Luận án tiến sĩ hiện nay đóng góp cả về lý thuyết và thực nghiệm. Về mặt lý thuyết, nó dựa trên các khái niệm và lý thuyết về phát triển chương trình giảng dạy (Brown, 1995; Nation & Macalister, 2010; Richards, 2001), English for Specific Purposes (ESP) (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987 ) và các nghiên cứu và nghiên cứu có liên quan về phát triển chương trình giảng dạy ESP và sự tham gia của giáo viên ESP vào quá trình này để hình thành khung khái niệm cho nghiên cứu, bao gồm bảy bước phân tích nhu cầu ESP, mục tiêu khóa học hoặc đặc tả mục tiêu, lựa chọn và trình tự các nội dung, phương pháp và hỗ trợ giảng dạy hiệu quả, lựa chọn hoặc biên soạn tài liệu ESP, xác định nội dung và phương pháp đánh giá, đánh giá chương trình học. Về mặt kinh nghiệm, nghiên cứu hiện tại đóng góp vào những cải tiến của quá trình phát triển chương trình giảng dạy ESP bằng cách làm rõ mức độ tham gia của giáo viên ESP trong việc xây dựng chương trình giảng dạy cho các chuyên ngành không sử dụng tiếng Anh tại một số trường đại học ở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. Kết quả nghiên cứu ngụ ý rằng giáo viên ESP nên tham gia nhiều hơn vào từng bước của quá trình phát triển chương trình giảng dạy, đặc biệt là tiến hành phân tích nhu cầu ESP toàn diện làm cơ sở khoa học cho các giai đoạn sau của quá trình phát triển chương trình giảng dạy, xác định mục tiêu và mục tiêu rõ ràng, lựa chọn và trình tự nội dung dựa trên Thông tin phân tích nhu cầu, từ đó đóng vai trò là cơ sở khoa học cho việc lựa chọn hoặc biên soạn sách khóa học và tài liệu giảng dạy, hỗ trợ giáo viên được đào tạo chuyên môn, môi trường dạy và học hỗ trợ và các công cụ đánh giá, cũng như các công cụ hiệu quả để phân tích nhu cầu liên tục và đánh giá chương trình giảng dạy .
Rationale
The effectiveness of English teaching and learning in Vietnam is increasingly important due to international integration and the necessity of English for global communication As an EFL teacher in Ho Chi Minh City, the researcher has focused on enhancing the effectiveness of her classes by shifting from teaching methodology to fostering student self-study and a more learner-centered approach However, she identified two significant challenges: students' lack of motivation and the disconnect between their university English education and the practical language skills required in their workplaces To address these issues, the researcher conducted field trips to various workplaces to better understand the English language needs of her students.
The field trips to the learners’ future workplaces helped the researcher realize the importance of an ESP curriculum that corresponds to the learners’ currrent or future
The revision of the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum not only addressed societal needs but also significantly boosted student motivation by aligning the university program with their future job requirements The researcher focused on the critical role of ESP teachers in this process, as highlighted by Dudley-Evans and St John (1998), who describe ESP teachers as multifaceted professionals—acting as educators, collaborators, course designers, material providers, researchers, and evaluators.
As course designers and material providers, ESP practitioners often have to
“plan the course they teach and provide the materials for it” (Dudley-Evans & St John,
In the realm of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), it is often necessary for teachers to supplement textbooks with additional materials, as suitable published resources may not always be available ESP educators play a crucial role in selecting, adapting, or even creating teaching materials to meet specific course needs Furthermore, they must evaluate the effectiveness of both published and self-produced materials used in their courses While the responsibilities of course design and material provision can be challenging for newcomers to ESP, these demands contribute to the engaging nature of ESP teaching.
Research in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has flourished, particularly in the realm of genre analysis (Bhatia, 1993; Swales, 1990) It is essential for English for Specific Purposes (ESP) teachers to stay informed about this evolving research landscape When conducting needs analyses, designing courses, or developing teaching materials, educators must integrate research findings effectively Additionally, those working in specialized ESP contexts should possess a solid understanding of critical skills, such as written communication According to Dudley-Evans and St John, ESP practitioners must advance beyond the initial phase of needs analysis, focusing on the target situation to enhance their teaching effectiveness.
The analysis of Target Skills Assessment (TSA) focuses on identifying key events, skills, and texts relevant to students, enabling educators to observe the contexts in which these skills are applied and to analyze relevant text samples ESP teachers are required to conduct research to comprehend the discourse of these texts, highlighting their role as collaborators with subject experts and as evaluators of both learners and course materials.
According to Johnson (1989), a significant risk exists in the misalignment between educational policy and the learning outcomes achievable by the implemented curriculum Rodgers (1989) highlights that decisions made during the curriculum planning phase, influenced by "policy factors," often have a more profound effect on curriculum development success than those made during implementation Johnson identifies three approaches to curriculum development: traditional or specialist, learner-centered, and integrated In the traditional approach, teachers play no role in planning, with specialists determining objectives and creating materials for classroom use Conversely, the learner-centered approach involves all stakeholders, including policymakers and learners, in every stage, which can lead to a lack of accountability The integrated approach ensures that all participants are informed and actively contribute to the development process through continuous evaluation Ultimately, Johnson emphasizes that curriculum development is an ongoing and cyclical process.
