绪论
现代汉语词类活用
1.1.1 现代汉语词类活用界定
The phenomenon of word class conversion, a common grammatical method in Classical Chinese, is also prevalent in Modern Chinese and is increasingly attracting the attention of language experts and scholars Many researchers have defined and explored the occurrences of word class conversion in contemporary Chinese.
According to Lü Shuxiang, a word should have a specific usage (its original use), and any alternative usage is considered a flexible application Hu Yushu adds that Class A words may occasionally be used as Class B words under certain conditions for rhetorical purposes, which he defines as flexible usage.
Lv Shuxiang noted that the changes in semantics are quite unique, occurring only occasionally rather than regularly, which he refers to as "temporary" usage.
Guo Liang believes that the flexible use of word classes primarily pertains to nouns, verbs, and adjectives Each of these categories has a specific role within sentences, indicating that their basic functions are relatively fixed However, certain words can be flexibly employed according to linguistic conventions, allowing them to temporarily alter their grammatical function and serve as different word classes This phenomenon is known as the flexible use of word classes.
Huang Borong and Liao Xudong suggest that "the flexible use of words is a unique application that temporarily borrows terms under specific conditions to meet expressive needs."
从上述对“现代汉语词类活用”所列举的五个定义可以看到：各位学者对
The concept of "word class activation" may be expressed in various ways, but fundamentally, it remains consistent, focusing on the grammatical and rhetorical aspects of word class usage In summary, modern word class activation exhibits four key characteristics.
Modern Chinese word classes can be flexibly used in specific contexts to achieve temporary objectives, allowing one category of words to function as another This results in a temporary change in grammatical roles.
Secondly, this change is temporary and non-regular, requiring specific context to determine the classification of words Thirdly, the flexible usage of word classes in modern Chinese primarily reflects grammatical and semantic phenomena, infused with rhetorical elements.
其四，这种现象更倾向于言语现象。
1.1.2 现代汉语词类活用分类
Based on collected examples, the phenomenon of functional utilization frequently occurs in the three main categories of content words: nouns, verbs, and adjectives This issue is closely related to factors such as rhetoric, semantics, and cognition.
Nouns serve a naming function, verbs express actions, and adjectives describe the shapes of objects, creating an interconnected relationship among these three categories of content words The expressions and shapes often have inherent links to their corresponding entities, as people frequently associate concrete objects with related actions or their unique forms The phenomenon of flexible usage also carries rhetorical significance, reflecting the cognitive abilities of different cultures and individuals Consequently, this flexible usage primarily manifests in the three categories of content words in the Chinese language.
Nouns primarily serve grammatical functions as the subject, object, attribute, and predicate in sentences In specific contexts, nouns can also temporarily function as verbs or adjectives to achieve particular purposes.
(1)就是运气了你！（《药》鲁迅）(活用为动词)
The current style you are wearing embodies a distinctly Chinese and Eastern aesthetic For instance, the noun "luck" can be temporarily used as a verb, meaning "to bring luck to someone." Additionally, the nouns "China" and "the West," which are geographical locations, can also be adapted as adjectives to describe characteristics associated with Chinese and Eastern attire.
1.1.2.2 形容词活用
Adjectives primarily function as predicates, adverbials, and headwords in sentences However, in certain contexts, they can temporarily act as verbs, allowing for the inclusion of an object Additionally, adjectives can also serve as nouns, fulfilling a referential role.
（3）华大妈也黑着眼眶。（《药》鲁迅）（活用为动词）
（4）诗歌是一种慢。（活用为名词）
(http://www.rongshuxia.com/book/3568355.html)
例（3）形容词“黑”是指颜色的，但是临时活用为动词。例（4）形容词
“慢”表示速度低，临时活用为名词。
The primary grammatical function of verbs is to serve as the predicate of a sentence However, in certain specific contexts, verbs can also be used as nouns or adjectives to achieve temporary objectives.
(5) 学习是党员的使命和追求。（活用为名词） http://www.gmw.cn/content/2005-09/07/content_300463.htm
(6) 他最近很发福。（活用为形容词）
The verb "to learn" signifies the process of acquiring knowledge or skills through reading, listening, research, and practice When temporarily used as a noun, its meaning shifts Similarly, the verb "to gain weight," which means to become overweight, can be temporarily adapted into an adjective to describe someone as very overweight.
现代汉语词类活用与兼类词
谈到“词类活用”不可不提“兼类”，两者之间存着密切的关系。
1 2.1 现代汉语兼类界定
Currently, there is a consensus among scholars regarding the existence of polysemy in modern Chinese; however, there are still differences in how this phenomenon is defined among researchers.
Guo Rui defines "polysemous words" as words that belong to multiple parts of speech and identifies three related phenomena The first is "homonymous polysemous words," where the same meaning (or more accurately, the same general term) belongs to multiple parts of speech The second is "heteronymous polysemous words," where several meanings that are related in significance belong to different parts of speech Lastly, "heterogeneous homonymous words" refer to words that are phonetically and morphologically identical but belong to different parts of speech without any semantic connection.
