Department of English and American Studies Teaching English Language and Literature for Secondary Schools

TEACHING GRAMMAR

Definition of grammar

One can meet with a plenty of definitions of grammar, more or less alike.

Grammar encompasses the structural rules that dictate how clauses, phrases, and words are formed in any natural language It involves the study of these rules, including key areas such as morphology, syntax, and phonology, while also integrating aspects of phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics.

Brown (2007: 420) defines grammar as “the system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words in a sentence.” Thornbury (1999:

2) in his book How to Teach Grammar explains that grammar is seen as “the study of the syntax and morphology of sentences it is the study of linguistic chains and slots That is, it is the study both of the way words are chained together in a particular order, and also what kinds of words can slot into any one link in the chain.” Thornbury

[1] also claims that grammar is a tool for making meaning, since learners need to know not only what forms are possible but also what forms will express their meanings

Kinds of meaning

Thornbury identifies two primary types of meaning in grammatical forms: representational and interpersonal, each reflecting the fundamental purposes of language The representational aspect conveys how individuals perceive and experience the world, with verbs illustrating events or processes These events are initiated by subjects, often represented by noun phrases, while the objects of the verbs denote the individuals or things impacted by these actions Additionally, the timing of these events is expressed through specific verb tenses.

The interpersonal role of language significantly impacts human relationships and interactions Modality serves as a grammatical tool to convey interpersonal meaning According to Thornbury, it is essential for language learners to understand how various forms of a language correspond to the diverse meanings they wish to express and comprehend, encompassing both representational and interpersonal aspects.

Grammar rules

Thornbury highlights two types of grammar rules: prescriptive and descriptive Prescriptive rules dictate how language should be used, guiding proper speech and writing In contrast, descriptive rules are crucial for foreign language teaching, as they reflect the actual usage of language by its speakers.

O’Keeffe et al [4] in their book From Corpus to Classroom similarly

O’Keeffe, McCarthy, and Carter (2007) distinguish between deterministic and probabilistic grammar rules Deterministic rules consistently apply, while probabilistic rules indicate the likelihood of certain expressions in specific contexts The authors highlight that foreign language learners often struggle to focus on what can be expressed rather than fixating on correctness.

To teach or not to teach grammar

The debate over teaching grammar in language classes has sparked significant discussion among educators Thornbury presents a balanced perspective, highlighting arguments both in favor of and against grammar instruction By examining his insights, we can gain a deeper understanding of this complex issue.

Thornbury [7] gives seven arguments for putting grammar into the foreground in foreign language teaching Here are some of them:

Part of the process of second language learning is item-learning, which is putting

While memorizing words and phrases is essential for language learning, there comes a point where understanding grammar rules becomes crucial for constructing new sentences Grammar serves as a necessary foundation for effectively conveying intended meanings in communication.

Thornbury [8] suggests that highly motivated students with a natural aptitude for language learning can reach a proficiency level without formal education, but may struggle to advance further, leading to a phenomenon known as "linguistic competence fossilisation" [9] This scenario underscores the importance of engaging in formal or self-directed study to facilitate continued language development.

Grammar rules and patterns often have a delayed impact on language learners When interacting with native speakers, learners may notice specific grammatical structures that stand out to them, reflecting what they learned in their classes As Thornbury emphasizes, this process of noticing is essential for effective language acquisition.

 the rule-of-law argument

Grammar is fundamentally a system of rules, making its teaching and learning a process of transmission from teacher to student This traditional approach is prevalent in schools and institutions that prioritize rules and discipline, and it can be particularly beneficial for unmotivated teenage learners However, Thornbury emphasizes that mere exposure to the target language through communication is insufficient for effective language acquisition.

Similarly, Thornbury [11] gives several cases against teaching grammar Let us scrutinize some of them.

Thornbury argues that practical exposure and opportunities for communication in the target language are more beneficial than merely understanding grammatical rules He refers to this approach as experiential learning, emphasizing the importance of learning through active engagement.

Understanding the grammar of a target language alone is insufficient for effective communication Advocates of Communicative Language Teaching emphasize that communicative competence encompasses more than mere grammatical knowledge; it includes the ability to utilize grammar and vocabulary to meet communicative objectives while adhering to social norms As noted by Thornbury, achieving communicative competence requires both linguistic proficiency and an awareness of appropriate language use in various contexts.

The author argues against the necessity of grammar instruction by highlighting that children naturally acquire their mother tongue without explicit grammar learning This notion suggests that the same principle could apply to second language acquisition Thornbury references Krashen, who distinguishes between learning and acquisition; the former, influenced by grammar rules, often hinders effective communication, while the latter is essential for mastering a second language Successful acquisition occurs when learners engage with native speakers, providing them with the necessary exposure to the target language.

As was mentioned earlier, second language learning entails item-learning, which

The term "Ibid" refers to the capacity to recall entire phrases and idioms, known as language chunks Analyzing these stored chunks significantly contributes to success in both first language acquisition and second language learning This understanding has led to the development of the Lexical Approach in language education.

RESEARCH PART

Competence and performance

This chapter explores the essential question of what it truly means to learn a second or foreign language It also investigates whether it is feasible to ascertain a learner's knowledge of a language without considering their actual performance in that target language.

As Gillian Brown [15] states, there were two scholars who have assisted to structure the way we think about the language today, namely Saussure and Chomsky.

In linguistic studies, terms such as langage, langue, parole, competence, and performance have been introduced, with competence and performance being particularly significant According to Chomsky, as cited by Brown, ideal speakers and listeners possess a flawless mastery of their language, remaining unaffected by memory constraints, distractions, or errors during actual language use This leads Chomsky to distinguish between 'competence', which refers to a speaker-hearer's knowledge of the language, and 'performance', which pertains to the practical application of that knowledge in real-life situations.

Chomsky differentiates between competence and performance, defining competence as an idealized ability and performance as the actual production of speech Performance accurately reflects competence only under idealized conditions, highlighting a fundamental distinction between the two concepts.

[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/linguistic_competence#competence_versus_performance difference between competence and performance.

In the introduction chapter of the book Performance and Competence in

Second language acquisition involves variability in learner competence compared to native speakers, as highlighted by Brown (1996) and Ellis This variability is significantly influenced by interlanguage, which serves as a transitional linguistic system for learners Ellis notes that changes occur when new linguistic forms are integrated, resulting in a stage where learners may employ two different forms within the same context.

In a practical examination of competence/performance theory, students were tasked with writing about their last summer holidays, daily routines, and future speculations, covering various English verb tenses The findings revealed significant issues, as many students struggled with basic verb tense usage despite using an intermediate-level textbook Common errors included incorrect forms such as "I am going sleep at 11:30 p.m." instead of "I go to sleep at 11:30 p.m." and "Last week we have Camp Olympic Games" instead of "Last week we had Camp Olympic Games." Alongside mistakes in spelling, prepositions, articles, quantifiers, and word order, these results highlight a critical need for improved understanding of verb tenses among intermediate learners.

Students often face challenges with future verb forms in English, struggling with both their structure and correct usage Common errors include phrases like "I think that will be change every second" instead of the correct "I think that will change every second," and "But maybe I am going to be homeless" rather than "But maybe I will be homeless." Additionally, while one student attempted to use a passive structure, it was incorrectly formed, as seen in "Its organize FTVS UK" instead of the correct "It’s organized by FTVS UK."

Students at FTVS UK struggled with modal auxiliaries, making frequent errors due to lack of prior exposure Common mistakes included phrases like "I did not can do anything" instead of "I could not do anything," and "I may not can have a family" instead of "I may not be able to have a family." The writing task results reveal a significant gap between students’ actual performance in writing and their competence demonstrated in standardized tests, which often consist of simpler gap-filling or matching exercises This highlights the difference between students' tested knowledge and their ability to produce coherent written texts.

To support the output, the students were assigned another task, this time strictly verb-filling grammar exercises The first part was designed according to Lewis’s

In 2002, a study highlighted that over fifty percent of students struggled with specific English verb tenses and modal auxiliary verbs, indicating a need for teacher intervention The identified problem areas included the Passive Voice, future expressions, Past Continuous, Past Perfect tenses, and the modal auxiliaries "might" and "may." Test results reflected gaps in the students' language competence, despite their overall fluency in speaking and writing Consequently, it is essential for educators to address these challenges to enhance students' understanding and accurate usage of basic tenses in English.

Language learning heavily relies on the student's competence Recent efforts aimed to assess students' actual understanding of fundamental verb forms During a communicative activity, students collaborated in pairs to inquire and respond about their self-assessment of the primary verb forms identified by Michael Lewis in his book.

