars as it becomes the sole or main criterion for nonsubsistence employment In terms of English language teaching (ELT), teacher training and materials development will be brought into line with the dominant pedagogic ethos of the donor countries Sri Lanka presents an instructive example Economic liberalization began in Sri Lanka with the introduction of the Free Trade Policy in 1977 (Kelegama, 2006; Lakshman, 1985) and since then, the socioeconomic, sociopolitical, and, sociocultural effects of globalization have resulted in its increasing dependence on global agents for subsistence and sustenance Financial assistance from these agents comes with strict conditions for loan recovery, which in turn impact heavily on government policies In education, attempts are being made to replace the Policy of Free Education (Ceylon Government, 1943) through privatization of educational establishments, and English is gaining importance as the main medium of instruction, replacing the vernaculars (Punchi, 2001) ELT teacher training, materials development, and pedagogic applications are undertaken mostly to serve donor country interests without much regard for socially situated practices of teaching and learning (Canagarajah, 1993, 1999; Liyanage, in press) This article describes the current practices and future directions of ELT in Kiribati against the backdrop of globalization described earlier It begins with a brief description of Kiribati and its educational system, drawing on public documents, academic literature, my in-country experience as an ELT consultant, and ethnographic data gathered during my consultancy KIRIBATI Situated in the central Pacific Ocean, Kiribati comprises a landmass of just over 8,000 square kilometers stretching across 33 atoll islands situated between Nauru to the east and French Polynesia to the southeast These atolls were colonized and administered by the British 734 TESOL QUARTERLY Tesol Quarterly tesol_teaching issues.3d 31/12/09 18:23:57 The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield +44(0)1924 369598 - Rev 7.51n/W (Jan 20 2003) until independence in 1979, at which point they became a republic IKiribati—the people of Kiribati—number about 90,000 and more than half of them live in the capital, Tarawa (Asian Development Bank, 2007) Kiribati is currently a member of the United Nations, Pacific Islands Forum, Commonwealth, Pacific Community, Asian Development Bank, International Monetary Fund, and World Bank (U.S Department of State, 2008), and is one of the poorest countries in the Asia Pacific region (Asian Development Bank, 2008b; Tisdel, 2000) EDUCATION AND ELT IN KIRIBATI Primary education in Kiribati commences at age six and continues for six years; secondary education follows Secondary schools are of three types: junior secondary schools (JSSs), which run for three years; senior secondary schools (SSSs), which run for another three years (and, for a very small number of students, one additional year); and combined secondary schools (CSSs), which cover the full six years of secondary education Primary schools and JSSs are run by the government, and students gain automatic entry into JSSs on completion of their primary studies At the end of JSS, students take competitive examinations to secure places in SSS There are currently 16 registered SSSs and two CSSs in Kiribati, of which only three of the former are run by the government The remainder is operated by Christian churches (Republic of Kiribati Ministry of Education, 2007) Postsecondary education is available at the University of the South Pacific Extension Centre, Kiribati Teachers’ College, Kiribati Technical Institute, the Marine Training Centre, and Kiribati School of Nursing, all in Tarawa Throughout Kiribati, the quality of formal education is low owing to widespread shortages of teachers and resources and lack of basic infrastructure (United Nations, 2002) Government regulations require that primary school teachers complete at least Form and JSS and SSS teachers Form as minimum qualifications The government also offers a two-year teacher certificate program at Kiribati Teachers’ College In actual fact, however, only 56% of SSS teachers have completed Form and only 30% possess the teacher training certificate (Republic of Kiribati Ministry of Education, 2007) The teaching of English in Kiribati suffers from many problems Again, there is a shortage of teachers, and the vast majority of those who teach are also either trained poorly or not at all English teachers are also inequitably distributed among Kiribati’s many islands Material resources and infrastructure are scarce—for example, there are just 14 libraries among the 87 primary schools in the country—and what exists is in serious need of improvement TEACHING ISSUES 735 Tesol Quarterly tesol_teaching issues.3d 31/12/09 18:23:57 The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield +44(0)1924 369598 - Rev 7.51n/W (Jan 20 2003) The ELT curriculum itself is outdated—it follows the British colonial curriculum and focuses heavily on English literature My observations of ELT practices in SSSs indicated that most class time is devoted to teaching answers to predetermined examination questions, such as differences between novels and short stories, types of drama, and discussions of different genres of writing