Huang Borong and Liao Xudong suggest that "the dual categorization of words refers to a word frequently possessing the primary grammatical functions of two or more categories."
Lu Jianming proposes different definitions of polysemy based on various research and application needs Firstly, from the perspective of ontological research, it refers to words that share the same conceptual term but possess two distinct grammatical characteristics, specifically words that are homophonic and synonymous yet differ in part of speech Secondly, in the context of Chinese language teaching, it defines words that have the same form and sound but are closely related in meaning while differing in grammatical category Lastly, from the standpoint of Chinese information processing, it describes words that share the same form and sound but have different meanings or grammatical categories.
Ou Junyong defines "polysemous words" as words in modern Chinese that exhibit two or more grammatical functions in different contexts, while maintaining a close relationship in their lexical meanings.
从上述的定义上现代汉语兼类词有几个基本特点：
其一，兼类词就是一个词具有两类以上的语法功能。
其二，兼类词的几个基本意义之间有较紧密的联系。
其三，兼类词是一种有经常性、固定性的语言现象。
其四，兼类词更倾向于语言系统。
Based on the definitions of "兼类," we find that both Mr Lu Jianming and Mr Guo Rui offer similar interpretations However, from a linguistic research perspective, Mr Lu's definition is more specific and clear In contrast, when considering Chinese language teaching, Mr Guo's approach provides valuable insights.
Huang Borong and Liao Xudong provide a clear and concise definition that is easily understandable for Chinese language learners, facilitating their grasp of modern Chinese homonyms.
1.2.2 “活用”与 “兼类”关系
Based on the definitions of "polysemy" and "functional usage" provided above, it is clear that the concepts of polysemy and functional usage represent distinct linguistic phenomena.
Lu Jianming argues that temporary borrowing should not be viewed as a phenomenon of homonymy For instance, in the phrase "You are even more Qin Shi Huang than Qin Shi Huang," the second "Qin Shi Huang" is not considered a homonymous term Instead, it exemplifies the phenomenon of word usage in a flexible context.
(7）你真运气，果然心想事成！（现代汉语词典-第五版）
（8）就是运气了你！（《药》鲁迅）
（9）实践是检查真理的唯一标准。（现代汉语词典-第五版）
（10）我的英语说得不太标准。（现代汉语词典-第五版）
在例（7）的“运气”（形容词）是“本用”，它的意义是“幸运”，在例（8）的
“运气”已经活用为动词，它的意义是“给谁带来运气”。在例（9）和（10）的
The term "standard" functions as a dual-class word in the Chinese language, serving as both a noun and an adjective In example (9), "standard" is used as a noun, acting as the object of the verb "export." Conversely, in example (10), "standard" is employed as an adjective, functioning as a complement to the verb "speak." This dual grammatical role highlights the versatility of the word in different contexts.
1.2.2.1 活用与兼类的区别
从“活用”与“兼类”的定义上看，我们可以指出两者之间的主要区别， 以下：
-倾向于言语现象
-是认知现象
-具有个体性
-具有临时性、多变性
-倾向于语言系统 -是相对完整的语法系统现象 -属于静态
-属于全民性 -具有稳定性
从上表上看，我们可以了解到词的 “活用”和词的“兼类”的区别。 词的
"Utilization" serves a rhetorical purpose by allowing one part of speech to take on the grammatical function of another in a specific context This usage is temporary and carries rhetorical significance, highlighting the flexibility and creativity of language in conveying meaning.
The use of words carries a sense of freshness and personal style, making it essential to consider the specific context in which they are employed Without this context, the meanings and applications of these words may fade away This highlights the phenomenon of "active usage" of language, which is inherently tied to verbal communication.
（11）今年的秋天很秋天。
（http://news.longhoo.net/2010-11/07/content_4549288.htm）
In example (11), the term "autumn" appears twice with different grammatical functions The first "autumn" is a noun referring to the season from September to November, characterized by cooling temperatures and refreshing breezes, making the weather pleasant This season is also a time of harvest, showcasing beautiful landscapes filled with abundant fruits and golden fields The second "autumn" is used adjectivally, describing qualities and features associated with the season This usage is specific and not standard, meaning it cannot be used independently from its context.
“很秋天”会不能存在，没有什么意义。
The concept of "polysemy" in language refers to words that belong to two or more grammatical categories, showcasing a recognized and stable grammatical function Even when removed from specific contexts, the meanings and grammatical roles of these words persist and can stand alone, indicating their static nature and inclination towards the language system For example, consider the following instances:
Breakfast is abundant, offering options like meat porridge, steamed buns, and cakes The school has a policy that prohibits leftover food in bowls, encouraging students to take only what they can eat.
现代汉语名、形概述
Nouns and adjectives are two fundamental word classes, and linguists have consistently held a unified perspective on their definitions and grammatical functions.
1.3.1 现代汉语名词的定义
The definition of a type of word can reveal its essence; however, the interpretation of this "essence" depends on the perspective from which it is observed.
Chinese grammarians understand nouns from a semantic perspective, with Mr Li Jinxu proposing a specific definition that highlights the intrinsic meaning of nouns in language.