English Verb: An Exploration of Structure and Meaning (2002) These verb forms were:

The study examined the use of passive voice and modal auxiliaries, focusing not only on the formation of these structures but also on students' ability to communicate politely with them Additionally, students were prompted to reflect on their awareness of grammar while engaging in speaking, writing, reading, and listening activities.

Despite a year of study at grammar school, the results from a competence/performance questionnaire revealed that students from both groups had similar outcomes A total of 14 students participated, with most expressing confidence in their understanding of the first and second verb forms However, around 60% admitted to occasionally struggling with the third verb form, continuous tenses, and future verb forms Both classes identified the Passive Voice and modal auxiliaries as particularly challenging While students found forming questions and affirmative/negative sentences moderately difficult, they also noted issues with correct word order and polite expression The questionnaire results raise questions about whether these self-assessments reflect actual competence or merely performance, as some students displayed high self-confidence in their evaluations.

In a recent survey, students were asked how frequently their teacher corrects their use of future tenses, the Passive Voice, and modal auxiliaries, which they identified as challenging areas While most students acknowledged receiving corrections on these verb forms, their responses reflected a surprising level of self-confidence that contradicted their actual performance in practice This final question aimed to assess their understanding and application of these grammatical structures, revealing a gap between perceived and actual mastery.

In conclusion, the distinction between students' competence and performance is complicated by various factors, such as the provision of examples and the students' desire to showcase their abilities Therefore, the teacher decided to conduct six lessons—three for each student group—focused on the most challenging verb areas: the Passive Voice, future tenses, and modal auxiliaries To evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction, six different teaching methods were employed, including The Audio-Lingual Method, Content-based Instruction, Task-based Instruction, Communicative Language Teaching, Grammar-Translation Method, and a corpus-based lesson.

Before focusing on the lessons taught and their outcomes, it's essential to address another aspect of learner competence In her essay "Language Learning, Competence and Performance," Gillian Brown critiques the research by Ellis and Tarone, which analyzed utterances from second language learners to infer competence from performance outcomes Brown contends that this approach is flawed due to the absence of a theoretical framework connecting performance to competence She emphasizes that researchers lack access to evidence regarding learners' procedural knowledge of the language.

The perspective that learners can discern grammaticality in isolated sentences highlights their understanding of language However, research conducted for this dissertation suggests that learners' procedural knowledge can be further explored through the Think Aloud Protocol This method will be elaborated upon in the following section, detailing its application in classroom settings.

Think Aloud Protocol

As the Department of Humanities of Michigan Tech states on one of their pages [22],

The Think Aloud Protocol is a research method that enables researchers to gain insights into a subject's thought process as they attempt to complete a specific task By verbalizing their thoughts during the task, users can articulate their strategies and highlight any challenges they face While the objectives of the task should be clarified, the specific steps to achieve it should not be provided Furthermore, participants should independently determine when they have completed the task, rather than being informed by the researcher.

In the classroom experience utilizing the Think Aloud Protocol, students worked in groups of three, with two participants engaged in a task while the third recorded their discussion Initially, students expressed uncertainty about the unfamiliar method; however, after a second implementation of the protocol, their confidence in the process significantly improved.

To describe the actual process of putting Think Aloud Protocol into practice, eight students took part in the first attempt, forming three groups (3-3-2) They were

Students were assigned a writing task to summarize their favorite pastimes from various countries, utilizing a provided table of information While the summaries needed to be composed in English, students had the option to discuss their selections in Czech.

Students engaged in a writing task analyzed survey results regarding leisure activities across various countries, focusing on interpreting the data stylistically While some students felt confident in their language choices, others exhibited uncertainty, often deliberating between two potential options For instance, a group of girls grappled with translating the word “překvapivý,” with one suggesting “vzrušující,” ultimately concluding with the incorrect phrase: “It’s surprised that in France only 4% of people listen to music.” Additionally, they struggled to translate “vytěsnit” and “nahradit,” opting instead for the more general term “to change,” leading to the statement: “In Asian countries like Korea, China, and Japan, reading is popular because in these traditional societies modern ”

Despite advancements in technology, students' preferences for how they spend their free time remain unchanged Additionally, the influence of other languages they study complicates their learning process For instance, some students struggle with the accurate translation of the Czech word "protože," which means "because," often confusing it with the French equivalent.

During the procedure, students faced challenges with grammar, particularly in spelling and article usage They struggled with words like "countries," "weird," and "generally," resulting in numerous spelling mistakes in their summaries Additionally, the correct application of articles sparked debates among the students, especially regarding phrases like "spend time," which they ultimately chose correctly However, confusion persisted with the definite article "the," as some students incorrectly referred to countries, saying "the England" instead of simply "England."

Students in the USA faced challenges with English articles, particularly noting the absence of such grammatical elements in Czech, while contrasting their experiences with Spanish One pair of boys struggled with verb forms, using the Present Continuous tense incorrectly when discussing habits, as exemplified by the sentence, "In Canada, there is about 60% people watching TV." This indicated a fossilized misunderstanding of language rules Meanwhile, a group of girls focused on the correct past form of the auxiliary verb "can" and uniquely employed the Passive Voice, debating the use of the preposition "by" in the context of their sentence: "It can be caused by different natural conditions." They effectively utilized phrases like "A recent survey shows that " and "Generally, a lot of people " to enhance their discussions.

It is surprising that…, It is more than half of the nation or …probably everybody likes sleeping.

In the initial implementation of the Think Aloud Protocol in classroom settings, students demonstrated a strong capacity for making informed language choices, although inaccuracies were present They engaged in speculation regarding the content of their texts, stylistic elements of their messages, and the precise language needed for effective writing.

The second implementation of the Think Aloud Protocol to explore students' procedural knowledge occurred three weeks after the initial attempt, focusing on summarizing the medal counts of the top ten countries in the London 2012 Olympic Games This time, the students demonstrated greater clarity regarding their task, leading to a more efficient session that required less time than the first attempt The task's synoptic nature likely contributed to this increased efficiency, despite the absence of one student from the previous session.

[24]http://www.ielts-exam.net/index.php?option=com_content&taskegory§ionid=7&id

In a recent analysis, only one group of students initiated their writing with an introductory sentence about the 2012 Olympic Games in London Most students aimed to justify their selections regarding the countries mentioned in their summaries, with statements like, "The reason why China is second with 88 medals is its population of about one billion, providing a vast pool of top athletes." Another group noted, "Although China's population reaches a billion, they finished second." Additionally, some students sought to showcase their reasoning skills, as evidenced by a group of girls stating, "Great Britain had 65 medals and was fourth but, following the United States and China, they were third with 29 gold medals, marking a significant achievement for their fans and the entire nation." Notably, two out of the three groups summarized the information from the provided table, concluding with key results.

The absence of the Czech national team in the top 10 at the London 2012 Olympic Games is a significant disappointment for fans However, there is optimism as we look forward to the upcoming Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro.

The Think Aloud Protocol revealed that one group of students focused on discussing the reasons behind the varying success of countries, yet many of their insights were not reflected in their written report While they engaged in selecting appropriate vocabulary, such as choosing between "British people," "British Empire," and "British sportsmen," their final decision highlighted the importance of context, as they noted the success of British sportsmen with 29 gold medals In contrast, a group of girls struggled with the translation of the Czech word "díky," leading to confusion that ultimately omitted the explanation for Great Britain's third-place finish This indicates that uncertainty about language often leads students to stick to familiar expressions or avoid using specific language points altogether Additionally, the girls grappled with word order in causal clauses, demonstrating the challenges they faced in constructing grammatically correct sentences.

China ranks second in the medal tally with a total of 88 medals, a result of thorough discussions among students who also focused on proper capitalization They specifically addressed the correct use of initial letters in the phrase "Olympic Games," ensuring accuracy in their writing, likely influenced by the explicit instructions provided for the task.

This diploma thesis focuses on English verbs, particularly the choices students made regarding verb forms The students decided to include the total number of medals won by Great Britain in London within a single paragraph, appropriately using the phrase "It must be " in this context They engaged in a discussion about the past form of the auxiliary verb "must," with one student suggesting an alternative.