18 process of development, revision, maintenance and renewal which needs to continue throughout the life of the curriculum
Course development involves more than just planning; it encompasses teaching and modifying courses, which teachers inherently experience According to Graves (1996), teachers engage in a continuous cycle of decision-making that includes planning, teaching, modifying, and reteaching courses She emphasizes that while expert knowledge is valuable, teachers are experts in their own contexts, utilizing their past experiences to navigate new situations This development process allows teachers to connect theoretical knowledge with practical application, enhancing their understanding of various educational theories By examining tools like needs assessments and different course models, teachers can adapt their approaches to better fit their unique contexts Ultimately, successful course design relies on a teacher's ability to reflect on their experiences and integrate theory with practice, creating a dynamic interplay that informs their teaching strategies.
Teacher involvement in the curriculum development process is crucial, as highlighted by Bartlett and Butler (1985), who emphasize that a learner-centered approach places a significant professional responsibility on teachers This includes tasks such as conducting needs analysis, setting goals and objectives, selecting methodologies, and implementing evaluation processes Additionally, Richards (1990) underscores that a successful language program extends beyond teaching, requiring teachers to fulfill multiple roles, including monitoring student learning, motivating and organizing students, providing accurate language models, serving as counselors, analyzing needs, developing materials, and conducting evaluations.
The researcher aims to enhance the ESP curriculum development process by actively involving ESP teachers, who are essential to instruction in the current Vietnamese context This initiative seeks to create a coherent ESP curriculum that aligns with the needs of students' current and future workplaces As a preliminary step, the study focuses on describing the current level of ESP teachers' involvement in curriculum development at several universities in Ho Chi Minh City and identifying key factors that influence an effective and coherent ESP curriculum development process.
Statement of purpose
This study aims to investigate the involvement of ESP teachers in the curriculum development process for non-English majors at various universities in Ho Chi Minh City By examining the practices of these educators, the research seeks to provide reliable insights that can contribute to improving the curriculum development process.
This article explores the perceptions of 20 educators involved in developing English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curricula for non-English majors at various universities It aims to gather insights on their views regarding each step of the curriculum development process, highlighting both the advantages and challenges they face Additionally, the article seeks to capture their recommendations for enhancing the ESP curriculum development process, ultimately contributing to more effective educational practices.
To achieve the aims of the study, three research questions are formulated as follows:
1 What are ESP teachers’ perceptions of developing curriculum for non- English majors at some universities in Ho Chi Minh City?
2 What is their practice of developing ESP curriculum for non-English majors?
Involvement in curriculum development at universities presents both advantages and challenges for educators Key benefits include the opportunity to influence educational outcomes and enhance student engagement, while difficulties may arise from bureaucratic constraints and resource limitations To improve the curriculum development process, educators suggest fostering collaboration among faculty, incorporating student feedback, and ensuring flexibility to adapt to evolving academic needs.
Scope of the study
This study aims to investigate the practices of ESP teachers in developing curricula for university students who are non-English majors, focusing on their perceptions of the process, the benefits and challenges they face, and their recommendations for improvement The research is specifically conducted at four universities in Ho Chi Minh City, where ESP is offered as a course for non-English majors.
Significance of the study
This study enhances the development of the English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum by examining the involvement of ESP teachers in creating curricula for non-English majors at various universities in Ho Chi Minh City It focuses on the teachers' participation in key stages of the curriculum development process, including needs analysis and the formulation of course goals and objectives.
The study investigates the specification, selection, and sequencing of content, methodology, and support for effective teaching in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) It focuses on the selection and compilation of ESP materials, the determination of assessment content and methods, and the evaluation of the curriculum Additionally, it explores ESP teachers' perceptions of each step, the advantages and challenges they face, and their recommendations for improving the overall process.
Structure of the study
The study is structured into five chapters: Chapter One provides an overview, including the rationale, purpose, scope, significance, and outline Chapter Two presents a Literature Review, focusing on the theoretical framework of ESP curriculum development and previous studies, while identifying the research gap this study addresses Chapter Three details the Research Methodology, outlining the design, methods for data collection, and analysis procedures Chapter Four discusses the findings, and Chapter Five summarizes key findings and offers recommendations to enhance the ESP curriculum development process.
Chapter Two outlines the theoretical framework of the study, beginning with definitions of key terms related to language curriculum development It discusses general issues, common approaches, and procedures in this field The chapter then elaborates on the seven detailed steps of the curriculum development process, establishing a solid theoretical foundation for the research Additionally, it reviews previous studies on teacher involvement in curriculum development to provide a comprehensive overview of the topic Finally, the chapter identifies the research gap, highlighting the significance and direction of the study.