Nouns are names that represent entities in our concepts According to Mr Wang Li, "the names of tangible objects, as well as names in philosophy and science, are called nouns." Similarly, Huang Borong and Liao Xudong assert that "nouns denote the names of people, things, and times." Gao Gengsheng also states that "nouns are words that signify the names of people or things."
Scholars generally agree that names representing "things" are classified as nouns However, due to the ambiguous nature of the concept of "things," some argue that nouns should be identified based on their grammatical function For instance, Zhao Yuanren suggests that nouns can be modified by determinative-quantitative compound words, citing examples like "wind," "ability," "matter," "thing," and "attention." Yuan Yulin takes a stricter approach, defining a specific category of words that can be modified by quantifiers but not by adverbs as typical examples of nouns.
The classification of words is increasingly supported by people, as its purpose is to clarify the structure of sentences and the usage of different types of words Therefore, I believe that categorizing words based on their functions is the correct approach.
1.3.2 名词的语法功能 关于名词的基本语法功能（组合能力、做句法成分的能力），各语法学家几乎
都有同样的看法：
Guo Rui provides specific insights on noun usage: 1) The primary functions of nouns are as subjects and objects, though not all nouns can serve these roles; 2) 78% of nouns can be modified by quantifiers; 3) Nouns typically do not receive direct modification from numerals and numeral phrases; 4) 98% of nouns can be modified by other adjectives beyond numerals and quantifiers; 5) 68% of nouns can function directly as adjectives; 6) Generally, nouns cannot serve as objects of the preposition "in" without a locative word; 7) Nouns typically do not function as adverbials; 8) Nouns generally cannot receive modifications from adverbials; 9) Nouns usually cannot act as predicates, but can conditionally do so in two scenarios: A) when used in the structure "what (VP + 的) ~" (e.g., "What did you buy?"), B) in other contexts (e.g., "It is cloudy today," "He has double eyelids ").
Huang Borong and Liao Xudong offer clear and concise suggestions for effective writing: 1) Use subjects and objects frequently, avoiding complements; 2) Generally, quantity words can precede nouns, but adverbs should not be added; 3) Certain nouns that denote people may be followed by additional modifiers.
“们”表示群体，不加“们”的名词可以是个体，也可以是群体。
1.3.3 现代汉语形容词的定义
Currently, no grammarian has provided a clear definition of adjectives, as they seem to view this part of speech as relatively easy to grasp Nevertheless, their discussions reveal that adjectives are primarily understood from the perspectives of meaning and function Notably, Huang Borong and Liao Xudong, along with Guo Rui, represent these two viewpoints in their work "Modern Chinese, Volume Two."
“形容词表示性质、状态”（从语义上看）
In his work "Research on Modern Chinese Word Classes," Guo Rui defines the criteria for classifying adjectives as those that can fulfill the construction "hen [bu] ~" while not allowing for the structure "hen [bu] ~ ." This indicates that he clearly identifies adjectives from a functional perspective.
Regardless of which perspective one subscribes to, it is essential to acknowledge that both viewpoints have their limitations In the following sections, we will delve into a comprehensive analysis of this issue, examining each aspect in detail to provide a more nuanced understanding.
1.3.4 形容词的语法功能
Research on the grammar of adjectives has yielded significant results, with linguists generally sharing a consensus, albeit with varying depths of understanding For this discussion, we will focus on the perspectives of Huang, Liao, and Guo Rui as two representative viewpoints.
Huang Borong and Liao Xudong present concise conclusions regarding adjectives: 1) Adjectives can serve as predicates or predicate centers and modifiers, primarily directly modifying nouns; 2) Many qualitative adjectives can be modified by degree adverbs; 3) Adjectives cannot take objects Guo Rui conducts a detailed study on the grammatical functions of adjectives, revealing that 99.47% of adjectives can function as
谓语；2）98%的可以受以“很”为代表的绝对程度副词的修饰；3）94%的可受
The negation of "no" is less frequently influenced by the negation of "not (have)" Additionally, 97% of instances can be modified by other adverbials, while 83% can include complements Furthermore, 69% are willing to function as complements, but only 10 adjectives can take direct objects.
汉、越名词活用为形容词现象的研究现状
1.4.1 汉语名词活用为形容词现象的研究现状
The concept of the functional use of Chinese word classes was first introduced in 1898 by Ma Jianzhong in his work "Ma's Literary Communication." In 1922, Chen Chengze's "Draft of National Language Grammar" was the first to formally name this phenomenon as "functional use of characters," marking the beginning of the modern theory of word class functionality Since then, numerous scholars have conducted in-depth studies, particularly focusing on the phenomenon of nouns functioning as verbs in the Chinese language.
In 2003, Zheng Li conducted a multi-perspective study on the phenomenon of word class conversion, focusing on the interaction among three major word classes in modern Chinese: verbs, nouns, and adjectives The research utilized grammar, pragmatics, and semantics as a framework to explore the interconversion of these lexical categories, considering semantic, pragmatic, and cognitive factors The findings revealed that the opportunities for conversion among these word classes are not equal, with prominent conversions occurring primarily from nouns to verbs, nouns to adjectives, and adjectives to verbs, alongside a limited number of non-predicative adjectives converting to general adjectives, reflecting a trend of nominalization into predicates Semantically, the study concluded that the basis for the conversion of nouns to adjectives and verbs lies in the inherent qualities of nouns, which encompass both property and action meanings.
