AMBIGUITIES AND TENSIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING The central theme of this book is the ambiguities and tensions teachers face as they attempt to position themselves in ways that legitimize them as language teachers, and as English speakers Focusing on three EFL teachers and their schools in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca, it documents how ordinary practices of language educators are shaped by their social context, and examines the roles, identities, and ideologies that teachers create in order to navigate and negotiate their specific context It is unique in bringing together several current theoretical and methodological developments in TESOL and applied linguistics: the performance of language ideologies and identities, critical TESOL pedagogy and research, and ethnographic methods in research on language learning and teaching The author balances and blends descriptive reporting of the teachers and their contexts with a theoretical discussion which connects their local concerns and practices to broader issues in TESOL in international contexts Framing the teachers’ views of their work (and themselves) by the sociopolitical context in which they live and work, the book presents a richly textured representation that renders the teachers and their classrooms as multidimensional and allows readers to appreciate the subtle complexities that give rise to the “tensions and ambiguities” that are the central focus of the book Peter Sayer is Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics/TESOL in the Department of Bicultural-Bilingual Studies at the University of Texas at San Antonio ESL & Applied Linguistics Professional Series Eli Hinkel, Series Editor Sayer • Ambiguities and Tensions in English Language Teaching: Portraits of EFL Teachers as Legitimate Speakers Alsagoff/McKay/Hu/Renandya, Eds • Principles and Practices of Teaching English as an International Language Kumaravadivelu • Language Teacher Education for A Global Society: A Modular Model for Knowing, Analyzing, Recognizing, Doing, and Seeing Vandergrift /Goh • Teaching and Learning Second Language Listening: Metacognition in Action LoCastro • Pragmatics for Language Educators: A Sociolinguistics Perspective Nelson • Intelligibility in World Englishes: Theory and Practice Nation/Macalister, Eds • Case Studies in Language Curriculum Design Johnson/Golumbek, Eds • Research on Second Language Teacher Education: A Sociocultural Perspective on Professional Development Hinkel, Ed • Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Volume II Nassaji /Fotos • Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms: Integrating Form-Focused Instruction in Communicative Context Murray/Christison • What English Language Teachers Need to Know Volume I: Understanding Learning Murray/Christison • What English Language Teachers Need to Know Volume II: Facilitating Learning Wong/Waring • Conversation Analysis and Second Language Pedagogy: A Guide for ESL/EFL Teachers Nunan/Choi, Eds • Language and Culture: Reflective Narratives and the Emergence of Identity Braine • Nonnative Speaker English Teachers: Research, Pedagogy, and Professional Growth Burns • Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching: A Guide for Practitioners Nation/Macalister • Language Curriculum Design Birch • The English Language Teacher and Global Civil Society Johnson • Second Language Teacher Education: A Sociocultural Perspective Nation • Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing Nation/Newton • Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking Kachru/Smith • Cultures, Contexts, and World Englishes McKay/Bokhosrt-Heng • International English