The modal verb "must" remains unchanged in the past tense, leading to a common error where one girl mistakenly said, "It musted to " before realizing that this form does not exist Another girl then pointed out that the correct third form of the verb should be used, resulting in the incorrect sentence, "It must have been big success for their fans and the whole Great Britain." Additionally, the same group of girls engaged in a discussion about whether the United States of America takes

Evaluation of various teaching methods used to present and practise problematic verb forms

This chapter focuses on the effectiveness of different teaching methods for English verbs, beginning with an introduction to the two classes of grammar school students involved in the study Each subchapter is structured into four key sections: a theoretical overview of the teaching methods utilized, a detailed lesson plan for each method, a description of the classroom procedures implemented, and an evaluation of the methods and activities in terms of their efficiency and appropriateness.

This article presents six lesson plans designed for two distinct grammar-school classes The first class, known as Q, consists of 13 students (6 girls and 7 boys) from four different classes within the same grade Although the students were placed in this class based on a placement test conducted at the beginning of the school year, there are noticeable variations in their English proficiency levels, ranging from pre-intermediate to intermediate The students, aged 15 to 16, are lively, confident, and predominantly communicative.

A group of 11 intermediate-level English students, consisting of 7 girls and 4 boys aged 16 to 17, was formed based on a placement test conducted a year and a half ago Despite their initial discomfort speaking in front of classmates, these motivated young individuals are eager to improve their English skills, making it a pleasure to work with them.

The primary goal of this practical section is to identify the most effective, convenient, and enjoyable lessons for students, rather than comparing the production outcomes of the two classes.

The Audio-Lingual Method

As Diane Larsen-Freeman in her book Techniques and Principles in Language

The Audio-Lingual Method, developed during World War II, focuses on drilling students in grammatical sentence patterns through dialogues, tapes, language labs, and visual aids This method emphasizes substitution drills, aiming for error-free utterances and correct pronunciation According to Brown (2007), grammar is typically taught inductively, with minimal emphasis on explicit explanations The enduring popularity of the Audio-Lingual Method is evident in its adaptations within modern teaching methodologies.

Lesson plan 1 – Audio-Lingual Method: The Passive Voice – class Q

This lesson was inspired by two You Tube videos [30], [31].

By the end of the lesson, students will be introduced to the passive voice through contextual dialogues, allowing them to understand its application Additionally, they will engage in drills to practice the correct pronunciation of grammar patterns and vocabulary, reinforcing their learning experience.

Stage 1 - Presentation of a model dialogue (both written and oral)

Materials: the board, 2 pictures from the teacher’s property

Anticipated problems: The students might not be familiar with the Passive Voice yet, that is why they might not fully understand the passive sentences.

[30] http://www.youtube.com/watch?V=AJtr8kKkGU

[31] http://www.youtube.com/watch?V=1Treak/Nr8

The teacher writes a dialogue with the passive structures on the board The teacher reads the dialogue to the students, changing position as if two people were talking.

A: Wow! That’s a nice picture Who was it painted by?

Teacher: This picture was painted and given to me by a professional artist.

A: And this picture? Who was it made by?

Teacher: This painting was made by a student of mine.

Stage 2 – Pronunciation practice (a repetition drill) of the model dialogue, memorizing the dialogue

Materials: the board, pictures from the previous stage

Anticipated problems: The students might have certain problems saying the dialogue by heart.

The teacher reads the model dialogue, the students repeat, both chorally and individually, whole sentences or just phrases.

The students read the dialogue in pairs, changing roles Then they try to memorize the model dialogue 2 to 3 pairs act the dialogue out.

Stage 3 – Concept-checking questions and presentation of the passive voice using inductive approach

Materials: the board, pictures from the previous activities

Anticipated problems: The students might find the questions about forming the Passive

Voice difficult, since it is quite complex, especially question-forming.

The teacher engages the students by asking them to identify the painter of a displayed picture The students respond that it was created by a professional artist In response, the teacher reinforces their answer by writing on the board: "A professional artist painted this picture."

The teacher engages the students by asking, "Who painted this picture?" The students respond that it was created by a professional artist The teacher then reinforces their learning by writing on the board: "This picture was painted by a professional artist."

The teacher inquires about identifying passive sentences, specifically asking which sentence is passive and highlighting that it is the second one She explains that the subject of the passive sentence is the object of the corresponding active sentence The formation of the passive voice involves using the verb "be" in the appropriate tense followed by the past participle For negative sentences, the structure includes the verb "be" in the correct tense, followed by "not" and the past participle Additionally, to form a question, the structure requires a question word, the verb "be" in the correct tense, the subject, and the past participle.

Stage 4 – Substitution drill (using analogy)

Anticipated problems: The students might not be sure about forming the corresponding forms of the auxiliary verb “be” in the correct tense, especially “is being”.

The teacher puts on the board the sentence: My portrait was drawn by a street artist yesterday.

The students repeat the sentence after the teacher.

Students will modify the meaning of sentences by substituting time adverbials such as "now," "tomorrow," and "recently." They will also adjust the verb tense of the passive structure, changing phrases like "is being drawn," "will be drawn," and "has been drawn." Both the passive structures and the time adverbials will be displayed on the board for reference.

Students repeat - chorally and individually - the newly-formed sentences.

Own procedure in the classroom

In a diverse classroom setting, ten students with varying levels of familiarity with the Passive Voice participated, with some having little to no prior knowledge on the topic.

The lesson commenced with a model dialogue displayed on the board and read aloud to the students, supported by two visual aids for context Understanding of the dialogue was clear, leading to a pronunciation practice session where students engaged in a repetition drill, echoing sentences and phrases both chorally and individually for immediate correction Next, students partnered up to read and memorize the dialogue, which was temporarily covered from view Finally, three pairs performed the memorized dialogue, revealing some pronunciation challenges, particularly with linking words, prompting an additional drill for improvement.

The lesson on the Passive Voice involved two key components: concept-checking questions and the presentation of passive structures The teacher differentiated between active and passive sentences through model dialogues and student responses Utilizing the inductive approach favored by the Audio-Lingual Method, students were engaged in forming affirmative, negative, and interrogative passive sentences The familiarity of Czech grammar with passive constructions likely aided comprehension The lesson culminated in a substitution drill, where students identified the tense of a Past Simple passive sentence and formed corresponding passive sentences for various tenses While they successfully formed sentences in the Present Perfect and future passive with "will," they struggled with the Present Continuous, mistakenly using "is drawn" instead of "is being drawn," necessitating teacher prompts The activity also included choral and individual repetition to reinforce the newly formed sentences.

Although the lesson was initially estimated to last 30 minutes, all activities were completed in just 20 minutes This discrepancy may be attributed to the absence of major issues with both the Passive Voice and oral practice.

The aims of the lesson, i.e to present the Passive Voice and to practise correct pronunciation of the grammar patterns and vocabulary, were fully achieved.

Principles for grammar teaching: The E-factor and The A-factor

The evaluation of the taught lessons was carried out on the basis of Scott Thornbury’s principles for grammar teaching, which were formulated in his book How to Teach

Grammar [32] Thornbury [33] names two basic principles for grammar teaching – The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease and efficacy, and The A-factor: Appropriacy.

 The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease and efficacy

When teaching grammar, educators should constantly evaluate the efficiency of their activities If a grammar exercise demands excessive preparation time or involves numerous materials, it raises concerns about the effective use of the teacher's time and energy.

Efficiency in learning encompasses three key components: economy, ease, and efficacy According to Thornbury, minimizing the duration of technical skill instruction, such as driving, enhances effectiveness This principle of economy also applies to grammar teaching, suggesting that brevity is beneficial Additionally, the ease factor highlights the importance of making grammar activities simple to implement, ensuring a smoother learning experience.

Effective planning and resource allocation are crucial for successful teaching A key aspect of this is efficacy, which assesses whether the teacher's activities will be successful Efficacy can be evaluated through various factors, including the level of attention a grammar activity captures, the students' understanding and retention of the material, and their motivation It's essential that tasks are relevant, achievable, and challenging to ensure they are truly motivating for learners.

According to Thornbury, an activity that is suitable for one group of learners may not be appropriate for another, as different classes have varying needs, interests, proficiency levels, goals, beliefs, and attitudes Thornbury highlights that the main factors affecting the appropriateness of a grammar activity include these diverse learner characteristics.

 the age of the learners

 the size of the group

 the constitution of the group, e.g monolingual or multilingual

 the available materials and resources

 the learners’ previous learning experience and hence present expectations

 any cultural factors that might affect attitudes

Thornbury implies that activities that do not take these factors into consideration are unlikely to work.

The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, efficacy

The Audio-Lingual Method's effectiveness in terms of economic efficiency was limited, as students visibly expressed their annoyance with repetitive drills However, the presentation of the Passive Voice adhered to the principle of economy, being concise and free of unnecessary elaboration.