Definitions of key terms
Curriculum
The term "curriculum" is interpreted variably by scholars, but it is commonly defined as a structured plan aimed at achieving educational goals (Tyler, 1949; Taba, 1962) This definition highlights a linear perspective, emphasizing a sequential approach to education Saylor et al (1981) further support this view, describing curriculum as "a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated" (p 10).
Curriculum, as defined by Pratt (1980), is an organized framework of formal education and training objectives Dubin and Olshtain (1986) expand this definition, indicating that curriculum encompasses the planning of language instruction on both national and international scales It is a comprehensive concept that takes into account various philosophical, social, and administrative factors that influence the development of educational programs.
Wiles & Bondi (2014) view curriculum as a development process that (1) identifies a philosophy; (2) assesses student ability; (3) considers possible methods of
23 instruction; (4) implements strategies; (5) selects assessment devices; and (6) is continually adjusted
Although the terms “syllabus” and “curriculum” are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a clear distinction between them As Dubin and Olshtain
The term "curriculum" encompasses a broad context for planning language instruction at national and international levels, incorporating various philosophical, social, and administrative factors essential for educational program development In contrast, a "syllabus" is a specific document tailored for a particular group of learners, representing only a portion of the broader curriculum While a curriculum may outline the overarching goals for learners, the syllabus details the specific content and lessons designed to achieve those goals, illustrating the relationship where the curriculum includes the syllabus, but not the other way around.
Shaw (1987) distinguishes between curriculum and syllabus, defining the syllabus as a plan for a specific segment of the curriculum while excluding the evaluation component He emphasizes that the syllabus should be understood within the framework of continuous curriculum development.
In this study, the curriculum is defined as the comprehensive set of planned learning opportunities provided by educational institutions, which are continually refined to achieve specific educational objectives.
English for Specific Purposes
Since its rise in popularity during the 1960s, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has been extensively studied by various scholars Hutchinson and Waters (1987) define ESP as an approach rather than a fixed product, indicating that it does not adhere to a specific type of language, teaching materials, or methodologies The fundamental inquiry of ESP revolves around the question: Why?
24 does this learner need to learn a foreign language? The purpose of learning English became the core
Strevens (1988) defines English for Specific Purposes (ESP) by highlighting two key aspects: first, it possesses absolute characteristics, meaning that language teaching is tailored to meet the specific needs of learners, is content-related to particular disciplines and occupations, focuses on the language relevant to those activities, and is distinct from General English; second, it includes variable characteristics, indicating that ESP may concentrate on specific language skills, such as reading, and is not bound by a predetermined teaching methodology.
Robinson’s (1991) definition of ESP is based on two criteria: 1) ESP is normally
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) courses are designed with clear, goal-directed objectives that emerge from a thorough needs analysis This analysis identifies the specific English language skills students require for their professional or academic pursuits Typically, ESP courses are characterized by their limited duration, focusing on achieving set goals within a constrained timeframe They are tailored for adult learners in homogeneous groups, ensuring that the content aligns with the participants' work or specialized studies.
While various definitions of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) hold merit, they also exhibit limitations Anthony (1997) highlights the ambiguity in distinguishing between ESP and General English courses, as many non-specialist ESP instructors design syllabi based on learner needs and their own expertise in real-world English communication Strevens’ definition suggests that ESP is intrinsically linked to specific subject content, a notion echoed by Robinson’s emphasis on homogeneous classes However, much of ESP pedagogy focuses on a common core of language and skills applicable across diverse academic disciplines and business activities, emphasizing the need for a more nuanced understanding of ESP teaching.
25 reflect the underlying concepts and activities of the discipline Having all these in mind, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens’ (1988) definition of ESP:
1 Absolute characteristics: a) ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the learner; b) ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves; and c) ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities
2 Variable characteristics: a) ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines; b) ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; c) ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation; it could be used for learners at secondary school level; d) ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced learners; and e) Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners
The essence of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) lies in addressing the specific needs of learners, as highlighted by Robinson (1989), who states that ESP emerged to meet the practical language requirements of non-native speakers Hutchinson and Waters (1987) further emphasize that the key differentiator of ESP from general English is this awareness of need Consequently, an effective ESP course must initiate with a thorough needs analysis to inform the design of the program In this study, ESP is defined as the teaching and learning of specialized English at the tertiary level, aimed at adult learners who will utilize it in their future careers to operate effectively in their respective fields.
Language curriculum development
Language curriculum components
Planning, design, and development are interconnected aspects of curriculum creation, as noted by Print (1993) Once a curriculum is conceptualized, it undergoes a planning phase, followed by the incorporation of design elements This process ultimately leads to the development of a written document, which is then implemented and evaluated.