in its Sociolinguistic Contexts: Towards a Socially Sensitive EIL Pedagogy Christison/Murray, Eds • Leadership in English Language Education: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Skills for Changing Times McCafferty/Stam, Eds • Gesture: Second Language Acquisition and Classroom Research Liu • Idioms: Description, Comprehension, Acquisition, and Pedagogy Chapelle/Enright/Jamison, Eds • Building a Validity Argument for the Text of English as a Foreign Language™ Kondo-Brown/Brown, Eds • Teaching Chinese, Japanese, and Korean Heritage Students Curriculum Needs, Materials, and Assessments Youmans • Chicano-Anglo Conversations: Truth, Honesty, and Politeness Birch • English L2 Reading: Getting to the Bottom, Second Edition Luk/Lin • Classroom Interactions as Cross-cultural Encounters: Native Speakers in EFL Lessons Levy/Stockwell • CALL Dimensions: Issues and Options in Computer Assisted Language Learning Nero, Ed • Dialects, Englishes, Creoles, and Education Basturkmen • Ideas and Options in English for Specific Purposes Kumaravadivelu • Understanding Language Teaching: From Method to Postmethod McKay • Researching Second Language Classrooms Egbert/Petrie, Eds • CALL Research Perspectives Canagarajah, Ed • Reclaiming the Local in Language Policy and Practice Adamson • Language Minority Students in American Schools: An Education in English Fotos/Browne, Eds • New Perspectives on CALL for Second Language Classrooms Hinkel • Teaching Academic ESL Writing: Practical Techniques in Vocabulary and Grammar Hinkel/Fotos, Eds • New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms Hinkel • Second Language Writers’ Text: Linguistic and Rhetorical Features Visit www.routledge.com/education for additional information on titles in the ESL & Applied Linguistics Professional Series AMBIGUITIES AND TENSIONS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING Portraits of EFL Teachers as Legitimate Speakers Peter Sayer First published 2012 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2012 Taylor & Francis The right of Peter Sayer to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sayer, Peter Ambiguities and tensions in English language teaching : portraits of EFL teachers as legitimate speakers / Peter Sayer pages cm — (ESL & applied linguistics professional series) Includes bibliographical references and index English language—Study and teaching—Mexico—Oaxaca (State)—Case studies English language—Study and teaching—Social aspects— Mexico—Oaxaca (State)—Case studies English teachers—Mexico— Oaxaca (State)—Case studies English language—Social aspects I Title PE1068.M6S39 2012 428.0071’07274—dc23 2012012961 ISBN13: 978-0-415-89773-0 (hbk) ISBN13: 978-0-203-80371-4 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Cenveo Publisher Services In memory of tío Michael J Higgins, an ethnographer with a deep commitment to social justice in Oaxaca; he was always about paz y amor, y siempre buena onda And in memory of Jaime Castro Leyva, English teacher, and all those who lost their lives during the 2006 conflict in Oaxaca: Que descansen en paz CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations xi xv xvii Exploring the Contradictions of Language Teaching Three English Teachers 18 Squeezing More Juice: Portraits of Local English Teaching in Oaxacan Communities 39 Legitimacy, Symbolic Competence, and Teaching English 77 So They Can Defend Themselves a Little: The Meanings and Contradictions of Teaching English 97 Hey, Take it Easy!: Ambivalence and Language Ideologies 129 I Lasted One Day and Then I Was Gone: Performing Legitimacy 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TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 