The ease factor, i.e the fact that the shorter time the planning and finding

Content-based Instruction

Content-based Instruction, which emerged in the 1990s, integrates language learning with subject matter, prioritizing content over language This approach emphasizes the integration of all four language skills and encourages collaborative work in small groups, where students complete tasks and share their findings through presentations According to Brown (2007), such classrooms can enhance intrinsic motivation and empower students by focusing on relevant subject matter that resonates with their lives.

Lesson plan 2 – Content-based Instruction: The Passive Voice – class S

Aims: By the end of the lesson the students will have learnt new facts about New

Zealand, they will have practiced the Passive Voice while making presentations (the students already have some knowledge of the Passive Voice).

Stage 1 – Introduction to the topic (New Zealand)

Anticipated problems: The students might not have enough knowledge of New Zealand, they might have problems expressing their thoughts.

The teacher engages students by displaying two pictures and prompting them to guess the lesson's topic Once they correctly identify the subject, the teacher encourages a discussion about their prior knowledge of New Zealand This interactive session culminates in the creation of a mind map on the board, illustrating the students' contributions and insights.

Stage 2 – Quiz about New Zealand

Materials: a handout with 12 multiple-choice quiz questions for each student

Students may encounter challenges with the quiz, as some questions could introduce unfamiliar concepts Additionally, specific vocabulary terms such as "compulsory," "treaty," "warriors," "school attendance," and "approximately" may pose difficulties for them.

The teacher instructs students to review the 12 questions and respond only to those they feel confident about Once the quiz is finished, the teacher inquires about the number of questions the students were certain they could answer.

Stage 3 – Division into 3 areas and groups

Anticipated problems: The students might not be able to name explicitly the 3 areas the quiz can be divided into.

In this engaging classroom activity, the teacher initiates a discussion by asking students to identify the three categories for quiz questions: environment, history, and society Following this, the class is organized into three distinct groups, with each group focusing on one specific area to foster in-depth understanding and collaboration.

Stage 4 – Finding correct answers for the quiz questions

Materials: the quiz, 3 different handouts with information about New Zealand (one for each group), bilingual dictionaries

Anticipated problems: The students might struggle with certain expressions used in the materials.

Procedure: The individual groups are provided with different handouts concerning their topics The teacher explains that the task of each group is to find answers to the quiz questions.

Stage 5 – Presentation: the passive voice

Materials: the handouts, the quiz, the board

Anticipated problems: The students might not be able to distinguish between active and passive sentences.

In this procedure, the teacher engages students by asking them to identify passive sentences within the texts The teacher highlights the prevalence of passive voice in such materials and encourages students to provide examples from different tenses These examples are then written on the board, allowing the teacher to explain the formation of the passive voice effectively.

Students are instructed to identify and underline all passive structures in their provided texts The teacher oversees the activity, assisting students in differentiating between passive and active sentences Subsequently, each group is motivated to incorporate passive voice in their next exercise.

Stage 6 – Presentations about New Zealand

Materials: The handouts, the quiz, dictionaries, the board

Anticipated problems: The students might not use the passive voice although appropriate in many cases, pronunciation problems.

In this activity, each of the three groups will research and present information specific to New Zealand, sharing their findings with the entire class The remaining two groups will evaluate their understanding by marking the correct answers on their quiz handouts.

Procedure: The teacher assigns the students homework – to prepare a similar presentation in their area (environment, history, society) about either the Czech Republic or some English-speaking country.

Own procedure in the classroom

This lesson utilized the Content-based Instruction Method, focusing on information about New Zealand sourced from Wikipedia It aimed not only to educate students about New Zealand but also to introduce them to passive structures in English The session commenced with an engaging introduction to the topic of New Zealand.

In a lesson about New Zealand, a teacher engaged students by showing images of a sheep and the Maori dance 'haka', prompting them to identify the country The class successfully created a mind map with facts such as New Zealand's population of 4 million, its capital Wellington, and its two islands in the Pacific Ocean, along with references to "The Lord of the Rings." Each student received a handout with 12 multiple-choice quiz questions, most of which were new to them, yet they managed without dictionaries Only four of the ten students had previously studied New Zealand in geography, and they confidently answered between two to seven questions When asked to categorize the quiz topics, students identified "history," "geography," and "society."

The teacher organized the class into three groups based on students' interests, with two groups of three and one group of four Each group received a handout containing information about New Zealand related to their chosen topic Before starting the quiz task, the teacher emphasized the importance of reading the entire text thoroughly rather than skimming for answers, as this would prepare them for their upcoming presentations about New Zealand.

In the next phase of the lesson, the focus shifted to grammar, specifically the Passive Voice The teacher engaged the students by asking if they had encountered any passive sentences in the texts they studied They collaboratively identified examples of passive sentences across various tenses, which were then written on the board The students were encouraged to explain how the passive voice is formed, with the teacher drawing parallels between its structure in Czech and English Additionally, the teacher highlighted the practical use of the passive voice Fortunately, the anticipated challenge of students struggling to differentiate between active and passive sentences did not arise; however, they did mistakenly categorize certain adjectives, such as "is responsible," as passive structures.

In a classroom activity focused on the Passive Voice, students identified and underlined passive sentences in their texts, with an emphasis on understanding this grammatical structure They then collaborated in groups to create presentations about New Zealand, summarizing their research The teacher provided guidance on structure and vocabulary during the preparation phase As presentations were delivered, classmates marked correct answers on their quiz handouts For homework, students were tasked with preparing a similar group presentation on the environment, history, or society of either the Czech Republic or an English-speaking country.

In this lesson, students discovered interesting facts about New Zealand while also focusing on practicing the Passive Voice However, they failed to apply passive structures in contexts where they would have been suitable.

In subsequent English lessons, students continued to practice passive structures, similar to the initial lesson focused on the Passive Voice, although this aspect is not the primary focus of this research.

The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, efficacy

Communicative Language Teaching

In the late 1970s, educators began to critique the linguistically-based teaching methods that focused on accurate sentence production but failed to prepare students for real-world communication This led to the emergence of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which prioritizes communicative competence as the primary objective of language education.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) emphasizes the importance of meaning through activities that promote real communication, focusing on both accuracy and fluency in student production It highlights the acquisition of practical language functions such as inviting and complaining, while placing less emphasis on the explicit learning of grammatical rules Since its inception, CLT has remained a popular approach in language education.

Lesson plan 3 – CLT: Modal verbs – class Q

By the end of the lesson, students will be introduced to modal verbs of certainty through an authentic text and will engage in various activities to practice using these modals effectively.

Stage 1 – Introducing modal verbs in an authentic text

Materials: a board, handouts with an extract from a sports column about Australian

Students may encounter challenges with certain expressions in the sports column, which could hinder their ability to accurately assess the level of certainty in the reporter's statements.

The teacher engages students by discussing the current events in Australia, specifically the Australian Open Tennis Tournament, and highlights the extreme temperatures faced by the players Students are then instructed to read a BBC sports column from January 16, 2013, which features insights and predictions from reporters and athletes regarding how players will manage the challenging heat Their task is to underline the predictions made within the article.

The students work with the texts individually or in pairs, the teacher monitors.

Students read aloud predictions that utilize modal verbs such as may, might, will, and can The teacher prepares these predictions on cards in advance, and the students then arrange them based on their levels of certainty.

Stage 2 – Discussion (practice of modal verbs)

Materials: a board, handouts with 4 predictions (see Appendix VI)

Students may struggle to differentiate between modal verbs such as may and might, as well as will and would, and can and could Additionally, they may lack well-defined opinions on the topics being discussed.

Students receive handouts containing four future predictions and are tasked with evaluating the likelihood of each prediction They discuss their thoughts in pairs, sharing their reasoning behind their beliefs, before participating in a broader class discussion.

Anticipated problems: The students might not express themselves politely enough, the students might lack certain functional language or vocabulary.

In a classroom activity, students will collaborate in groups of four, with three members acting as employees of a company that supplies ice-cold drinks at sports events, while one serves as their boss They will hold a meeting to explore the implications of their company merging with another, discussing critical topics such as potential job losses, relocation, changes in company policy, and the possibility of increased earnings.

During the role play, the teacher monitors, provides the students with some functional language or vocabulary if needed.

The teacher assigns students the task of writing a paragraph that speculates about their lives in 15 years They are encouraged to explore various possibilities, including what they will definitely do, what they might do, and what they could achieve To assist them, the teacher provides functional language such as "I might really like…," "I might find myself…-ing…," "I would not be surprised if I were…," and "I could be…."