(2017) hold that curriculum development is a plan for structuring the learning environment and coordinating personnel, materials, and equipment
Tyler (1949), known as the father of the curriculum movement, identified four essential components of curriculum development, framed as key questions: first, objectives—what educational purposes should schools aim to achieve? second, instructional strategies and content—what experiences will help meet these objectives? third, organizing learning experiences—how can these experiences be structured effectively? and fourth, assessment and evaluation—how can we measure the attainment of these objectives? Brady (1992) notes that these components are often summarized simply as "objectives."
Nunan (1988) emphasizes the importance of a learner-centered curriculum, highlighting essential components such as initial planning procedures, which involve data collection and learner grouping, as well as content selection and gradation The methodology encompasses the choice of learning activities and materials, while ongoing monitoring, assessment, and evaluation are crucial for effectiveness Although these elements resemble traditional approaches, they prioritize collaboration between teachers and learners, fostering a more engaging educational experience.
Brown (1995) introduces a model of systematic approach to designing and maintaining language curriculum, which includes needs analysis, goals and objectives, testing, materials development, teaching, and program evaluation; and how these
In language teaching, 27 components interact within specific teaching contexts, emphasizing the importance of needs analysis that addresses not only learners' requirements but also those of teachers, administrators, employers, institutions, and societies Identifying the needs of language students leads to the establishment of goals, which are broad statements outlining what must be achieved to meet these needs, while objectives are detailed descriptions of the skills or content students must master to reach those goals To effectively implement these goals and objectives, comprehensive test development is essential for various purposes, including student placement, language proficiency assessment, diagnostic testing, and achievement evaluation With a clear understanding of needs analyses, objectives, and testing, it becomes easier to select, develop, or modify educational materials Brown (1995) emphasizes the interconnectedness of students' needs, objectives, tests, teaching methods, and program evaluation, suggesting that choices in materials will be influenced by insights gained from these components, which in turn will impact each other.
Brown (1995) emphasizes the importance of curriculum development that grants teachers greater autonomy in their classrooms, while ensuring that both teachers and students understand course objectives and assessment methods To achieve this, teachers require support and active involvement in curriculum development and revision, which should ideally be a collaborative effort, as individual teachers often lack the time and expertise to manage these tasks effectively Additionally, program evaluation is crucial, defined as an ongoing process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing information to continually enhance each aspect of the curriculum based on established knowledge.
Continuous evaluation of all curriculum elements, both individually and collectively, enables an effective assessment of its quality once implemented This ongoing process is essential for maintaining and improving the curriculum over time.
According to Nation and Macalister's curriculum design model, three key factors - principles, environment, and needs - play a crucial role in guiding the course production process Effective curriculum design requires consideration of various practical factors, including learners' knowledge gaps, available resources, teacher skills, and curriculum designer strengths and limitations The design process involves three sub-processes: environment analysis, needs analysis, and the application of principles, resulting in a ranked list of factors, a realistic list of language and skill items, and a course that supports learning Ultimately, the model emphasizes the importance of integrating both the outer circles and the inner circle, which represents the syllabus, to create a comprehensive curriculum that meets the needs of learners and supports effective learning.
Figure 2.1: A model of the parts of the curriculum design process (adapted from
The inner circle of a language course emphasizes the significance of establishing clear overarching goals It outlines the essential content and sequencing of the course material, ensuring that the learning objectives are prioritized over the content itself Even when language content is not explicitly highlighted, it remains crucial for learners to engage with useful material that enhances their language proficiency This approach guarantees that students receive optimal value from their learning efforts, ultimately fostering their mastery of the language.
30 usefulness of what they will meet in the course, and that they are covering all the things they need to cover for a balanced knowledge of the language
The inner circle of a course design encompasses the format and presentation of lessons, highlighting the techniques and activities employed to enhance learning, which learners are most familiar with It is crucial for this aspect to be informed by the best teaching and learning principles Additionally, the monitoring and assessment component focuses on observing learning outcomes, testing results, and providing feedback to learners about their progress, which is often overlooked in commercially designed courses This feedback can inform necessary adjustments throughout the curriculum design process Surrounding this model is a larger outer circle representing evaluation, which examines every aspect of the course to assess its effectiveness and identify areas for improvement.
Common approaches in language curriculum development
The Models of Bobbitt and Charters
Bobbitt (1924) likened curriculum development to planning an individual's journey towards growth and the cultivation of unique abilities He emphasized that the initial step in this process involves identifying the activities essential for students' lives, along with the personal qualities and skills required for effective engagement In his view, 20th-century education must focus on fostering wisdom through real-life experiences, which would enhance students' judgment and critical thinking (Bobbitt, 2013) Ultimately, the goal of education is to equip students to be active and competent participants in society, contributing meaningfully to the economy and family life.
Throughout the 20th century, curriculum development lacked careful consideration, necessitating a scientific approach to establish educational opportunities that prepare students for productive lives and societal contributions A comprehensive understanding of human experiences is essential for effective curriculum design Bobbitt's advocacy for this method remains relevant today, influencing contemporary task analysis and aligning with the principles of backward design as described by Wiggins and McTighe.