Lessons occasionally include cloze and reading comprehension exercises, but there is very little focus on speaking and listening Observations of lectures and workshops at Kiribati Teachers’ College indicated that teachers are trained to provide specific answers to students’ final examination questions Observations also revealed that ELT in both the SSSs and teacher training programs is conducted largely in the local vernacular There are multiple reasons that the vernacular is commonly used in ELT in Kiribati The English teachers I interviewed explained that a communal ethic strongly encourages use of the vernacular in public, and the same is expected in English classes This explanation was largely corroborated by a senior official at a tertiary institution who had received his doctorate in an English speaking country He reported that he had had to abandon lecturing in English owing mainly to social expectations, but also because of students’ general lack of proficiency in English My observations of ELT teachers attending Kiribati Teachers’ College to upgrade their skills after many years of teaching suggested that they found it difficult to speak English to one another during activities in the lectures because of strong social pressure to use the vernacular Unlike Sri Lanka, where competence in English is sought as a marker of elite status (Fernando, 1977), Kiribati egalitarian values cause the IKiribati to generally shun English by not speaking it for fear of being outside the mainstream, a phenomenon not conducive to positive outcomes in ELT classes I-Kiribatis’ reluctance to communicate orally in English is perhaps a result of cultural values which are ‘‘to some extent in conflict with the Western ethic promoting competition and the pursuance of self-interest’’ (Tisdel, 2000, p 80) ASSESSMENT OF THE SITUATION Despite the dangers of globalization mentioned earlier, education in Kiribati in general and ELT in particular requires support and assistance from developed donor nations and international organizations if Kiribati is to meet the knowledge and language demands of the 21st century The main support being given at the moment—a small number of scholarships and piecemeal financial aid to parts of the education system—does not seem to be effective when the entire system needs overhauling 736 TESOL QUARTERLY Tesol Quarterly tesol_teaching issues.3d 31/12/09 18:23:57 The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield +44(0)1924 369598 - Rev 7.51n/W (Jan 20 2003) However, before instigating major changes such as restructuring curriculum and mass teacher training, a comprehensive body of research is required regarding socially situated and preferred practices of learning and teaching in Kiribati As discussed elsewhere (Liyanage, 2003, in press; Liyanage & Bartlett, 2008), without such knowledge the implementation of pedagogical practices and curriculum will be untenable and counterproductive Given the example of Sri Lanka, what remains unanswered is how far the states in the region in general and Kiribati in particular will be able to negotiate conditions which allow them to maintain valued cultural and linguistic traditions while meeting the demands of international institutions and donor states—that is, the harsh realities of globalization THE AUTHOR Indika Liyanage is a senior lecturer in applied linguistics and TESOL in the Faculty of Education, Griffith University, Australia, where he researches and trains ESL teachers He teaches in the areas of psycholinguistics and curriculum development in TESOL and also works as an international consultant on TESOL in the Pacific REFERENCES Asian Development Bank (2007) Priorities of the people: Hardship in Kiribati Manila, Philippines: Author Asian Development Bank (2008a) Annual report 2008 Manila, Philippines: Author Asian Development Bank (2008b) Asian Development Bank & Kiribati 2008 Suva, Fiji: Author Canagarajah, A S (1993) Critical ethnography of a Sri Lankan classroom: Ambiguities in student opposition to reproduction through ESOL TESOL Quarterly, 27, 601–626 Canagarajah, A S (1999) Resisting linguistic imperialism in English teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press Ceylon Government (1943) Report of the Special Committee of Education [Chairman of Committee: C W W Kannangara.] Colombo: Ceylon Government Press Fernando, C (1977) English and Sinhala bilingualism in Sri Lanka Language in Society, 6, 341–360 Firth, S G (2005, April) Globalization on the Pacific Islands Paper presented at the 2nd Southeast Asia and the Pacific Subregional Tripartite Forum on Decent Work, Melbourne, Australia Kelegama, S (2006) Development under stress: Sri Lankan economy in transition London: Sage Lakshman, W D (1985) IMF–World Bank intervention in Sri Lankan economic policy: Historical trends and patterns Social Scientist, 13, 3–29 Liyanage, I (2003) Is importing ELT pedagogies viable anymore?: The case of Sri Lanka In B Bartlett, F Bryer & R Roebuck (Eds.), Reimagining practice: Researching change (Vol 2; pp 163–174) Brisbane, Australia: Griffith University, School of Cognition, Language, and Special Education TEACHING ISSUES 737 Tesol Quarterly tesol_teaching issues.3d 31/12/09 18:23:57 The Charlesworth Group, Wakefield +44(0)1924 369598 - 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