Own procedure in the classroom

The CLT-based lesson aimed to teach modal verbs of certainty using an authentic text related to the Australian Open, which coincidentally aligned with a student’s presentation The discussion began with students identifying "extreme heat" as a current issue for tennis players in Australia They received handouts from a BBC sports page discussing how rare temperatures might impact the tournament, prompting them to underline modal verbs such as may, might, can, will, and would Initially unsure of their task, the students quickly became engaged, appreciating the relevance of the up-to-date material compared to their course book The class collaboratively read the text, addressing vocabulary and clarifying misunderstandings about predictions Subsequently, students evaluated the certainty of 12 predictions by categorizing them into percentages, demonstrating confidence in their task The teacher emphasized the varying levels of certainty associated with the modal verbs, reinforcing their understanding.

In a CLT-based lesson, students engaged in a task where they evaluated four written predictions about the future, discussing their probabilities and reasoning in pairs before a class discussion Most students agreed that the predictions pertained to the near future, leading them to conclude that none were likely to occur, yet they enthusiastically used modal verbs such as might, could, and will The next stage involved a role play where students simulated a meeting among employees of a company providing ice-cold drinks at sports events, discussing the potential outcomes of a merger Initially, students focused on appointing their boss and identifying their company, but after a prompt from the teacher, they began to explore the future implications of the merger Throughout this activity, the modal verbs predominantly used were will and its negative form, culminating in the bosses presenting their discussion results to the class.

As a follow-up activity, students were tasked with written homework to envision their lives 15 years into the future, utilizing the functional language and modal verbs introduced during the lesson.

The lesson's objectives were only partially met, as students engaged with modal verbs through authentic texts and practiced them in most activities; however, they did not incorporate the modals during the role-play segment.

The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, efficacy

In the context of a CLT-based lesson on modal verbs, Thornbury’s (1999: 25) principle that “a little prior teaching seems to be more effective than a lot” was effectively applied Students were not inundated with complex grammar rules, as modal verbs were introduced within relevant contexts using authentic texts Additionally, the ease of the lesson was ensured by the quick identification and adaptation of appropriate materials.

Task-based Instruction

According to Larsen-Freeman (2000), the essence of Task-based Instruction lies in creating a natural context for learning, where student interaction is fueled by engaging in problem-solving tasks These tasks can include various activities such as information-gap, opinion-gap, reasoning-gap tasks, or project work Brown (2007:50) references Skehan, who characterizes tasks as activities designed to promote meaningful communication and collaboration among students.

 there is some communication problem to solve;

 there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities;

 the completion has some priority; and

 the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome.

Lesson plan 4 – Task-based Instruction: language emerging from a task-class S

By the end of the lesson, students will have designed their own utopian society, allowing them to practice and apply relevant vocabulary and verb forms related to the task.

Stage 1 – Introduction to the topic

Anticipated problems: The students might lack relevant vocabulary when adding ideas to the mind map about problems in the Czech Republic.

The teacher engages students by posing the question, “Is the Czech Republic a good country to live in?” This prompts a discussion about the challenges faced in the Czech Republic, with the teacher compiling relevant vocabulary on the board to create a mind map for better understanding.

Stage 2 – Setting the task and creating a utopian society

Materials: a board, handouts with a map of an uninhabited island, bilingual dictionaries

Anticipated problems: The students might not be sure what verb form(s) to use when talking about their utopian society.

The teacher introduces a creative task where students are to design their own utopian society, defined as a perfect or ideal community They will conceptualize this society on an uninhabited island, addressing around 100 essential requirements such as religion, economic, political, legal, and educational systems, as well as financial institutions, weather, and culture Additionally, students are required to illustrate institutions, buildings, and other significant locations on a map, collaborating in groups to bring their visions to life.

3 The teacher stresses that the students are then going to present their utopian society to the rest of the class, explaining how would their society function and in which ways it would be perfect.

Stage 3 – Presentations of the students’ utopian societies

Anticipated problems: The students might find choosing the correct verb tense problematic.

In groups, students showcase the functioning of their envisioned utopian societies, while also writing the names of these societies on the board The teacher remains an observer, taking notes on any language issues that arise, as well as highlighting instances of effective language use for future discussion.

Anticipated problems: The students might not use appropriate language when justifying their opinions and choices.

Students cast their votes individually for the most effective utopian society displayed on the board The teacher then prompts a discussion, asking them to reflect on why they believe the winning society would be the most successful, highlighting its strengths and identifying areas for improvement.

Anticipated problems: There might be too many problematic language areas.

In Stage 3, the teacher identifies key grammar issues arising from the students' presentations, aiming to elicit correct language usage This may involve prompting students for responses or providing clear explanations to enhance their understanding.

Own procedure in the classroom

Inspired by a YouTube video, this task-based lesson encourages students to design and present their own utopian society to the class.

[10] http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QirhNeIwQ0w and to deal with any problematic vocabulary and verb forms that emerge from the task

The lesson began by questioning if the Czech Republic is a good place to live, leading to a discussion about the challenges faced in the country, such as corruption, pollution, and crime Students were tasked with creating their own utopian society after understanding the concept of "utopia" and reviewing a map of an uninhabited island Divided into groups, they were required to prepare a presentation detailing how their society would function, emphasizing the importance of consensus building and the use of English throughout the process Despite their enthusiasm, students predominantly communicated in Czech during their preparations, even after the teacher encouraged them to use English When asked about verb tenses, the teacher allowed flexibility to promote the emergence of language in their final presentations.

After a 20-minute session where students created their utopian societies, they presented their ideas to the class while the teacher noted effective language use and areas needing clarification Feedback began with content, as students voted for the best utopian society and shared their opinions on strengths and areas for improvement The lesson concluded with a focus on language, where the teacher highlighted phrases that exemplified good usage, such as "They believe in intellect, so there is no religion," and "In the north, there are high mountains." Additionally, the teacher addressed the limited use of "will" and the passive voice in their presentations.

Students practiced the Present Simple tense, focusing on improving pronunciation of challenging words like "inhabitants" and "volcanoes." They encountered difficulties with prepositions, as seen in the incorrect phrase, "On north is cold by the whole year." Additionally, errors in verb forms were common, including mistakes such as "The inhabitants lives…" and "People can skiing…," along with issues in using modal auxiliaries, like "They must go to school for three years." The teacher highlighted these errors, allowing students to correct them independently.

The lesson was ended by praising the students for their work and reminding them to concentrate on the problematic areas in their future study.

The lesson successfully engaged students in creating their own utopian societies, allowing them to effectively practice relevant vocabulary and verb forms Both educational objectives were fully met.

The E-factor: Efficiency = economy, ease, efficacy

Regarding the economy factor of the task-based lesson, no prior teaching took place,

In this way, it was economical The ease factor was also satisfied, since it had not taken much time to set the activities.

The efficacy factor was fully met, as the task generated significant attention and engagement among students while they created their own utopian societies, fostering a competitive spirit Importantly, students not only focused on the task but also gained a deeper understanding of their mistakes, allowing them to self-correct during the final feedback stage, which positively impacted their memory retention Although the task was highly motivating, students did not fully utilize the opportunity to communicate in the target language, and they expressed a concern about time constraints in completing the assignment.

On the whole, it can be assumed that the efficiency factor was satisfied during this task-based lesson.

Taking the first aspect of the appropriacy factor into account, the task of creating utopian societies was absolutely adequate for the students, since their age – from 16 to

Seventeen-year-old teenagers often engage in discussions about an ideal world and society, making it a fitting topic for their low-intermediate English level, as they have a sufficient vocabulary and understanding of structures During this lesson, nine students participated, which limited the diversity of ideas, as more groups could have enriched the experience However, the lesson effectively met the students' interests and needs Although they had previously worked in groups, this was one of the few times they focused on a single task for the entire lesson, and they appeared to enjoy the collaborative process.

To summarize, the appropriacy factor was met, too.

Grammar-Translation Method

The Grammar-Translation Method was once called the Classical Method since it was used in the teaching of classical languages, Latin and Greek (Larsen-Freeman,

The Classical Method emphasized strict adherence to grammatical rules, vocabulary memorization, and text translation, often neglecting speaking skills (Brown, 2007) Grammar plays a crucial role in the Grammar-Translation Method, which involves extensive explanations and a focus on form However, this approach, characterized by repetitive drills and translations into the mother tongue, tends to diminish student motivation Despite its limitations, the Grammar-Translation Method continues to be widely used and remains popular in language education.

In Lesson Plan 5 for class Q, focused on the Grammar-Translation Method, students will explore various verb forms that express the future By the lesson's conclusion, they will have engaged with a text featuring these forms, deduced their uses, and practiced them through translation exercises Additionally, students will create and translate their own sentences, reinforcing their understanding of future verb forms.

