A Methodological Reflection on the Process of Narrative Analysis: Alienation and Identity in the Life Histories of English Language Teachers

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(2010) Language and culture: Reflective narratives and the emergence of identity New York, NY: Routledge Oxford, R L (1996) When emotion meets metacognition in language learning histories International Journal of Educational Research, 23, 581–594 Pavlenko, A (2007) Autobiographic narratives as data in applied linguistics Applied Linguistics, 28, 163–188 Riessman, C K (2008) Narrative methods for the Human Sciences Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Selwyn, N (2009) The digital native—myth and reality Perspectives, 61, 364–379 Szesztay, M (2004) Teachers’ ways of knowing ELT Journal, 58, 129–136 Thorne, S L (2008) Transcultural communication in open internet environments and massively multiplayer online games In S Magnan (Ed.), Mediating discourse online (pp 305–327) Amsterdam, The Netherlands: John Benjamins Xu, S., & Connelly, F M (2009) Narrative inquiry for teacher education and development: Focus on English as a foreign language in China Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 219–227 A Methodological Reflection on the Process of Narrative Analysis: Alienation and Identity in the Life Histories of English Language Teachers JULIA MENARD-WARWICK University of California Davis Davis, California, United States doi: 10.5054/tq.2010.256798 & I’m pretty sure when I first came to the United States, when I was 21 [ ] people definitely knew I wasn’t American And, and then, after 564 TESOL QUARTERLY living here for two years, they just thought I was from a different part of the United States, and most people still think that, they’ll say [ .], ‘‘Are you from ((pause)), uh, Canada? Or New York?’’ [ .] Somewhere far away, you know (Ruby,1 Brazilian-American English as a second language (ESL) teacher, 2005) This article uses data from life-history interviews with English language teachers in Chile and California to illustrate methodological processes in teacher identity research through narrative analysis To this end, I describe the steps I took in identifying an issue to be examined, selecting particular narratives as representative of this issue, and identifying discursive resources through which this representation is realized Whereas most research articles focus on findings and place methodology in the background (e.g., Menard-Warwick, 2008), this article takes advantage of the occasion of a Special Issue on Narrative Research to foreground methodological decisions, inspirations, and dilemmas, while backgrounding results This is an article about the process of writing an article using narrative data Due to length limitations, I offer little in the way of in-depth analysis, but my hope is that novice researchers will find this account of process useful as they develop their own ways of engaging with narrative data An account of a process lends itself to narrative Therefore, this article is primarily organized as a narrative I define narrative as a text that connects events, actions, and experiences across time and that additionally evaluates these events and experiences (Labov, 1972) In this case, I connect and evaluate the actions I take in writing an article THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION: NARRATIVE IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION Before I begin telling my story of narrative analysis, I feel the need to theoretically justify doing so in an academic journal As Labov (1972) pointed out, evaluation crucially answers the audience’s implicit question, so what?; this section can be seen as an extended preevaluation of the story that I am going to tell As Riessman (2008) explained, a central function of narrative is the construction of identities When we tell narratives, it is not that we reveal our identities, but rather that we represent them That is, narrators claim certain identities for themselves (Schiffrin, 1996), while at the same time assigning identities to others (Blackledge & Pavlenko, 2001), both to the characters who appear in their narratives and to their interlocutors By identities, I refer to types of persons or social positions (e.g., mother, professor, North American), while recognizing that the identities that All names are pseudonyms For transcription conventions, see Appendix REPORTS AND REFFECTIONS 565 each human being can claim are multiple, dynamic, and contradictory (Norton, 2000) I additionally argue that identities are actually produced in narrative through the process of representation (Peterson & Langellier, 2006) In recounting my own experience of narrative analysis in this article, I represent myself (and thus produce myself) as an expert narrative analyst, who is confident enough to