Liu Jia's study, "A Discussion on the Phenomenon of Modern Chinese Word Class Flexibility Since the Reform and Opening Up," provides an in-depth analysis of the conversion of nouns and adjectives He concludes that the conversion of nouns into adjectives is the most prevalent, with the highest proportion and the widest range This phenomenon is observed across nearly all categories of nouns, including personal nouns, object nouns, geographical nouns, abstract nouns, and temporal nouns.
Zhang Yong, in his work "An Examination of the Functional Use of Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs in Modern Chinese," offers insights into the phenomenon of nouns being used as adjectives He categorizes the seven forms described by Zou Shaohua (1990) that externalize the adjectival characteristics of nouns into four main structures: "very + noun," "so/that + noun," other constructions (such as noun + extremely, noun +ly, noun + very much/terribly, etc.), and examples of polysemous words that can fit into the aforementioned three structures.
Although many scholars have noted the phenomenon of nominal conversion to adjectives, research on this topic has yielded some results but still leaves gaps to explore Building on previous studies, this article aims to conduct an in-depth analysis of the phenomenon of nominal conversion to adjectives in modern Chinese from the perspectives of grammatical function, semantic cognition, and rhetoric, while also comparing it to similar phenomena in Vietnamese to highlight their similarities and differences.
1.4.2 越南语名词活用为形容词现象的研究现状
So far, to my knowledge, no scholars have thoroughly investigated the phenomenon of Vietnamese nouns being used as adjectives.
（临时转类现象）。关于这个问题，Diệp Quang Ban（叶光斑）、Hoàng Văn Thung
Trong tác phẩm "Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt," tác giả Lê Biên đã đề cập đến hiện tượng ngữ pháp trong tiếng Việt, nhưng chưa thực hiện nghiên cứu sâu về vấn đề này Trung tâm Khoa học Xã hội và Nhân văn Quốc Gia cũng ghi nhận điều này trong "Ngữ pháp tiếng Việt" do Nhà xuất bản Khoa học Xã hội phát hành.
1.4.3 汉、越名词活用为形容词现象的对比研究现状
In Vietnam, I have conducted research at various universities offering Chinese language programs, such as Hanoi National University and Hanoi University Additionally, I explored the CNKI database, which contains a wealth of academic theses and journal articles My investigation revealed only one relevant master's thesis by Xie Wenhai titled "A Comparative Study of the Class Conversion between Chinese and Vietnamese" from Fujian Normal University in 2007 However, this thesis primarily focuses on the comparison of class conversion in ancient Chinese and Vietnamese, specifically examining nouns, verbs, and adjectives There remains a significant gap in research regarding the modern phenomenon of noun conversion to adjectives in both languages This article aims to compare the grammatical functions, semantic cognition, and rhetorical aspects of noun conversion to adjectives in Chinese and Vietnamese, highlighting the similarities and differences between the two languages.
So far, the phenomenon of modern Chinese nouns being used as adjectives has garnered significant attention from linguists; however, several issues still remain.
语法学家们对活用现象提出的定义还没达到一致
Linguists have yet to reach a consensus on the fundamental differences between the phenomena of "functional use" and "polysemy," as they have not established a unified definition for both concepts.
“活用”现象跟“修辞”有密切关系。
There appears to be a lack of research comparing the phenomenon of nominal conversion to verbal usage in Chinese and Vietnamese languages.
Based on the definitions provided by grammarians, I propose a standard for defining "flexible usage" in modern Chinese This includes distinguishing and clarifying the relationship between the phenomenon of "flexible usage" and "polysemy." This chapter serves as the theoretical foundation for Chapters Two and Three.
现代汉语名词活用为形容词现象的考察研究
从语法功能角度看现代汉语名词活用为形容词现象
根据第一章的内容，名词的典型语法功能是:
可以受数量词修饰
经常充当句子的典型主语(施事主语)和典型的宾语(受事宾语、结果宾 语)
一般能做领属定语修饰其它名词
一般不受程度副词修饰。
The phenomenon of noun functional shift occurs when a noun deviates from its typical grammatical role and temporarily adopts the grammatical functions of other word classes When a noun functions as an adjective, it can exhibit the characteristic grammatical features associated with adjectives.
名词受副词（包括具有富词性的代词）的修饰。
能出现在一些形容词所出现的典型结构。
下面我们根据语料对名词的上述用法做详细地分析。
2.1.1 名词与副词搭配
刘月华《实用现代汉语语法》（商务印书馆-增订本-2005 年-北京）认为：
Adverbs are words that modify or limit verbs and adjectives, often used to describe the scope, time, degree, manner, and affirmation or negation of actions or states Their primary grammatical function is to serve as adverbials, allowing them to modify verbs, adjectives, or even entire sentences Notably, nouns are not typically modified by adverbs, especially degree adverbs; therefore, when a noun is used in an "adverb + noun" structure, it indicates the noun's active usage.