Stage 1 – Presentation, reading and translating a text, stating different uses of verb

Materials: handouts with an adapted text (created by Alan Townend [41], see Appendix VII)

Anticipated problems: Since there are seven distinct verb forms used in the text, the students might mix them up; the students might find some of the used vocabulary new.

Procedure: The teacher announces the topic of this Grammar-Translation-based lesson: expressing the future by various verb forms.

Each student is provided with a handout, containing a text called “Jealousy”, where 7 verb forms for expressing the future are used

[41] http://www.english-test.net/lessons/20/index.html

The teacher puts the following uses on the board The students read the text aloud, translate it into Czech and decide which use the particular verb forms belong to

A probability (will) An offer (will)

A prediction (will) An opinion (will)

A prediction based on present evidence (be going to)

Arrangements (the Present Continuous tense)

A personal intention (the Present Continuous tense)

Certain future – a timetable (the Present Simple tense)

The very near future (be about to, be due to)

This article provides handouts featuring two exercises designed to practice the future tenses, specifically "be going to," "will," and the present tenses These resources are based on Eastwood's work (2006: 68-69) and can be found in Appendix VIII For additional practice materials, refer to the New Year's Worksheet available at Pearson Longman.

Anticipated problems: the students might not be able to distinguish between a sudden decision, arrangements, or future facts yet

Procedure: The students work individually on completing the two exercises; checking after each exercise; the students say what kind of use a particular verb form is.

Anticipated problems: the students might not use the verb forms for the future properly when creating and translating the sentences

Students will compose three sentences about themselves utilizing different future verb forms Once completed, they will share the Czech translations of their sentences with a peer, who will then attempt to translate them back into English This exercise enhances language skills and encourages peer interaction.

Own procedure in the classroom

In a Grammar-Translation-focused lesson attended by 11 students, the primary objective was to introduce and practice different verb forms for expressing the future The instruction heavily relied on translating material into Czech, with the teacher delivering guidance in the students' native language.

The lesson focused on expressing the future through various verb forms, utilizing a text titled "Jealousy" adapted from Alan Townend's materials Students received a handout that included seven verb forms and were introduced to eleven distinct uses of these forms, which were translated into Czech After reading the text to grasp its general idea, the class collaboratively analyzed the verb forms, translating sentences and discussing their uses The teacher facilitated the discussion in Czech, prompting students to respond in English with the names of the verb forms' uses Although the lesson was primarily conducted in Czech, students found the activity somewhat tedious, while the teacher documented the identified uses on the board.

The next phase involved practicing various future verb forms through two exercises sourced from the Internet and Eastwood's Oxford Practice Grammar In the first exercise, students chose between "will" and "be going to" in sentences, followed by a class discussion to clarify their choices The second exercise focused on the consequences of constructing a large shopping center in a small town, utilizing five different verb forms in a gapped format This stage required more time than anticipated, leading to a slight reduction in the subsequent task.

In the final stage of a Grammar-Translation lesson, students prepared sentences about themselves using different future verb forms However, due to time constraints, they only practiced these sentences orally instead of writing them down Following this individual preparation, they collaborated in pairs, translating their sentences into Czech, while their partners translated them back into English.

The success of the Grammar-Translation lesson hinged on the engagement of a specific class that enjoys grammar and translation, as its non-communicative approach could have jeopardized the outcomes Ultimately, all four objectives outlined in the lesson plan were successfully achieved.

The E-factor: Efficiency – economy, ease, efficacy

According to Thornbury (1999: 40), translation serves as an efficient and economical method for conveying meaning, particularly in helping learners grasp a general understanding, despite it being an approximation This highlights the effectiveness of incorporating translation in Grammar-Translation lessons, fulfilling both economy and ease of understanding for students.

In evaluating the efficacy of the lesson, students demonstrated high levels of attention throughout the activities The understanding of the material was fully achieved due to effective methods, including translation into their mother tongue, sufficient contextual support, comprehensive explanations, and regular checks for comprehension While memorizing all seven future verb forms in English posed a challenge—partly due to the limited ways to express the future in Czech—the lesson's structure supported learning Motivation levels varied across the three types of activities: translation and explanation, grammar practice, and sentence production Ultimately, the findings indicated that more communicative activities were significantly more motivating for students.

The lesson included a significant portion dedicated to translation and explanations in the students' native language, limiting their opportunities to practice the target language until the final stage As a result, it is evident that the effectiveness of the lesson was only partially achieved.

The Grammar-Translation Method appears suitable for the learners, considering factors such as age, proficiency level, group size, and composition In monolingual classes, translation efficiently conveys meaning, especially when the teacher is fluent in the students' native language The students' needs and interests were met, as they enjoyed the materials and activities provided Additionally, there were ample resources available, and the students were familiar with both the lesson content and the teaching method They had previously learned future verb forms, although some concepts, like the distinctions between "will" and "be going to," were misunderstood While students were generally comfortable with translation due to its frequent use in clarifying meaning, some may have felt disappointed by the lesson's heavy reliance on translation, anticipating more use of the target language.

To sum up, some of the sub-factors of appropriacy were satisfied, some were satisfied less.

Corpus-based lesson

Thornbury (1999) highlights that traditional descriptive rules in language were often based on intuition rather than evidence However, the emergence of large corpora, or databases of naturally occurring language, has enhanced the authority of language descriptions With concordancing programs, educators now have access to a wide range of examples, enabling effective pattern-seeking Utilizing concordance lines in the classroom can greatly promote an inductive approach to language learning.

The use of corpora for discovery learning in classrooms remains a topic of debate, with the primary advantage being the vast amount of language data available to learners However, this abundance can also lead to feelings of overwhelm Despite this challenge, many modern textbooks incorporate concordance data, and it was utilized in the final lesson of this thesis research.

Lesson plan 6 – Corpus-based lesson: verb forms for the future - class S

By the end of the lesson, students will be introduced to different verb forms that express the future within a corpus context They will analyze and deduce the functions of these verb forms, along with the adverbials commonly associated with them.

Stage 1 – Guided-discovery task: Adverbials in the future

Materials: three different handouts (one for each of the three groups of students) with concordance lines [42], (see Appendix X)

Students may initially struggle to navigate the concordance lines and may encounter unfamiliar vocabulary Additionally, they might find it challenging to identify which sentences express future tense and which do not.

In this classroom procedure, students are divided into three groups of three to four members each, with each group receiving a unique handout featuring four sets of 12 concordance lines These lines focus on two of the examined adverbials: still, always, never, ever, tomorrow, and yesterday As students collaborate within their groups, they analyze the lines to identify the corresponding adverbials The teacher oversees the activity, ensuring effective monitoring and support throughout the process.

The link provided leads to a concordancer tool that analyzes word usage within a specific corpus Users can input terms like "never," "always," "tomorrow," "yesterday," "still," and "ever" to explore their occurrences in the text The tool is designed for educational purposes, aiding in vocabulary development and understanding language patterns It offers a user-friendly interface with options to customize the output format and limit results for more focused analysis.

Students are given highlighters to identify sentences that express the future tense They must also assess whether any of their adverbials are used in a non-future context The teacher oversees the activity.

The students are then encouraged to find out which verb forms for the future are their two adverbials used with The teacher monitors.

The teacher reorganizes the class by creating new groups that include at least one member from each of the previous three groups In these new groups, students collaborate to share their findings on adverbials related to the future Meanwhile, the teacher observes and monitors the discussions.

Stage 2 – Guided-discovery task: Uses of the verb forms for the future

This article focuses on materials that include handouts featuring concordance lines that demonstrate six different verb forms for expressing future actions These forms are: "be going to," "will," the Present Simple tense, the Present Continuous tense, "be to," and "be about to." For detailed examples and applications, please refer to Appendix XI.

Students may struggle to distinguish between the various uses of two verb forms, as one form can serve multiple purposes To address this challenge effectively, it will likely be necessary to engage the entire class in collaborative exercises and discussions.

Students remain in their assigned groups and receive handouts featuring concordance lines Each group is equipped with two verb forms for expressing the future Their objective is to identify which of the 11 uses, such as agreements and official arrangements, applies to their assigned verb forms.

The article discusses various aspects of verb forms used to express personal intentions, sudden decisions, predictions based on current evidence, offers, and promises related to the near future It emphasizes the importance of understanding these forms in the context of future events and how they are monitored by the teacher in an educational setting.