35–58 Zúñiga, R M (2003) Malinche: Esa ausente siempre presente México, DF: INAH/ Plaza y Valdés INDEX Agar, M xiv, 3, 17, 40, 84, 144 agency 6, 78-79, 81, 93, 128, 156-57, 179-81, 187-88 ambivalence 116, 157; and language ideologies 158-60, 187; of relationship with US 126, 141; towards English 98, 139, 141, 186 analysis 212-18; categories 213; ethnographic content analysis 213; markers for coding 216 Anzaldúa, G 145 APPO Conflict 8-11, 50, 53, 57, 140, 203-04 appropriation 105, 156, 174; strategy of discursive appropriation 179 Austin, J.L 167-68, 217 authority: and legitimacy 93, 98, 103; ethnographic authority see ethnography: ethnographic authority and voice; teachers’ authority 3, 75, 141-42, 164, 174 authenticity: being an authentic Oaxacan 134, 173; conceptions of authenticity in English teaching 77, 178, 182 Berger, P 77 bilingualism: additive and subtractive 137; elite bilingualism 15, 150, 152; elite vs folk 14; indigenous languages 55, 136 Bhabha, H 170-71, 175, 179, 181, 188 Blackledge, A 131, 180 Block, D 4, 36, 78, 80, 81, 86, 129, 133, 157, 168 Blommaert, J 75, 84, 95, 221n4 Bourdieu, P 4, 39, 77, 81, 83-85, 90-93, 101, 130, 139, 159-160, 165-67, 224n1 Butler, J 81, 89, 134, 168, 180 Canagarajah, A.S 4, 81, 125, 152, 156, 174, 178, 179, 221n4 Chinanteco 1, 13, 27, 41, 52, 99, 136 Clemente, Á 88, 124, 137, 153, 156, 174, 175, 178, 182, 188 cloze activity 45 communicative language teaching 13, 27, 58, 170, 221n7; PPP teaching model 116, 222n8 community of practice 93-94 competence 89-90; and legitimacy 167; communicative 3, 83, 98; linguistic 79, 90, 126; symbolic see symbolic competence; versus performance 89 contested nature of language learning and teaching 4, 90, 128, 149, 162, 165-66, 180, 184; and identity 87, 169 context 5, 75-76, 98, 117; situated nature of meaning 39-40, 80-85; locality contextualization 84, 95 contradictions 107-23 creative non-fiction 16-18, 40-41, 200 crisis of representation see ethnography: ethnographic authority 238 Index critical applied linguistics 81 critical ethnography 179, 197, 202, 225n3 critical language awareness 180, 189 cultural capital 2, 42, 90, 101, 123, 164 culture: cultural comparison 56, 119-23; cultural relativity 122, 128, 196; language-culture connection 112-19; US culture in ELT 103, 125-27 data collection 206-12, 224n1 decision making, of teachers 79, 98 diaspora, indigenous 12-13, 78, 89, 100, 205 see also migration dilingual interaction 42 discourse: big-D Discourse see identity; legitimate 90, 92 discrimination: in hiring teachers 30, 163-64, 172-73; and being indigenous 140; and language ideologies 132, 135 discursive spaces 96, 175, 183 disinventing language 83 Duff, P 4, 81, 190 elite bilingualism see bilingualism: elite engagement 79, 85-88, 100-01; see also imagined communities, investment English as an international language 1, 123, 126; and language teaching 157 English proficiency: accent 31, 89, 107, 154-58, 163-64; fluency 107, 156; of teachers 3, 155, 158; pronunciation 45, 54, 66, 125, 153-55, 157-58 ethnography xv,15-16, 193-94; as a way of seeing XXX; characteristics of 195-97; ethnographic authority and voice 197-203, see also researcher’s position; multisite 205-06; of speaking 83; prime directive 202; writing of 16-17; see also critical ethnography erasure, of difference 156 experience-near 18, 38, 196; emic perspective 98, 196, 212-13, 216 figured worlds 104 see also imagined communities Gee, J.P 84, 87, 88, 131, 168-69, 175, 221n2 Geertz, C 18 globalization 2, 11, 58, 110, 123, 185; global language see English as an international language Goffman, E 80, 81 Gumperz, J.J 84 Habitus 4, 85, 88-90, 139 Heller, M 91, 93, 166, 187 Higgins, C 4, 81, 