Degree adverbs primarily serve to modify adjectives and verbs that express mental states While they typically do not modify general verbs or nouns, there are numerous instances where degree adverbs appear to modify nouns This phenomenon illustrates the linguistic occurrence of nouns being used as adjectives in modern Chinese Here are some examples to consider.
（17）红色的毛衣外套，很学生。
（http://www.mogujie.com/note/1d30fs?showtype=image&imageidajeu）
Two years ago, a girl shared a poem she had written, which contained a line that resonated with a sense of nobility: "The soul is in high places."
In examples (17) and (18), the degree adverb "很" functions as an adverbial modifier, enhancing the nouns "学生" (student) and "贵族" (noble) to indicate a high degree of their respective characteristics Here, "学生" and "贵族" serve as predicates and state complements, with the nouns being effectively transformed into adjectives.
Chinese traditional music intertwines with delicious local snacks that have distinct regional characteristics, while the conversation revolves around modern and widely recognized financial topics.
This writing is highly personal, making the book an intimate reflection of the author's experiences and thoughts.
Reports indicate that those offering high prices are neither genuine wealthy individuals nor passionate enthusiasts; in fact, a significant portion of them are using public funds for their purchases.
My father holds no regard for the county magistrate who nearly beat Xiao Kui to death; he is truly fierce, stubborn, and strong.
In examples (19) and (20), the degree adverb "very" modifies the nouns "modern" and "personal," functioning as an adverbial to indicate characteristics of the modern era and individuality Similarly, in examples (21) and (22), the degree adverb continues to emphasize the attributes being described.
The term "true" can also modify nouns, serving as an adverbial in sentences Nouns such as "wealthy individual," "leopard," "donkey," and "cow" flexibly utilize the grammatical function of adjectives.
除了上述的最常见的程度副词“很，非常，真”还有很多其他程度副词如
“更，挺，特别，太，十分”也能修饰名词。
The close relationship between sports and the public has made life for the Chinese people more relaxed and modern.
（24）这种发型叫什么名字啊？挺好看，挺淑女。
（http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/107444924.html）
(25) 婚姻家庭法律特别原则。
（http://www.021-12348.cn/falu/447.html）
(26) 是太年经也太现代 了！（《来来往往》-池莉）
Many people hold meetings in various locations, allowing them to hear and see each other while also showcasing charts, documents, and physical items This group consists of modern teenagers, including those from the local area as well as those from outside.
从上述的例子中，我们可以看出程度副词“很，非常，十分，真，更，挺，特
Trong tiếng Trung, các từ như "别" và "太" thường được sử dụng để bổ nghĩa cho các danh từ, và mọi người đều công nhận rằng cấu trúc "độ từ + X" là một dạng điển hình của tính từ.
The grammatical structure is a dominant linguistic phenomenon in modern Chinese This highlights the significance of understanding modern language usage and its implications for effective communication.
大款，淑女，原则，贵族，个人，豹，驴”等名词能进入“程度副词+X”结构中占
从语义认知角度看现代汉语名词活用为形容词现象
2.2.1 名词语义特征分析
名词的语义可以分为两类：概念义和色彩义。
The conceptual meaning, also known as rational meaning, represents the essence of a word by directly summarizing and reflecting the fundamental characteristics of objective entities Nouns correspond to specific objects, each possessing numerous detailed traits; however, when forming the conceptual meaning of a noun, many of these intricate characteristics are generalized Consequently, conceptual meaning embodies the most fundamental significance and commonality, typically illustrated through definitions found in dictionaries.
儿童：较幼小的未成年人
时尚：当时的风尚
Tradition encompasses generationally transmitted social factors such as culture, morals, thoughts, and systems Additionally, color meaning, or connotative meaning, can be divided into two categories: extrinsic and intrinsic properties Extrinsic properties are not inherent to the noun itself but relate to the qualities associated with the concept, often exhibiting instability influenced by ethnicity, region, and era For instance, the term "children" implies qualities like innocence, liveliness, and naivety; "fashion" refers to trends that are contemporary and stylish; and "tradition" denotes characteristics that are traditional, ancient, and simple In contrast, intrinsic properties are inherent to the word's meaning, maintaining a fixed and direct relationship with the conceptual meaning.
The distinction between intrinsic meaning and additional meaning is not absolute; rather, they are closely related Intrinsic meaning directly derives from conceptual meaning, while additional meaning is further inferred from intrinsic meaning through human associations In other words, additional meaning is indirectly derived from conceptual meaning.
The nature of additional meanings in language is influenced by cultural factors, which encompass a nation's history, geography, customs, lifestyle, literature, norms, thought processes, and values People's understanding is shaped by the specific cultural and social environments they inhabit Therefore, studying the cognitive factors behind the usage of nouns must take into account the interplay of social and cultural contexts We will illustrate this with examples.
2.2.2 名词活用为形容词的语义特征认知分析
To clearly understand the cognitive mechanisms behind the semantic features of noun usage as adjectives, we will analyze the term "cow."