The students then report to the class their findings; the teacher writes the verb forms next to the uses on the board The students make notes in their notebooks.

Own procedure in the classroom

In a recent corpus-based lesson attended by 10 students, the focus was on exploring different verb forms used to express the future within a corpus context The objectives included helping students deduce the applications of these verb forms while encouraging deeper reflection on the use of six specific adverbials related to future expressions.

The lesson commenced with an introduction to the concept of corpora, followed by dividing the ten students into three groups Each group received distinct handouts featuring four sets of 12 gapped concordance lines sourced from graded English readers The objective was to fill the gaps with six adverbials displayed on the board, with each group tasked to complete only two adverbials.

During the initial phase of the guided-discovery task, students faced confusion due to the overwhelming data and unclear instructions from the teacher They mistakenly filled in different adverbials in each concordance line Upon noticing this, the teacher clarified the correct approach to using adverbials Subsequently, students used highlighters to identify sentences indicating the future tense, prompting questions about specific verb forms to focus on The teacher encouraged them to highlight any recognized future verb forms and to analyze the usage of their two adverbials in relation to these forms This task was successfully completed, and the teacher recorded their findings on the board.

Students’ evaluation of the lessons

Over the course of two months, the teacher revisited the tasks and activities from the "special" lessons during the feedback sessions, emphasizing their objectives and the materials used Students then collaborated in pairs to complete questionnaires, addressing three key questions: which activities they found most beneficial for learning grammar, their preferred materials, and their impressions of the lessons where they felt they had learned the most.

Evaluation of the lessons by class Q

This article revisits key teaching methods and topics covered in the lessons, including the Audio-Lingual Method focusing on the Passive Voice, Communicative Language Teaching emphasizing modal verbs, and the Grammar-Translation Method addressing future verb forms.

Out of a total of 13 students in the class, only 10 participated in the questionnaire Several students attended the feedback session but chose not to complete the questionnaire, as they had only experienced one of the three lessons.

The feedback from students regarding the Audio-Lingual activities yielded surprising insights, with most students finding the materials neither particularly helpful nor entirely ineffective Notably, only two students deemed the lesson's materials as the best However, it is remarkable that nearly half of the ten students rated the Audio-Lingual lesson highly, expressing a sense of having learned something valuable.

The CLT activities received the highest ratings from students, with eight out of ten finding the authentic text about the Australian Open to be quite helpful Nearly half of the students found the discussion on future predictions particularly beneficial However, the role-play activity, where students acted as company members, received mixed reviews, with two students deeming it not very useful and another two finding it quite helpful More than half of the class considered the materials used in the CLT lesson to be the most engaging, yet only two students felt they truly learned something from the lesson.

The students' evaluation of the Grammar-Translation lesson revealed mixed feedback Six out of ten students found the translation of future verb forms and fill-in grammar exercises helpful However, half of the class viewed the activity of translating their own sentences between English and Czech as neither beneficial nor detrimental, while four students considered it helpful Only two students appreciated the materials used, which included a text about village life and exercises on future verb forms Despite this, nearly half of the class rated the Grammar-Translation lesson positively, feeling that they had learned something valuable during the session.

Students' preferences indicate a divide in learning methods; those familiar with the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach tend to rate it highly, while others express a preference for alternative, contrasting learning styles.

Evaluation of the lessons by class S

This article revisits the key teaching methods and topics covered in the class, including Content-based Instruction focusing on the Passive Voice, Task-based Instruction emphasizing language emergence from tasks, and a corpus-based lesson centered on future verb forms.

A total of 8 out of 11 students participated in the questionnaire, similar to the response rate in class Q, as some students attended only one of the three lessons.

The evaluation of the content-based lesson revealed mixed feelings among students, with half finding the activities neither helpful nor useless, while a few deemed them quite beneficial Interestingly, over half of the students, specifically five, found the materials related to New Zealand to be the most engaging Nonetheless, only two students rated this lesson as the best among the three, acknowledging that they had gained valuable knowledge from it.

The task-based lesson emerged as the most successful, with half of the students rating the mind-map activity and the creation of utopian societies as highly beneficial for their learning Four students found the subsequent presentations and teacher feedback to be quite helpful, while only two expressed a preference against these task types, deeming them not very useful Additionally, over a third of the class considered the materials used in this lesson to be the most appealing, and exactly half of the eight students felt that this lesson was the one where they truly learned something.

The students expressed dissatisfaction with the corpus-based lesson, with only three finding the task involving adverbials in concordance lines helpful The majority felt neutral or deemed it unproductive for their learning Regarding the task on verb forms, half of the class found it neither useful nor helpful, and others rated it even lower Additionally, none of the students appreciated the handouts provided during the lesson Overall, only two out of eight students had a positive impression of their learning experience in this corpus-based lesson.

To sum up, this group of students appreciated the more communicative lessons and activities, expressing their preference to work in groups and create something.

Conclusion

After conducting extensive research, key conclusions can be drawn regarding the effectiveness of six distinct methods for teaching and learning English verbs within a grammar school setting.

Based on student evaluations of six lessons, task-based and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methods emerged as the most effective, fostering a positive communicative atmosphere Interestingly, traditional methods like Audio-Lingual and Grammar-Translation also received high ratings, likely due to students' familiarity with these approaches However, the researcher’s assessment, following Thornbury's evaluation criteria, revealed shortcomings in these traditional methods, indicating that lesson aims were only partially met and efficiency was not consistently high In contrast, Task-based Instruction stood out as the only method that achieved all set objectives, demonstrating both effectiveness and appropriateness, and was regarded by one student group as the most beneficial lesson.

While various factors influence the effectiveness of the teaching methods analyzed, one significant aspect is the students' long-term memory and the memorability of the input and output The six lessons were conducted over two months, but only the Passive Voice was revisited in follow-up lessons, meaning students encountered the grammar structures just once This limited exposure, along with their prior experiences with different teachers, suggests that the research may not provide conclusive evidence regarding the effectiveness of either method However, it is important to highlight the teacher's role in the teaching and learning process.

According to Thornbury (1999), effective English grammar instruction requires several key principles First, grammar should be taught in context, linking grammatical forms to their meanings Second, communicative use must be integrated into grammar learning Third, teachers should prioritize practice over presentation Additionally, addressing specific grammar challenges and drawing parallels with students' native languages is essential Finally, Thornbury emphasizes the importance of appropriacy, ensuring that teaching methods align with learners' levels, needs, interests, and styles Regardless of the approach—be it Grammar-Translation, Communicative Language Teaching, or Task-based Instruction—grammar teaching should remain varied and engaging for students.

Brown, G., Malmkjaer, K., & Williams, J (Eds.) (1996) Performance and Competence in Second Language Acquisition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brown, H D (2007) Teaching by Principles (3 rd ed.) Pearson: Longman

Competence Versus Performance In Wikipedia Retrieved January 18, 2013 from http:// en.wikipedia.org

Eastwood, J (2006) Oxford Practice Grammar Oxford: Oxford University Press

Grammar In Wikipedia Retrieved September 13, 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org

Larsen-Freeman, D (2000) Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Oxford: Oxford University Press

Lewis, M (2002) The English Verb Boston: Heinle.

New Zealand In Wikipedia Retrieved December 28, 2012 from http://.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand

O’Keeffe, A., McCarthy, M., & Carter, R (2007) From Corpus to Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

As the Australian Open approaches, players are preparing to face extreme heat conditions, with temperatures expected to reach 40°C on Thursday Australia is currently experiencing a significant heatwave, impacting various regions The tournament's heat policy allows for play suspension if temperatures exceed certain thresholds, with officials ready to close the roofs on stadiums to manage the heat **Impact of Heat on Players' Performance** Playing in such high temperatures can severely affect players' physical and mental performance Notably, during the 2002 women's singles final, Martina Hingis described the draining effects of the heat, which can lead to slower reaction times and impaired judgment Experts emphasize the importance of cooling strategies and hydration to cope with the challenging conditions **Preparation is Key for Competitors** Players like Andy Murray and Laura Robson are aware of the demands posed by the heat and have trained to adapt They recognize that their opponents will also be affected, making preparation and recovery vital Fitness trainers and physiologists play a crucial role in ensuring players maintain their performance and hydration levels during matches **Outlook for the Tournament** Fortunately, the extreme heat is expected to be short-lived, with temperatures forecasted to drop by the weekend Tournament organizers are optimistic about managing the conditions effectively, ensuring that play can continue smoothly throughout the event.