Today, Charters (1923) also believed in activity analysis but he noted that
Changes in the curriculum are driven by shifts in our understanding of educational aims, which play a crucial role in determining school content and experiences Charters emphasized the importance of linking these aims to the activities undertaken by individuals He proposed a four-step process for curriculum construction: selecting objectives, categorizing them into ideals and activities, analyzing them into manageable units, and gathering methods for achieving these objectives.
Bobbitt (1924) and Charters (1923) laid the foundation for scientific curriculum development, emphasizing that it should result in a meaningful educational program They highlighted the importance of understanding the relationships between goals, objectives, and activities, viewing goal selection as a normative process while treating objectives and activities as empirical and scientific Their work underscored that curricular activities can be systematically planned, studied, and evaluated for effectiveness.
The Tyler Model: Four basic principles
Tyler (1949) proposed a systematic approach to curriculum and instruction that emphasizes the importance of defining the school’s objectives, identifying relevant educational experiences, and evaluating how these experiences align with the established goals.
Curriculum planners should identify general objectives by collecting data from the subject matter, learners, and society After gathering these objectives, they must refine them according to the school's philosophy and the psychology of learning, ultimately leading to the development of specific instructional objectives.
In 1949, Tyler emphasized the importance of selecting educational experiences that align with learning objectives, taking into account learners' perceptions and prior experiences He advocated for the organization and systematic sequencing of these experiences to maximize their cumulative impact Tyler proposed that ideas, concepts, values, and skills should be integrated into the curriculum, creating connections across various subjects and learning experiences Furthermore, he highlighted the significance of evaluating educational plans and actions to assess the effectiveness of programs.
Figure 2.2: Tyler’s Curriculum Development Model (adapted from Tyler, 1949)
Tyler's curriculum development approach has faced criticism for being overly linear and reliant on objectivity, as it often makes assumptions about cause and effect, justifying educational experiences solely based on the objectives they meet Despite this, his method continues to be widely adopted in schools and influences universities due to its practicality and effectiveness, appealing to a diverse range of philosophical orientations (Hunkins & Hammill, 1994).
The Taba Model: Grassroots rationale
Taba (1962) emphasized the importance of a structured approach to developing a dynamic curriculum, advocating for teacher involvement in the process, which she termed the grassroots approach This model, while similar to Tyler's (1949) framework, diverged from the prevalent top-down administrative model that dominated early curriculum development Unlike Tyler, who did not restrict his model to central office personnel, Taba argued that educators should actively participate in curriculum creation, moving away from reliance on central authorities and curriculum experts who often dictated ideas to teachers.
Curriculum development should prioritize the needs of its users, particularly teachers, who should start by designing tailored teaching-learning units for their students This approach aligns with Taba's advocacy for an inductive method, which emphasizes building from specific instances to create a comprehensive curriculum, contrasting with the traditional deductive approach that begins with a broad framework.
Taba’s (1962) grassroots model entails seven major steps:
1 Diagnosis of needs The teacher (curriculum designer) identifies the needs of the students for whom the curriculum is being planned
2 Formulation of objectives The teacher specifies objectives
3 Selection of content The objectives suggest the curriculum’s content The objectives and content should match The content’s validity and significance also are determined
4 Organization of content The teacher organizes the content into a sequence, taking into consideration learners’ maturity, academic achievement, and interests
5 Selection of learning experiences The teacher selects instructional methods that engage the students with the content
6 Organization of learning activities The teacher organizes the learning activities into a sequence, often determined by the content The teacher must bear in mind the particular students who will be taught
7 Evaluation and means of evaluation The curriculum planner determines which objectives have been accomplished Students and teachers must consider evaluation procedures
Taba's innovative approach to curriculum design remains relevant today, as many modern curriculum designers adhere to her seven-step process This begins with a thorough analysis of the current situation and the specific needs of learners Next, instructional goals and objectives are established, followed by the organization of instruction and the creation of effective learning environments, where appropriate learning experiences are selected.
35 organizing learning activities Finally, they evaluate the learners and the instructional program’s overall success
Backward design, as proposed by Wiggins & McTighe (1998), is a widely recognized model of curriculum development that emphasizes starting with the desired outcomes before planning the educational process This approach, rooted in task analysis and influenced by fields like architecture and engineering, consists of two key stages The first stage focuses on identifying the goals of the school program, where educators align their objectives with national, state, and local content standards Curriculum developers, including teachers, then select essential content and skills that will guide students toward achieving these goals Finally, they narrow down the content to specific courses and key concepts, known as enduring understandings, which encapsulate the significant ideas and insights that students should grasp and retain beyond the immediate details.
The second stage of the backward-design model, as outlined by Wiggins and McTighe (1998), focuses on evaluating the curriculum's effectiveness and determining how to assess whether students have met established standards This stage encourages teachers to adopt an assessor's mindset before creating curriculum units and lessons Various assessment methods can be employed, such as informal checks and student observations, to gather evidence of student learning and curriculum success.