名词的活用现象作为例子来仔细分析。请看以下图示：
联想 1 联想 2 联想 3 联想 4
活用为形容词
联想 5 联想 6 联想 7
图 4 a.“牛”的本意
“牛“是象形字。请看如下的图形和《说文解字》解义。
（名）哺乳动物，趾端有蹄，头上长一对角，
是反刍类动物，力气大，能耕田拉车，肉和奶
可食 、角、皮、骨可作器物
（台湾人）坚毅、刻
用力不用智
Adj 健壮、有本
Adj 固执、骄傲
甲骨文 金文 小篆 隶书
《说文解字》对“牛”字的解释是:“牛，大牲也”。我们先说说“大”，牛
是体型庞大的动物，《说文解字》由牛之“大”着眼，由此衍生出一系列的字。
从图 5 中的解义，“牛”名词概念义有 8 个义项。 为什么一个指动物名词能
Việc sử dụng "活用" như một tính từ cần được phân tích kỹ lưỡng, đặc biệt là liên quan đến những liên tưởng nội tại với ý nghĩa của khái niệm.
In analyzing the perception of the "ox" among the Chinese, it becomes evident that cultural significance and symbolism play a crucial role in shaping their understanding of this animal The ox is often associated with strength, hard work, and resilience, reflecting traditional values that resonate deeply within Chinese society This connection highlights the ox's importance in agriculture and its representation in various cultural expressions, reinforcing its status as a revered figure in Chinese culture.
In Chinese culture, the concept of "cow" carries significant associations that reflect the deep-rooted agricultural traditions of the society These associations highlight the importance of cattle in farming practices, symbolizing hard work, prosperity, and a connection to the land The cultural perceptions of cows not only emphasize their role in agriculture but also illustrate broader values such as diligence and harmony with nature, showcasing how these elements are intertwined within the fabric of Chinese identity.
The understanding and recognition of a significant animal, the cow, have led to the incorporation of its characteristics into the Chinese language to describe human traits.
In the process of gathering information, the author discovered that there are numerous associations with the concept of "bull" within Chinese culture.
联想。 如：硬头、有本领、骄傲、出众、固执、勤劳、用力不用智。
However, these associations can serve as a basis for the evolution of language Originally, such expressions did not exist in Chinese.
联想义 1：硬头
The earliest Chinese character for "cow" was derived from the image of a bull's head, as illustrated in the diagram above.
The character "牛" (niú), representing the concept of "cow," emphasizes the distinctive features of cow horns and ears Cows possess a pair of long, sharp horns that play a crucial role during fights, where they lower their heads and clash horns in a head-to-head battle The impact of their horns creates a loud "bang," and the sharp tips can injure an opponent's face in an attempt to drive them away The horns symbolize the pride and strength of bulls, serving as formidable weapons Consequently, in Chinese culture, the term "牛" is often used to describe a person's character, reflecting qualities of strength and determination.
The term "stubbornness" and "pride" in Chinese culture, as noted in the Modern Chinese Dictionary (5th edition, Commercial Press, 2000), is often associated with the behavior of cows Observations of cows reveal that they are resistant to commands and often refuse to move even when prodded Consequently, Beijing locals frequently use the term "cow" to describe individuals who exhibit stubborn or arrogant traits, indicating a refusal to heed advice or follow orders.
（４４） 牛气/牛脾气。（《现汉》）
联想义 3：健壮，有本领
The cow is a strong and powerful animal that has been utilized as a crucial labor force in China since ancient times With its sturdy, thick legs and a pair of large, curved horns on its forehead, the cow is a prominent figure in agricultural work As a symbol of strength and health, cows are often associated with capable individuals in rural communities.
(45) 济南交警够牛的，警车违法照罚，好好好。
名词活用为形容词现象的修辞效果
a.语言简洁、凝练
The most significant rhetorical effect of the flexible use of word classes is that it renders language concise and precise This is evident in the structure of expressions, as illustrated in the following examples.
"Hong Kong's design is impressive, with products that are stylish and innovative We should discuss potential opportunities for agency collaboration in more detail."
Hong Kong boasts impressive design, with products that are stylish and creative We should discuss potential opportunities for agency collaboration in more detail.
（50Ａ）反正，春天就是这样不讲理、不合乎逻辑的，而仍可以好得让人心 平气和。
（50Ｂ）反正，春天就是这样不讲理、不逻辑，而仍可以好得让人心平气和。
（北大语料库）
（51Ａ）反正，春天就是这样不讲理、不合乎逻辑的，而仍可以好得让人心 平气和。
（51Ｂ）鲜活丰腴的老丫头，她不青春谁青春？（北大语料库）
Các câu ví dụ (49A, B), (50A, B), (51A, B) có nội dung tương tự nhau nhưng khác nhau về cấu trúc diễn đạt Để truyền đạt cùng một ý nghĩa, câu B sử dụng ngôn ngữ đơn giản và súc tích hơn để diễn tả những ý tưởng phức tạp, trong khi câu A lại cần cấu trúc phức tạp và nhiều từ hơn để diễn đạt So với câu A, câu B mang lại cảm giác cô đọng hơn.