risk writing an academic journal article in narrative form Moreover, when I analyze teacher narratives from interviews, my analysis assigns certain identities to the tellers (English teachers, Californians, Anglo-Americans, etc.), while also attempting to account for how the tellers represent themselves and others Thus, in recounting my own narrative, I am implicated in the processes of identity construction—claiming identities for myself and assigning them to my research participants Nevertheless, through careful delineation of the procedures I undertake, I hope to draw responsible conclusions that can elucidate not only the process of narrative analysis but also can help build a stronger methodological base for the theoretical arguments about teacher identities and pedagogies that have been advanced in the literature As Morgan (2004) argued, identity is pedagogy, since teachers’ ‘‘choices in methodologies highlight particular identity options for students’’ (p 175) If teacher identities are indeed ‘‘crucial in determining how language teaching is played out’’ (Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, & Johnson, 2005, p 22), then analyzing teacher narratives is a valuable way to investigate language teaching as it is actually practiced BEGINNINGS I began writing this article by pasting an interview excerpt at the top of a blank page (see above); this was the quote that first suggested to me the topic of this article; it was taken from an interview I audiorecorded as part of a larger study on the identities of English language teachers in Chile and California I had wanted to use this excerpt in the article I wrote about Ruby (Menard-Warwick, 2008), but I was short on space and left it out By pasting it on this page, I was picking up a theme that I had been aware of in my data for several years but had not yet developed in my writing In conducting interviews and in initial data analysis, I was struck by the way that several U.S teachers emphasized accounts of alienation from mainstream U.S culture In Ruby’s case, she was born in Brazil to English-speaking immigrants and arrived in the United States as a young adult The quote highlights her positioning as someone from ‘‘far away,’’ neither a foreigner nor a local Another U.S teacher (Cherie) grew up in Malawi then married a Tunisian, while a third (Veronica) was raised in a series of Scientology communities but now 566 TESOL QUARTERLY considers herself Jewish by conversion, and an honorary Mexican because of community ties I also noticed parallel accounts by U.S teachers who found mainstream culture limiting and decided to reach out to other cultures, a phenomenon I refer to as positive alienation In Chilean interviews, accounts of negative and positive alienation were rarer, but nonetheless present When I saw teachers citing alienation experiences as influential in career decisions, it struck me that such experiences were resources for language teacher identity construction At the same time I was aware that literature on identity in TESOL has often fixated on the divide between native and nonnative speakers (as discussed in Morgan, 2004), without recognizing how teachers in both categories might construct identities based on similar feelings of alienation from one’s ‘‘own’’ culture and attraction to ‘‘other’’ cultures Thus, I identified ‘‘a gap in the literature’’ several years ago, but many analytical decisions remained ANALYTICAL FIRST STEPS: THEMATIC ANALYSES According to Riessman (2008),2 thematic approaches are the most common in narrative analysis, and in these approaches, ‘‘content is the exclusive focus’’ (p 53) Although many researchers go no further than thematic analysis, I find it instead a useful first step to identify narratives ‘‘that can aid exploration of [my] study issue’’ (Riessman, 2008, p 53) Between 2005 and 2010, I had conducted a series of thematic data analyses on my teacher interviews as my research project evolved Although the theme of alienation emerged in these data analyses, other themes caught my attention and became the topics of articles, while alienation remained in the background In preparing to finally write about the narratives of alienation, I reread my interviews with practicing teachers (824 pages of single-spaced transcripts with English teachers in California and 10 in Chile), copying and pasting not only specific narratives of alienation but also related cross-cultural experiences and comments on cultural identity I found that many of these narratives and evaluative comments did indeed connect to teacher identity or reasons for becoming a teacher Ending with a 144-page document, I realized that only 20 pages of this contained excerpts from Chilean interviews, although half my teacher interview data are Chilean (413 of 824 pages) This simplistic quantitative measure confirmed