Effective dialogue with students, along with quizzes, tests, and performance tasks, is essential for assessing curriculum goals Once educators have clearly defined these objectives, they can effectively plan instructional activities Wiggins and McTighe emphasize the importance of addressing key questions that curriculum developers and teachers must consider during this planning stage.
What knowledge and skills do students need to succeed in the course?
What activities enable students to master the requisite knowledge and skills?
What should be taught, and how should it be taught, for students to become knowledgeable and skillful in the identified content realm?
What materials foster student success in the curriculum?
Does the overall design of the course or unit fulfill the principles of curriculum development?
Identify expected endpoints ➔ Determine evidence ➔ Plan learning experiences
• Narrow choices to important contents
• Select the final enduring contents
Figure 2.3: Backward-design model (adapted from Wiggins and McTighe, 1998)
Common procedures in language curriculum development
Taba (1962) proposed a systematic approach to curriculum development consisting of seven essential steps: diagnosing needs, formulating objectives, selecting content, organizing that content, choosing learning experiences, organizing those experiences, and finally, determining evaluation methods and criteria.
Figure 2.4: Flowchart presentation of the Taba-Tyler curriculum development model (adapted from Taba,1962; Tyler, 1949, 1969)
Wheeler (1967) proposed that curriculum developers should adopt a cyclical process where each element is interconnected and dependent on one another This process consists of five key phases: first, selecting aims, goals, and objectives; second, choosing learning experiences to achieve these aims; third, determining the content that will facilitate these experiences; fourth, organizing and integrating the learning experiences and content within the teaching-learning process; and finally, evaluating each phase and assessing the achievement of the established goals.
Figure 2.5: Procedures of curriculum process (adapted from Wheeler, 1967)
Nunan (1988) identifies essential components of the curriculum model, which encompass initial planning procedures such as data collection and learner grouping, content selection and gradation, methodology involving the choice of learning activities and materials, and continuous monitoring, assessment, and evaluation He emphasizes that the initial step in the curriculum process is gathering information about learners to assess their needs, as highlighted by Richterich (1972).
40 objective needs If the information is collected before the learners are assigned to a class, it can be used for initial class placement purposes
The history of language curriculum development begins with syllabus design, which focuses on selecting and organizing course content (Richards, 2001) While syllabus design is an important aspect, the process of developing an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum is more comprehensive According to Richards (2001), curriculum development involves determining learner needs, setting program aims and objectives, selecting an appropriate syllabus and course structure, choosing teaching methods and materials, and evaluating the resulting language program This definition highlights that ESP curriculum development consists of interrelated stages that require an organized approach to effectively address the components involved.
Figure 2.6: Systematic Approach to Designing and Maintaining Language
According to Brown (1995), his model offers a systematic approach to designing and maintaining a language curriculum, making it adaptable for existing language courses This model views curriculum development as a dynamic process that can evolve and adjust to new conditions and requirements, such as shifts in needs and attitudes, environmental changes, or resource availability.
The six components illustrated in Figure 2.6 are interconnected and form an integrated process, indicating that a change in one component will impact the others and the overall system.
Curriculum evaluation is a crucial element that integrates all components of the curriculum, facilitating ongoing development Each component undergoes evaluation to ensure continuous improvement, and while the process may not follow a strict sequence, it typically begins with a needs assessment.
The needs analysis is a crucial first step in the instructional design process, as it informs the formulation of goals and objectives tailored to learners' needs Following this, appropriate assessment procedures are developed based on these established goals and objectives The insights gained from the needs analysis, along with the defined goals and assessments, guide the selection and development of suitable instructional materials Finally, ongoing evaluation of all components and the overall course is essential to ensure their relevance and effectiveness.
Curriculum development, as defined by Richards (2001), encompasses the processes used to identify the needs of learners, establish program aims and objectives, select an appropriate syllabus, and determine teaching methods and materials, culminating in the evaluation of the resulting language program This definition highlights that developing an English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curriculum involves various interconnected stages, necessitating a structured approach to effectively address each component.
Language curriculum development has been shaped by various models proposed by experts such as Brown (1989), White et al (1991), Graves (1996a), Richards (2001), and Nation & Macalister (2010) Although these models differ in focus and key elements, they share a significant similarity: the curriculum development process is a continuous cycle that can be refined to meet specific course goals and objectives.
Steps in ESP curriculum development
ESP needs analysis
Needs analysis, as defined by Brown (1995), is the systematic gathering and examination of essential information to meet the language learning requirements of students in specific educational contexts It plays a crucial role in the development of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curricula A key aspect of needs analysis is understanding the concept of "needs," which Hutchinson and Waters (1987) categorize into target needs—skills necessary for functioning in a specific environment—and learning needs, which outline the methods to acquire those skills Additionally, needs can be classified as perceived and felt needs (Berwick, 1989) or objective and subjective needs (Brindley, 1989) Objective and perceived needs are derived from external sources and are verifiable, while subjective and felt needs emerge from internal perspectives, reflecting cognitive and emotional factors.