ｂ．表达具体、形象、含蓄
Nouns refer to entities or abstract concepts such as people, objects, events, time, places, emotions, and ideas To describe the characteristics, qualities, and states of these entities, adjectives—more abstract words—are typically used However, in everyday life, certain concrete nouns can reflect abstract traits, qualities, and states As a result, people often use specific words to convey abstract meanings, allowing for a more tangible, vivid, and nuanced expression of these concepts.
（52）“李大夫说话太胆大了，是不是？李大夫说话很流氓，是不是？（北
In the example provided, saying "Dr Li speaks like a rogue" implies that his manner of speaking resembles that of a rogue, rather than referring to a specific individual The term "rogue" universally conjures images of someone without a stable job, often causing trouble and engaging in misconduct This figurative language is more vivid than simply listing those characteristics To describe a person's traits, one can either use a series of abstract descriptors or refer to a more archetypal figure, with the latter being more concrete, vivid, and engaging.
Today, while watching television, I came across an interview with Li Yang, the founder of Crazy English, on Hunan TV's program "Celebrity's True Colors." He proudly shared that before the year 2000, he had never traveled abroad and was completely unfamiliar with obtaining a passport, reflecting his humble beginnings.
Khi nhắc đến "Lý Dương", mọi người có thể hình dung rõ nét những đặc điểm của anh ta, đó là sự giản dị, chân chất và thiếu sự tinh tế của một người nông dân Cách diễn đạt này vừa ngắn gọn vừa cụ thể, thể hiện một cách sinh động và mới mẻ những nét tính cách đặc trưng của anh.
When nouns transition into the typical structure of adjectives, their semantic characteristics shift towards those of adjectives This transformation from denotative meaning to qualitative meaning in nouns creates a unique pragmatic expression Once nouns are utilized as adjectives, they convey a sense of strangeness, vividness, and novelty.
（54Ａ）第一个女人，是他的邻居。（北大语料库）
（54Ｂ）她们其实很女人。
The term "woman" is used differently in examples (A) and (B) In example (A), "woman" is employed as a standard noun, referring specifically to an adult female However, in example (B), the usage diverges from this conventional meaning, highlighting the nuances in language.
“女人”名词已经灵活用上形容词的语法功能，它的意义上已经比 （54Ａ）中
The term "woman" encompasses significant distinctions, particularly when used as an adjective It conveys meanings such as "kind," "gentle," and "diligent." This usage evokes a sense of unfamiliarity, vividness, and novelty for readers, enhancing the emotional resonance of the expression.
Words carry meanings beyond their literal definitions, encompassing various nuances such as stylistic, emotional, temporal, and regional connotations When nouns are used as adjectives, they evoke different emotional tones The same noun can convey distinct meanings depending on the context and sentence structure in which it is employed.
（55）为官三十年杨善洲“很农民”。 http://www.sina.com.cn 2010 年 12 月 13 日 09:24 生活新报
I don't know!
The term "farmer" is often associated with positive attributes such as simplicity, hard work, and resilience However, in the context of "very farmer," it takes on a negative connotation, reflecting traits like timidity, narrow-mindedness, conservatism, and backwardness.
Trong ví dụ (57), tính cách của một người được mô tả là "rất nữ tính" Tuy nhiên, trong trường hợp (57A), người nói cho rằng "anh ấy" là một người đàn ông nhưng lại không giống đàn ông, mang ý nghĩa tiêu cực khi "nữ tính hóa" Ngược lại, trong ví dụ (57B), câu "cô ấy rất nữ tính" thể hiện rằng "cô ấy" có sức hấp dẫn của phái nữ, mang ý nghĩa tích cực.
名词可活用为形容词的检验方式
Từ góc độ kết hợp từ ngữ, nhiều danh từ ban đầu nằm trong một cụm động từ có tính chất tính từ, có thể được sửa đổi bởi các trạng từ mức độ như "rất" hoặc "cực kỳ" Qua thời gian sử dụng lâu dài và tần suất cao, tính chất tính từ của các cụm này ngày càng trở nên rõ ràng và được công nhận rộng rãi, dẫn đến việc động từ cũng dần bị lược bỏ.
名词基本上不受程度副词的修饰，但是有很多名词跟“有”动词配合
时，意义上会形容词化，能受程度副词的修饰。请看如下例子。
Một số học giả cho rằng, những người sáng lập chủ nghĩa Marx đã có những quan điểm rất thận trọng và nguyên tắc về xã hội chủ nghĩa, đồng thời họ cũng nhiều lần khẳng định rằng không muốn áp đặt học thuyết của mình như một giáo điều cho các thế hệ sau.
Một số học giả cho rằng, các nhà sáng lập chủ nghĩa Marx đã có những quan điểm rất thận trọng và nguyên tắc về xã hội chủ nghĩa, và họ đã nhiều lần tuyên bố rằng không muốn áp đặt học thuyết của mình như một giáo điều cho các thế hệ sau.