124, 125, 184, 188 Higgins, M 88, 124, 153, 156, 174, 178, 182 Holliday, A 88, 125, 152, 157, 188 Hornberger, N 130, 133 Hymes, D 83, 90 Iconicity 156 idealized cognitive models 173 identity 5-6, 80, 85-88, 101, 168, 184, 221n1; as performed see performativity; being a “real English teacher” 131, 169; big-D Discourse 168-69; habitus see habitus; of researcher, see researcher’s position; see also legitimacy ideological stances 132-33 illegal: undocumented immigrant 18, 22-23, 32, 42-43, 69-70, 79, 91, 94, 102-03, 142, 147, 164, 179, 186 imagined communities 101, 103-06, 128, 137; imagined practices 101, 104-07; see also figured worlds indexicality 130 indigenous: discrimination see discrimination; ethnolinguistic groups 11-12; languages see indigenous languages; “yope” 134-35, 223n3 indigenous languages 74, 122, 134-36, 223n2; as “dialecto” 99, 134 inequality, socioeconomic 131 insider versus outsider perspective 84, 201 intersubjectivity 86, 95 investment with learning English 36, 86, 88, 101, 109, 186; vs motivation 78, 86, 101 IRE pattern 42, 217 Jenkins, J 124, 152, 155, 157 knowledge base, of language teachers 98 Kramsch, C 5, 88, 95-96, 101, 105-06, 167, 173, 184, 190, 222n4, 224n7 King, K 132-33 Index language ecology: and sociocultural approach 4, 5, 81, 95; of Oaxaca 11-12, 159 language ideologies 81, 93, 126, 130-33, 166, 184; and accent 131; and discrimination 132, 135; and symbolic violence 92, 130, 147, 149; as the rules of the game 180; definition of 131; dominant 76, 96, 158-60, 179; language ideological stances see ideological stances; native speakerism 152-58; pocho ideology 144-52; related to the United States 139-44 language hierarchy in Oaxaca 133-39 language pedagogy 124; see also communicative language teaching language practices 5-6, 75, 82-83, 94-95, 103-04, 130-31, 161, 167-168, 179, 184 Lantolf, J 80-81 Larsen-Freeman, D 4, 80 Lin, A.M.Y 79, 80, 88, 142, 152, 184, 190 Luk, J.C.M 79, 80, 88, 142, 152, 184, 190 Luke, A 3, 180 BA TEFL program 14-15; 174, 222n8; thesis requirement 25, 46, 185, 200n5 life history 18, 209 legitimacy 4, 90-91, 98, 109, 162, 165, 187-88; alternate legitimacy 92-93; and speech acts 167-68; as a site of struggle 93, 165-66, 170; as mimicry 171-73; being authorized to speak 91, 165-167; conditions that legitimate an utterance 166; framework for L2 users 181; limitations with Bourdieu 92-93, 166-67; performing legitimacy 165, 167-68, 171-79, 187; versus imposter 173-79 legitimate speaker 3, 81, 91, 93, 96, 159, 165-68, 170, 174-76, 183, 187; as a question 179 locality 5-6, see also context malinchismo 149, 152, 173 Malinowski, B 2, 194 McGroarty, M.E 149, 184 member checking 217 migration 13, 19, 69-70, 97; as a reason for learning English 99-107, 159, 185-86; copying US culture 116, 187; 239 crossing the border 22-25, 31-32; effects on villages 61, 63, 89, 121; maquiladora factories 13, 20; remittances 13, 104, 106; returnees 109, 147 see also pochismo; see also transnational mimicry 170-73, 181, 188 Ministry of Public Education (SEP) 13, 15, 55, 58, 97, 99, 122, 125, 220n3 Mixe (ayu’uk) 34, 64, 66, 69, 71, 120-22, 134, 136 narrative analysis 17, 40-41, 74-75, 188, 223-24n7 native speaker: African-Americans 108,; and “real” English 16, 108, 124, 178; as the model for teaching English 124-26, 155; comparative fallacy 155-57; ghost of 124, 126, 153; idealized 88, 153-54, 171; ideology see native speakerism; migrant returnees 109, 224n4; mimicry of 171-73; native/non-native dichotomy 5, 96, 152, 156, 170; preference for in hiring 30, 35, 172-73 native speakerism, ideology of 16, 123, 152-58, 187-88 normal school 15, 26, 220n6 Norton, B 4, 5, 23, 81, 86, 88, 101, 103, 108-09, 168, 180, 184, 187 Oaxaca: education 13-15; ethnolinguistic diversity 11-12; geography 6-8; history 6; migration 13; political organization 8, 11, 21; tourism 6, 8; see also usos y costumbres palanca (social connections) 26, 29-30, 35, 163-64, 173, 191 participant observation 16, 193-96, 203, see also ethnography Pavlenko, A 131, 168, 180 pedagogy of connecting 190 Pennycook, A xiii, 2, 4, 5, 40, 75, 81, 82-83, 89, 98, 126, 132, 134, 148, 168, 175, 178, 180, 184, 221n1 performativity 6, 134, 184, 221n1; as a characteristic of symbolic competence 5, 94-95; performing identity through language 130, 134, 168, 172; performativity theory 82, 88-89, 94-95, 180, see also legitimacy: performing legitimacy 240 Index Philips, S 195 pochismo 130, 145-46, 150-52; and identity 145-46, Pocho Guy story 91-92, 130, 134, 146, 148, 165-67, 177, 223n7; pocho ideology 103, 144, 147-49, 151 political economy of language teaching 36, 97 PNIEB (English in Primary School Program) 15, 111, 222n7 post-colonial accent 124, 156, 173-176, 179, 181, 188 post-colonial critique 198 post-structural theory 3, 86, 88, 168; see also identity principled partiality 84, 198 private schools 15, 30-31, 35 privatization of public education 11, 109, 112 purposes for learning English 127; and migration 99-107, 126, 159, 185-86; as defined by the Ministry 97, 101, 125, 137, 155; psychological distance 100-01, 117 Rampton, B 5, 36, 126, 152, Reagan, T 180, 189 recursiveness 156 religion: Catholicism 8, 89, 123, 219n1; in Oaxaca 11-12; Salesians’ values 33, 64 researcher’s position 15-16, 194, 197-201 resignification 105 rich point 3, 144, 209 role-play 48-49, 104-05, 222n3 Silverstein, M 131, 184 social conditions, reproduction of 6, 93 social connections see palanca social inequalities, and English 2, 15, 131, 186 see also language hierarchy social practices 89; teaching English as social practice 4, 75 see also language practices socialization 87-88, 190, 195; L2 socialization 4, 81 sociocultural approach 4, 79-82, 86, 88, 90, 94-95, 130, 165, 184 speech acts 90, 167-68, 235 subjectivity 5, 95, 167 symbolic capital, of English 2, 92, 109, 166, 187 symbolic competence 5, 36, 40, 81, 94-96, 138, 147, 152, 167, 180-81, 184, 187-88 symbolic violence 92, 130, 147, 149, 187 synecdoche 123, 196 teachers union 8, 15, 26, 30, 52, 58, 110 textbooks 13-14, 54, 58, 77, 105-06, 122 thick description 183, 196, 210, 213 third space 175-76, 178-79, 188 transnational 2, 13, 77, 101, 103, 109, 125, 222n2 transcription 196, 219n1, 222n1 United States, the: American football 42,; English as a metonym for 139; Mexico’s relationship with 70, 110, 114, 123, 126, 139-40, 159, 223n9; reality of immigrants’ lives in US 107-09; students’ ideas about US 104-06, 141; teachers’ knowledge of American culture 32, 57, 103, 115-16, 118, 120, 141, 174-75 usos y costumbres 8, 21, 74, 219n1; cargo (civic-religious duty) system 8, 12, 2021, 219n1; Van Maanen, J 17, 193, 199, 200, 217 victory narrative 179, 218 Watson-Gegeo, K 4, 81 Wolcott, H 3, 17, 197, 199, 201, 205, 210 Woolard, K 92, 131, 132, 150, 159 Zapotec 11, 12, 21, 25, 28, 64, 123, 136, 223n2 Zentella, A.C 195 ... Series Eli Hinkel, Series Editor Sayer • Ambiguities and Tensions in English Language Teaching: Portraits of EFL Teachers as Legitimate Speakers Alsagoff/McKay/Hu/Renandya, Eds • Principles and Practices... Development Hinkel, Ed • Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Volume II Nassaji /Fotos • Teaching Grammar in Second Language Classrooms: Integrating Form-Focused Instruction in. .. intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Sayer, Peter Ambiguities and tensions in English language teaching : portraits of EFL teachers as legitimate speakers / Peter