my impression that alienation primarily appears in the U.S interviews but is not entirely absent in the Chilean interviews Riessman’s book is the most comprehensive methodological guide to narrative analysis that I have seen REPORTS AND REFFECTIONS 567 Realizing I needed a tighter focus, I skimmed the 144 pages and highlighted what I defined as prototypical alienation: that is, narratives where tellers construct feelings of not belonging in their ‘‘own’’ culture It became clear that my most extensive data on this theme come from Veronica’s interview, more than Cherie’s and Ruby’s interviews combined Despite Ruby’s intriguing quote about alienation above, I realized her narratives really focus more on intercultural hybridity, the theme of my 2008 article about her (Menard-Warwick, 2008) Of the remaining three U.S teachers, only one explicitly stated choosing her career out of a desire for cross-cultural experiences, a reason also mentioned by one Chilean Finally, the four Chilean teachers who expressed feelings of alienation connected them to the Pinochet dictatorship (1973–1990), and none provided extensive narratives on this theme As a result of this analysis, I could have reasonably decided that the connection I was positing between feelings of alienation and the desire to teach English was too tenuous or not sufficiently prevalent in my data However, when I revisited Veronica’s narratives,3 I decided it could be worth analyzing her fuller development of a theme incipient in other interviews Although I lack space in this article to include the full text of Veronica’s narratives, I provide her account of a teacher’s meeting in the Appendix as a sample ANALYTICAL SECOND STEPS: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS In deciding to write about Veronica, I recognized that her life history appeared not as one seamless account, but rather in episodes As Riessman (2008) noted, the structural approach to narrative analysis looks at ‘‘how narratives are organized to achieve a narrator’s strategic aims’’ (p 77) Based on my thematic analysis, the episodes that seemed most relevant to Veronica’s overall self-representation can be categorized as either Childhood and Youth or Teaching High School The narratives in the first category concern the following: (a) traveling from one Scientology community to another as a child with her mother, (b) moving from Los Angeles to Orange County4 as a teenager, and (c) making a new life with a French boyfriend in France The narratives in the second category explore (a) difficulties in communicating with White students, (b) a multicultural holiday party, (c) a teacher’s meeting (see Appendix), and (d) ease in communicating with Latino students The first and last of these could be seen as a single narrative, comparing a negative encounter with a White student to a positive encounter with a Latino student, even though they 568 These were audiorecorded in a single interview in my university office on January 2006 Orange County is a suburban area south of Los Angeles Currently multiethnic, it was a destination for White flight in earlier decades TESOL QUARTERLY appear at different points in the interview These narratives connect to her teachers’ meeting narrative, in which she communicates more easily with Latino than White colleagues; moreover, they have a strong thematic relationship with the story about her painful move from (multiethnic) Los Angeles to (White) Orange County as a teenager Thus a useful way to describe the structure of Veronica’s narratives is through the contrast she herself constructs between her comfort with Latinos and her discomfort with White people, even though she herself is White In settling on this description, I decided to explore the narratives that explicitly construct this comparison between experiences in White and Latino communities: moving from Los Angeles to Orange County, the teachers’ meeting, communicating with White and Latino students ANALYTICAL THIRD STEPS: IDENTIFYING LINGUISTIC RESOURCES Having decided which narratives to focus on, I turned to the specific language used to construct the events and evaluations in these narratives Though space in this article precludes me from completing a linguistic analysis of Veronica’s stories, I include here examples of linguistic resources that seem important for exploring her perspectives on teacher identity.5 This is not an approach mentioned by Riessman (2008) but is common in discourse analysis (e.g., Fairclough, 1992) One linguistic resource for narrative is words that provide sensory details For example, Veronica mentions the smell of a laundry detergent used by the families of her Latino students, which always reminds her of the ‘‘affinity’’ she feels for their community A different kind of detail she includes is the names of minor characters, from a German classmate named Wolfy; to her first boyfriend Jesu´s, who pronounced her name in Spanish as ‘‘Vero´nicaaaa’’; to the five indistinguishable blonde White girls in one English class she taught: ‘‘like Kirsten, Karly, Kelly, five K-names.’’ Labels for particular ethnicities are also an important resource in Veronica’s construction of identities First, in her sixth grade Los Angeles classroom, she mentions Central American, Korean, and German, then summarizes as ‘‘Asian, Latino, White, just a huge mix.’’ Orange County, in contrast, is described as ‘‘this pure White land.’’ In describing her current students, she mentions ‘‘kids who speak Spanish’’ and ‘‘White girls (who) all look alike,’’ ‘‘Latinos,’’ ‘‘Muslim kids,’’ and ‘‘Mexicans.’’ Similarly, she describes her colleagues: ‘‘the professional Mexican women I’ve worked with, they’re tough, and they’re smart, and they’re funny, and All of the resources I note here are lexical, but a more complete analysis would include syntactic and phonological resources as well REPORTS AND REFFECTIONS 569 bawdy, and I love them, I feel a little safer with them than my Anglo teachers at my school’’ (see Appendix) Thus she combines one resource, ethnic labeling, with another resource, specific evaluative adjectives, such as ‘‘tough, smart, funny.’’ Moreover, she makes explicit evaluative statements (e.g., ‘‘I feel a little safer with them’’) ANALYTICAL FOURTH STEPS: EXPLORING DIALOGIC VOICING AND PERFORMANCE Riessman’s third approach explored how stories are ‘‘coproduced in a complex choreography—in spaces between teller and listener, speaker and setting, text and reader, history and culture’’ (2008, p 105) Here, it becomes important to note my influence on Veronica’s story, my questions, evaluative comments, and backchanneling Reading the interview transcripts, I find that my most common contribution was the word ‘‘Mmmhmm,’’ indexing attention and interest (see Appendix) However, the narrative that contrasts Veronica’s happy life in multicultural Los Angeles with her extreme discomfort in the ‘‘pure White land’’ of Orange County came in answer to my question about how she began learning second languages She first explained that her multilingual classmates had inspired her, then described moving to Orange County In so doing, she implies that her inspiration to become multilingual was reinforced by her evaluation of (monolingual) Orange County (‘‘it was hell for me’’) In fact, my single question about second language learning propelled her story without a break from Los Angeles to Orange County then on to France In this way, Veronica’s narrative connects her desire to learn languages to her identification with immigrant communities, sophisticated Europeans, and indeed almost anyone outside the U.S mainstream (the Orange County students treated her as a ‘‘pure outsider’’) My series of ‘‘mmmhmms’’ ratified these connections as both reasonable and relevant Thus Veronica’s narrative was constructed in dialogue with a supportive interviewer, who said little but encouraged her to continue drawing connections between varied cultural experiences, not all tied explicitly to language learning However, even more interesting to me as analyst are internal dialogues within narratives As Bakhtin (1981) argued, novelists ‘‘refract their own intentions’’ (p 292) through their orchestration of diverse voices From this perspective, reported speech in novels—and by extension all narratives—can be seen as representing relevant social identities, and indeed entire social worlds Examining Veronica’s narratives, I found that most of the reported speech portrays her own voice For example, she quotes herself making a comment in the teachers’ 570 TESOL QUARTERLY meeting about the hiring of a new principal: ‘‘that person better not be White!’’ (see Appendix) The voices she includes in dialogue with her own are primarily from Latinos who accept and support her, as when one student told her, ‘‘You’re an honorary Mexican’’ (see Appendix) Thus, through dialogic voicing, Veronica constructs a social world where, despite a sharp border between Anglo and Latino Californians, she manages to situate herself on the Latino side THE FINAL STEP: ANALYSIS OF RELEVANCE Although I find narrative analysis to be intrinsically satisfying, that does not justify its use in research Generally, the academic value of narrative analysis lies in the light it can shed on research questions, as a way to construct new disciplinary knowledge—such as the connections between teacher identities and pedagogies (Varghese et al., 2005) My problem here is that I never observed Veronica teach,6 so all I know of her pedagogy is what she was able to report to me She drew articulate and fascinating connections between her identities and pedagogies, as when she dialogically voiced her different ways of speaking