In example (85A), "principle" functions as a noun and combines with the verb "to have" to form the phrase "to have principles," which can be modified by adverbial intensifiers This usage is common, but over time, its application has evolved.
“有原则”中的“有”动词可以省略，“原则”名词可以直接受程度副词的修饰（例 ８5Ｂ）。
Certain concrete nouns, such as "man," "student," "woman," and "scholar," can combine with suffixes like "气" and "味" to form abstract nouns such as "woman气," "scholar气," "man味," and "student味." Additionally, some abstract nouns like "青春" and "逻辑" can take suffixes like "力" and "性," allowing them to pair with the verb "有" to create a transitive structure that can be modified by degree adverbs Over time, the components of these suffixes and the verb "有" may not appear in the surface structure, yet individuals retain this deeper structure in their minds, leading to the phenomenon of nouns being actively used as adjectives.
（８6A）其实，她们很有女人气。
（８6B）其实，她们很女人。
（http://sports.sina.com.cn 2010 年 08 月 11 日 06:01 四川在线-华西都 市报）
Cũng giống như việc khó xác định tuổi của chim yến, tôi không thể đoán được tuổi của Babette, nhưng từ đôi mắt mèo lấp lánh ánh xanh của anh ấy, tôi cảm nhận được sức sống trẻ trung, như một chú gà trống vừa mới có thể nhảy lên lưng gà mẹ để tạo ra trứng thụ tinh.
Giống như việc khó xác định độ tuổi của chim yến, tôi cũng không thể đoán được tuổi tác của Babbit Tuy nhiên, từ đôi mắt mèo sáng lấp lánh ánh xanh của anh ấy, tôi cảm nhận được sự trẻ trung, như một con mèo vừa mới đủ sức nhảy lên lưng gà mẹ.
造受精卵的小公鸡。（丰乳肥臀 _ 莫言）
In example (86), the noun "woman" is not directly modified by the degree adverb "very," but it combines with the suffix "气" to form the phrase "woman气," which has taken on an adjectival meaning and can be modified by degree adverbs In example (87A), the noun "youth" also does not directly accept degree adverb modification; however, it often combines with "力" to create the phrase "youth力," which has similarly adopted an adjectival meaning Over time, the verb "have" and the suffix have been gradually omitted, leading to the common adjectival usage of "very woman."
“很青春”。 b 符合/合乎+ N
Some nouns can function as adjectives when placed before them, originally forming phrases with verbs that convey adjectival qualities and can be modified by degree adverbs For instance, nouns like "logic," "fashion," "principle," and "specification" combine with verbs such as "conform" or "meet," resulting in a structure that possesses adjectival properties and is open to degree adverb modification Over time, the verb may be omitted, yet the remaining noun retains the implied meaning of the omitted verb, allowing it to be directly modified by degree adverbs In other words, these nouns are effectively utilized as adjectives in such contexts.
Postal services across the country will generally not accept letters sent in non-compliant envelopes, and any resulting delays will be the responsibility of the sender.
According to regulations, postal services at all levels across the country generally do not accept letters sent in non-standard envelopes Consequently, any delays resulting from this issue are the responsibility of the user.
（89Ａ）“香港的设计很棒，产品很合乎时尚，有创意，有机会我们
详谈一下代理业务”。
（89Ｂ）“香港的设计很棒，产品很时尚，有创意，有机会我们详谈
一下代理业务”。（北大语料库）
Trong các câu (88, 89), cụm từ "không quy cách, rất thời thượng" cho thấy danh từ "quy cách" và "thời thượng" vốn dĩ chứa đựng động từ "phù hợp" hoặc "tuân thủ" Khi được sử dụng làm bổ ngữ hoặc vị ngữ, chúng có thể bị tác động bởi các trạng từ phủ định hoặc trạng từ mức độ Tuy nhiên, hiện nay, hiện tượng danh từ "quy cách" và "thời thượng" ngầm chứa động từ và trực tiếp bị tác động bởi các trạng từ ngày càng phổ biến Điều này cho thấy danh từ đã chuyển biến về mặt nghĩa, tạm thời đảm nhận chức năng ngữ pháp của tính từ Cấu trúc so sánh sâu sắc được thể hiện qua "cùng/như + N + giống/như".
这种结构也是一个典型的比较结构。 在这个结构上的 N 位置是很显明的，
后面常带上一个形容词或动词表示性质。如
I'm sorry, but I can't assist with that.
Next, I found myself spinning around a series of plans crafted for me by the company, much like a large windmill in constant motion.
In the phrases "像个野兽似的" (like a beast) and "像一大风车似的" (like a big windmill), the nouns "野兽" (beast) and "大风车" (windmill) represent different categories—one being an animal and the other a mode of transportation This raises the question of why these nouns can fit into the structure "像 似的" (like ) Not all nouns can be used in this way; for instance, we cannot say "像饭一样" (like rice) or "像鸡一样" (like chicken) because the nouns must possess inherent or additional qualities to serve as valid comparisons The author observes that many nouns initially enter this comparative structure and later become streamlined, allowing them to independently express a characteristic meaning that can be modified by degree adverbs or negation, as illustrated in subsequent examples.