Needs analysis in language program design involves various methods to identify and prioritize learners' needs (Richards, 1990) According to Brown (1995), it encompasses activities that gather essential information to develop a curriculum tailored to the specific learning requirements of a particular group Ellis and Johnson (1994) also emphasize the importance of this process in effectively addressing educational goals.
Needs analysis is a crucial method for identifying the requirements of learners or groups of learners, closely aligning with Brown's (1995) definition The primary objectives of needs analysis are to determine learners' language usage goals and assess their current competency levels Additionally, it involves gathering data on course materials, as highlighted by Richards (1985), who emphasizes that needs analysis entails fact-finding and collecting information from diverse sources, including learner profiles and instructional materials.
In the needs assessment process, ESP practitioners aim to gather comprehensive information about the sponsor organization's requirements, the learners' needs and desires, and the learning context This involves conducting three analyses: Target Situation Analysis to identify future language needs, Present Situation Analysis to assess current language abilities, and Context Analysis to understand the learning environment Utilizing both qualitative and quantitative methods such as questionnaires, tests, interviews, and observations is essential for this investigation The ultimate goal of needs analysis is to inform curriculum design and develop effective teaching strategies, as highlighted by Brumfit and Roberts In a learner-centered classroom, critical decisions regarding content, teaching methods, timing, and assessment are guided by learners' input, ensuring that educational approaches align with their needs.
The Languages for Specific Purposes (LSP) movement, which is known in
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) emerged from a learner-centered focus, a revolution in linguistics, and the demands of modern society (Richards, 2001; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987) Unlike general English learners, ESP students seek to acquire language skills tailored to specific roles, such as foreign students in English-medium universities or professionals like flight attendants and doctors (Richards, 2001) A key principle of ESP is that course syllabi should be designed around learners' specific needs rather than a general English structure (Richards, 2001) As highlighted by Hutchinson and Waters (1987), all content and method decisions in ESP are driven by learners' motivations Thus, analyzing learners' needs is crucial for effective teaching (Brindley, 1989; Richards, 2001), enabling instructors to enhance learning outcomes (Dudley-Evans & St-John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Nunan, 1988) Needs assessment is fundamental in ESP, serving as the basis for all educational decisions, and no ESP course should proceed without it (Belcher, 2006; Kaewpet, 2009).
Needs analysis, as defined by Brown (1995), involves the systematic collection and analysis of both subjective and objective information to establish curriculum purposes that meet students' language learning needs within specific institutional contexts This approach is frequently utilized in foreign language education to identify the specific language skills students require and the challenges they face in enhancing their language competence (Kikuchi, 2005; Taillefer, 2007; Xiao, 2006) It encompasses an examination of current needs, as highlighted by Richards.
2001) and potential needs (Chen, 2006; Kaur & Clarke, 2009)
As stated by Richards (2001), “different types of students have different language needs and what they are taught should be restricted to what they need” (p
Needs analysis is crucial in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as it highlights that "the problems are unique to specific learners in specific contexts" and necessitates tailored instruction (Belcher, 2006, p 135) This process not only informs the content of courses (Richards, 2001) but also empowers learners by giving them a voice in their educational journey (Belcher, 2006, p 139) The significance of needs analysis is underscored by various researchers in the field, emphasizing its importance for effective ESP research and course design (Basturkmen & Lewis, 2002; Benesch, 1996, 1999; Berman & Cheng, 2001; Evans & Morrison, 2011a, 2011b; Evans & Green, 2007; Ferris, 1998; Flowerdew & Miller, 1992; Hyland, 1997; Ivanic, 2006; Leki & Carson, 1994).
Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) present a comprehensive needs analysis framework that includes three essential components: Target Situation Analysis (TSA), which focuses on the tasks and activities learners will perform using the target language; Learning Situation Analysis (LSA), which examines factors influencing the learning process, such as prior experiences and course expectations; and Present Situation Analysis (PSA), which assesses learners' strengths and weaknesses in language use This framework not only addresses linguistic needs but also considers personal and environmental factors, aiming to understand learners holistically as individuals, language users, and language learners.
Specification of course goals or objectives
In curriculum discussions, Richards (2001) highlights that "goal" and "aim" are often used interchangeably to describe the general purposes of a curriculum, while "objective" refers to a more specific and concrete description of these purposes (p.120) Additionally, Brown (1995) emphasizes the importance of clearly defining curriculum goals and objectives to enhance educational effectiveness.
Determining the needs of language students leads to the establishment of goals, which are general statements outlining what must be achieved to meet those needs In contrast, objectives are specific statements detailing the content or skills students must master to reach these goals.