to Latino and White students However, it would be easier to write a strong article about Veronica if I had observed the same trends in her classroom that she describes in narrative This was the foundation of my 2008 article about Ruby And yet, I tell myself, if I really want to look at alienation narratives, Veronica’s go the deepest This brings me to my own positionality and why I am attracted to this theme My research in ESL grew out of my decade of ESL teaching—but I need to consider why I entered this field in the first place I was born in California to a monolingual English-speaking family with no recent history of immigration But, like Veronica’s mother, my parents were seekers, and their alienation from mainstream U.S society meant that I spent much of my adolescence in a small Canadian town, where, like Veronica in Orange County, I felt myself a ‘‘pure outsider.’’ Landing in Seattle as a young adult, and trying to make sense of the urban environment, I felt drawn to immigrant and refugee (‘‘outsider’’) communities, and my decision to teach ESL was thus similar to Veronica’s Although I was White and a native English speaker (NES), I did not feel at home in ‘‘the mainstream.’’ In my research on teacher identity, I did not consciously seek out narratives of alienation, but when I encountered them, they resonated with my experience I observed five U.S teachers and three Chilean teachers out of all the teachers I interviewed REPORTS AND REFFECTIONS 571 As a responsible scholar, what I with these insights? NES teachers have tended to be portrayed in the literature as prototypically White, monocultural, and middle-class (e.g., Kubota, 2003) Indeed, Veronica connected White identity with inappropriate pedagogy, ‘‘you can have pretty open and empathetic White folks who still don’t know what the hell they’re doing,’’ (see Appendix), and I wouldn’t deny this Nevertheless, my interviews show that teacher identity in TESOL (including NES teacher identity) is more complex, and Veronica’s comment is an incomplete picture of connections between identities and pedagogies in TESOL CONCLUSION I have not actually written an article about narratives of alienation in English teacher life histories, but rather a reflection on my preparations to write such an article While writing, it has become clear to me that I could a wonderfully insightful and personally satisfying analysis of Veronica’s life history narratives, but that I cannot (yet?) justify this to myself as a stand-alone article on connections between teacher identities and pedagogies At the same time, I believe that this reflection has value precisely because I am not trying to justify a written product through detailing my process of analysis Whenever in the past I have described my methodological decision-making, I have avoided writing about the inevitable dead ends that I have explored In the past I have portrayed my process as more seamless, effortless, straightforward, linear—and less intuitive and subjective—than it really tends to be That is not to say that this article is a completely transparent account of experience or that my past methodological accounts were false (just ‘‘neatened up’’ a little) In this article, I try to represent my process accurately, but, in so doing, I also construct the identity of a moretransparent-than-usual researcher I construct a representation of sincerity, of struggle, of doubt—perhaps hoping that aspiring narrative researchers can learn from the mistakes of someone they perceive to be ‘‘expert.’’ Like all narratives, my story of research should not be seen as a report of ‘‘the facts,’’ but rather as a dialogic process in which I construct temporal connections and theoretical evaluations out of imperfectly remembered personal experiences THE AUTHOR Julia Menard-Warwick is an associate professor in the linguistics department at University of California Davis, California, United States, where she teaches graduate and undergraduate applied linguistics classes, including language pedagogy, and 572 TESOL QUARTERLY language and gender Before beginning doctoral studies in the School of Education at University of California Berkeley in 1999, she taught English as a second language (ESL) for 10 years at a community college in Washington state, and for year at a university in Nicaragua Her ongoing research focuses on language pedagogies, bilingual development, cultural identities, and language ideologies in both U.S and Latin American contexts Currently, she is working on a book about English language teaching in California and in Chile Her previous book, entitled Gendered Identities and Immigrant Language Learning, was published by Multilingual Matters in 2009 She first engaged with narrative in early childhood but considered this interest to be a vice unworthy of serious study until some of her