- Retrieved March 29, 2013 http://www.english-test.net/lessons/20/index.html - Retrieved February 15, 2013 http://www.hu.mtu.edu/ujcarpen/hu3120/pdfs/thinkal oud.pdf - Retrieved December 20,

In 2012, various educational resources were accessed, including the IELTS exam site, Lextutor's concordancer tool, and a New Year's worksheet from Pearson Longman Notable video content was also retrieved from YouTube, featuring links accessed on December 25, 2012, and January 18, 2013 These resources were instrumental in enhancing language learning and comprehension skills.

The diploma thesis deals with effective ways of teaching and learning English verbs. The research has been carried out in a grammar-school environment.

The diploma thesis is structured into several key sections, beginning with a theoretical foundation that explores grammar definitions, the meanings of grammatical forms, types of grammar rules, and the debate on teaching grammar The core of the thesis investigates three language learning areas: first, it assesses students' language competence and performance using various aids; second, it employs the Think Aloud Protocol to gain insights into students' procedural knowledge during writing tasks; and third, it details six lessons targeting specific verb-related difficulties faced by students, including an overview of the teaching methods applied, lesson plans, and classroom procedures Additionally, the thesis evaluates lesson effectiveness using Scott Thornbury’s criteria for grammar-based instruction Finally, it presents students' perspectives on the lessons, summarizing their evaluations of the teaching methods utilized.

In the conclusion part, advice for effective lesson planning and the factors that a teacher dealing with grammar should bear in mind are presented.

Tato diplomová práce se zabývá efektivními způsoby vyučování a učení se anglickým slovesům Výzkum byl prováděn v gymnaziálním prostředí.

This thesis comprises several sections, with the first section presenting the theory of grammar It covers key areas such as the definition of grammar, the various meanings of grammatical forms, types of grammatical rules, and a discussion on the necessity of teaching grammar.

The main section of this thesis explores three key areas Firstly, it identifies the competencies, production capabilities, and knowledge of the participating students using various tools Secondly, a qualitative method known as the Think Aloud Protocol is employed in one of the classes to gain deeper insights into their procedural skills and how these are influenced while working on a written assignment.

The third key aspect involved six teaching hours focused on verb areas where students faced difficulties This section includes the theory behind the examined and utilized teaching methods, lesson plans, and a description of the classroom process Additionally, it evaluates the effectiveness and appropriateness of these lessons, employing Thornbury's classification of factors influencing the effectiveness of grammar-based instruction The final part of the research presents students' perspectives on the taught lessons, summarizing their evaluations of the respective classes and the teaching methods used.

V závěrečné části jsou uvedeny rady pro efektivní plánování hodin a faktory,které by učitel měl mít na zřeteli při vyučování gramatiky.

Appendix I – Test – verb forms and modal verbs

Complete the given sentences with the correct verb forms:

1.It in Italy 10 years ago (design)

2 I him since I last met you (not see)

3 Love _ the world go round (make)

5 I usually go to work by bus but this week I the car (take)

7 Where you _ for your holidays next summer? (go)

8 I _ to him yesterday, but I missed him (be going to speak)

9 She _ TV from 2 to 4.30 yesterday afternoon (watch)

10 I think I (be going to sneeze)

11 I him before the last meeting (meet)

12 I would ask him if I him (see)

14 The bus _ at 7.30 tomorrow morning (leave)

Now, complete the following sentences with the correct modal auxiliaries: shall, will, should, would, may, might, must, can, could

1.What you do if you won the lottery?

2 My 5-year-old sister already say the alphabet backwards.

3 Bill asked who she _ be.

4 _ I arrange a meeting with the director, please?

5 _ I carry the bags for you?

6 People _ not break their promises.

7 What happen in the world in 2030?

8 He have lost his way.

9 The children be back by 4 o’clock.

Appendix II – Questionnaire about verb forms

QUESTIONNAIRE Performance/Competence always sometimes never

I think about grammar when I speak/write in English

I think about grammar when I read/listen in English

…… can form affirmative sentences of these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb (I go to school.)

2.2nd form of the verb (I went to school yesterday.)

3.3rd form of the verb (I have never been to Australia.)

4.continuous forms (I am/was/will be watching TV.)

5.the Future (will/going to/PrS/PrC etc.)

6.the Passive (The bread was/will be/is being baked.)

7.modal auxiliaries (would/might/ should etc.)

…… can form negative sentences of these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb (I don’t go to school.)

2.2nd form of the verb (I didn’t go to school yesterday.)

3.3rd form of the verb (I haven’t been to Australia.)

4.continuous forms (I am not/wasn’t/won’t be watching

5.the Future (will not/going to/PrS/PrC etc.)

6.the Passive (The bread wasn’t/won’t be/isn’t being baked.)

…… can form questions of these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb (Do you go to school?)

2.2nd form of the verb (Did you go to school yesterday?)

3.3rd form of the verb (Have you ever been to Australia?)

4.continuous forms (Are you watching TV?)

5.the Future (Will you watch…?/

Are you going to/PrS/PrC etc.)

6.the Passive (Was the bread baked? Is the bread being baked?)

(Would/might/should it be…?)

…… can put words into the correct word order regarding these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb

2.2nd form of the verb

3.3rd form of the verb

…… can say sth politely when using these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb (Help yourself I see what you mean.)

2.2nd form of the verb (What name was it, please?)

3.3rd form of the verb (I guess we had met before.)

4.continuous forms (Are you feeling better?)

5.the Future (I am going to ask you a question.)

6.the Passive (I was told you were leaving.)

7.modal auxiliaries (Would you mind ? Shall I open the door?)

The teacher corrects ……….when s/he uses these verb forms always sometimes never

1.1st form of the verb

2.2nd form of the verb

3.3rd form of the verb

Appendix III – Think Aloud Protocol – writing tasks

Appendix IV – New Zealand – Quiz

1 Where is New Zealand located?

A: to the south-west of Australia

B: to the south-east of Australia

C: to the south of Australia

D: to the north of Australia

2 The highest mountain of New Zealand is

3 The largest insect in the world lives in New Zealand and it is called

4 There are approximately sheep per person.

5 The first inhabitants came to New Zealand in

A: the 7 th century C: the 13 th century

B: the 9 th century D: the 15 th century

6 Who was the first European that reached New Zealand?

8 Why was The Treaty of Waitangi so important?

A: it declared New Zealand its sovereignty

B: it was the basis of European-Maori relations

C: it guaranteed the Maori people compensation for confiscated property

D: it was the first contract between New Zealand and Australia

9 The capital of New Zealand is

10 How many per cent of New Zealand population speak Maori language?

11 School attendance in New Zealand is compulsory up to the age of

A: the name of NZ rugby representation C: Maori dance

B: Maori name for rugby D: the name of Maori warriors

New Zealand, known as Aotearoa in Maori, is an island nation located in the south-western Pacific Ocean, comprising two primary landmasses: the North and South Islands, along with several smaller islands These main islands are separated by the Cook Strait and are situated approximately 1,500 kilometres southeast of Australia across the Tasman Sea The South Island, the largest landmass, features the Southern Alps that run along its length, with Mount Cook being its highest peak at 3,754 metres In contrast, the North Island is characterized by its volcanic landscape and is less mountainous.

New Zealand has a mild and temperate climate.

New Zealand's unique biodiversity is a result of its 80 million years of geographic isolation and island biogeography, which fostered the development of distinct animal and plant species Prior to human arrival, approximately 80% of the land was forested, creating a habitat dominated by birds and devoid of mammalian predators, leading to the evolution of species like the kiwi and kakapo Additionally, New Zealand is home to more penguin species than any other country and hosts the world's largest insect, the weta.

New Zealand's economy relies significantly on international trade, with a strong focus on agricultural exports The country's key industries include agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining Notably, dairy farming has surged in importance, establishing itself as New Zealand's top export earner In 2007, the sheep population was estimated to be around 40 million, underscoring the country's robust agricultural sector.

New Zealand was initially settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300, leading to the development of the unique Maori culture The population was organized into tribes and subtribes that interacted through cooperation, competition, and conflict The first Europeans to arrive were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642, but it wasn't until 1769 that British explorer James Cook extensively mapped the coastline, paving the way for further European exploration.

Christian missionaries settled in New Zealand, leading to the conversion of many Maori people In 1840, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed, ensuring compensation for the Maori's confiscated property and declaring British sovereignty over New Zealand This treaty spurred an increase in immigrants from the United Kingdom New Zealand became a separate colony on July 1, 1841, and achieved self-governance in 1856, taking charge of domestic affairs Notably, in 1893, New Zealand became the first country in the world to grant women the right to vote.

1907 King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire, reflecting its self-governing status.