professors in her doctoral program set her straight With their encouragement, and with the help of some wonderful storytellers studying ESL at an adult school, she managed to turn an ethnographic study on adult literacy into a dissertation about narrative and gender Although she occasionally publishes articles on other topics, narrative research remains her passion, and in one way or another, she manages to sneak narratives into almost everything she writes REFERENCES Bakhtin, M (1981) Discourse in the novel In M Holquist (Ed.), The dialogic imagination: Four essays (pp 259–422) Translated by C Emerson and M Holquist Austin, TX: University of Texas Press Blackledge, A., & Pavlenko, A (2001) Negotiation of identities in multilingual contexts The International Journal of Bilingualism, 5, 243–257 doi: 10.1177/ 13670069010050030101 Fairclough, N (1992) Discourse and social change Cambridge, England: Polity Press Kubota, R (2003) Unfinished knowledge: The story of Barbara College ESL, 10, 11– 21 Labov, W (1972) Language in the inner city: Studies in the black vernacular Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press Menard-Warwick, J (2008) The cultural and intercultural identities of transnational English teachers: Two case studies from the Americas TESOL Quarterly, 42, 617– 640 Morgan, B (2004) Teacher identity as pedagogy: Towards a field-internal conceptualisation in bilingual and second language education International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 7, 172–188 doi: 10.1080/ 13670050408667807 Norton, B (2000) Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change Harlow, England: Pearson Peterson, E E., & Langellier, K M (2006) The performance turn in narrative studies Narrative Inquiry, 16, 173–180 doi: 10.1075/ni.16.1.22pet Riessman, C (2008) Narrative methods for the human sciences Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Schiffrin, D (1996) Narrative as self portrait: Sociolinguistic constructions of identity Language in Society, 25, 167–203 doi: 10.1017/S0047404500020601 Varghese, M., Morgan, B., Johnston, B., & Johnson, K (2005) Theorizing language teacher identity: Three perspectives and beyond Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 4, 21–44 doi: 10.1207/s15327701jlie0401_2 REPORTS AND REFFECTIONS 573 APPENDIX Veronica’s Teacher Meeting Narrative Veronica: I once had a student say to me, that, she said, just ‘‘Well, you know, we’re all Mexicans here,’’ and I said, ‘‘I’m not Mexican,’’ and she said, ‘‘No, you’re an honorary Mexican’’ [ .] Julia: Mmhmm And you also feel like an honorary Mexican from your relationship with (your) students? Veronica: I do, you know, [ .] I feel, and that affinity for, especially, I think Mexican women, I really, really enjoy Julia: Mmhmm Veronica: (They’re) the professional Mexican women, I, women I’ve worked with, they’re tough, and they’re smart, and they’re funny, and bawdy, and I love them Julia: Mmhmm, Mmhmm Veronica: I feel a little safer with them than my Anglo teachers at my school, I tend to gravitate to them, or some of the male teachers ( ), but most Anglo teachers, I stay out of their (hair) Julia: ((laughing)) Veronica: Because I might say something that’s completely misconstrued, and I can, I once said something, we were, we were in hiring for a new principal this year, so we had a Latino principal for two years, he was wonderful, and then he went back (as) a [university] professor, and then there’s (the void), who was going to be our new principal, my colleague, who’s Latina, was on the hiring committee, and I happened to run in, into her when I was at some kind of district meeting with a bunch of other teachers, people I didn’t know that well, and we all were sitting around, and ( ) ‘‘( ), tell me, what’s the scoop? Who’s the new principal gonna be?’’ and she went, ‘‘Well, there’s some good, some, someone really interesting,’’ and I said, ‘‘That person better not be White.’’ Julia: ((laughing)) Veronica: And I was at (the) table with all these White teachers, and one of the women went, ‘‘What you mean! (That’s)’’ and [my colleague] laughed, because I, I mean I just feel like I can, people get it, what I’m meaning, she got it, she knew what I meant, and it turns out we have a Latina as our principal, I was like, ‘‘Yeah!’’ ((laughing)) I told her that too, I said, ‘‘I’m so glad you’re Mexican.’’ (laughing) Julia: Uh-huh Veronica: You know, because someone needs to be there for our Mexican students Julia: Mmhmm, Mmhmm Veronica: And you can have pretty open and empathetic White folks who still don’t know what the hell they’re doing, (you know), anyway, yeah, I do, I’m Jewish-honorary-Mexican ((laughing)) Transcription Conventions ( )incomprehensible (text)transcriptionist doubt [text]researcher paraphrase […]text omitted ((text))paralinguistic behavior 574 TESOL QUARTERLY