When establishing goals based on perceived needs, it is essential to consider four key points: first, goals are broad statements that outline the program's intentions; second, they should primarily concentrate on future achievements and the skills students should possess upon completing the program; third, goals can help formulate more specific and measurable objectives; and fourth, they should remain flexible and not be considered fixed, as perceived needs can evolve Changes in language and situational needs may arise, especially with the introduction of diverse student groups into the program.
Richards (2001) outlines key characteristics of effective objectives, emphasizing that they must describe specific learning outcomes, align with curriculum goals, be precise to avoid ambiguity, and be feasible within the course timeframe Additionally, Brown (1995) details a systematic approach to identifying student needs and translating them into achievable program goals and instructional objectives This process involves analyzing students' needs from assessment documents, articulating these needs as realizable program goals, and refining these goals into manageable units for clearer understanding and implementation.
48 know or be able to do to achieve the goals; and (4) stating the smaller, more specific goals as objectives with as much precision as makes sense in a specific context.
Selection and sequencing of content
In traditional curriculum development models, planners follow a systematic approach, progressing from needs assessment to goal setting and instructional content specification Hilda Taba's 1962 model outlines a seven-step process, including diagnosing needs, formulating objectives, selecting and organizing content, and determining evaluation methods Notably, steps three and four of Taba's model, focusing on content selection and organization, are commonly referred to as syllabus design in language teaching contexts, highlighting the importance of a structured approach to curriculum development.
Syllabus design involves the selection and organization of instructional content (Richards, 1990) According to Rabbani (2006), a syllabus is an integral component of a curriculum, particularly when language is taught alongside other subjects or within a different departmental context He argues that a syllabus functions as an independent framework when a foreign language is taught as a standalone subject in educational institutions Widdowson (1990) also contributes to this understanding of syllabus design.
A teaching program or pedagogic agenda outlines a specific subject tailored for a distinct group of learners This specification characterizes the content and formalizes an area of knowledge or behavior while organizing it into a sequence of interim objectives It focuses on both the selection and ordering of the material to be taught.
The syllabus serves as a crucial educational policy tool that embodies pedagogical objectives Once these objectives are established, it is essential to align them with the ideological perspectives surrounding the educational system.
49 concerned in addition to pedagogical effectiveness
The conception of a syllabus is closely linked to the curriculum designers' perspectives on language and second language learning Traditionally, grammar-based views dominated, leading to syllabuses focused on grammar, sentence patterns, and vocabulary However, with the shift towards communicative theories of language learning, modern syllabuses are increasingly framed in communicative terms As noted by Richards (1990), various types of syllabuses, or their combinations, are now prevalent in current English as a second language (ESL) courses and materials.
1 Structural (organized primarily around grammar and sentence patterns)
2 Functional (organized around communicative functions, such as identifying, reporting, correcting, describing)
3 Notional (organized around conceptual categories, such as duration, quantity, location)
4 Topical (organized around themes and topics, such as health, food, clothing)
5 Situational (organized around speech settings and the transactions associated with them, such as shopping, at the bank, at the supermarket)
6 Skills (organized around skills, such as listening for gist, listening for specific information, listening for inferences)
7 Task or activity-based (organized around activities, such as drawing maps, following directions, following instruction)
Despite the wealth of literature on syllabus design in recent years, there remains a lack of empirical evidence supporting a specific approach to syllabus development Consequently, educators frequently adopt a combination of methods, echoing Johnson's (1981) perspective on the matter.
A syllabus is essentially a job specification, and as such it should set out clearly
When considering the essential components of a syllabus, it's crucial to recognize that all elements—such as notional, situational, or topic-based approaches—must be addressed, much like a construction contract that needs to encompass foundations, steel frameworks, concrete, glass, and interior design Each aspect plays a vital role in creating a comprehensive and effective educational framework.
Nation and Macalister (2010) outline two primary approaches to course content sequencing: a linear development, where each lesson builds on previous ones, and a modular arrangement, allowing lessons to be taken in any order Most language courses typically adopt a linear approach, starting with simpler concepts to pave the way for more complex ones However, a flawed linear model assumes that once a topic is taught, it does not require further revision, contradicting research on memory (Baddeley, 1990) To address the necessity of repetition, variations of linear progression have emerged, including spiral curricula, matrix models, revision units, and field approaches to sequencing (Nation & Macalister, 2010).
The modular approach to sequencing divides a course into independent, non-linear units that can consist of lessons or groups of lessons (Nation & Macalister, 2010) Each module stands alone and does not rely on prior knowledge from other modules In language courses, this modular structure can be organized by skills, such as separate modules for listening, speaking, reading, and writing, as well as their subskills Additionally, modules can focus on language functions or specific situations, providing learners with the necessary language for contexts like shopping, emergency services, and travel.
51 the post office or the bank.
Methodology and support for effective teaching
Determining the goals, objectives, and content of a language curriculum is essential before delving into specific methodology decisions This phase focuses on the instructional strategies needed to meet course goals According to Richards (1990), methodology questions should not revolve around selecting a fixed 'method'; instead, effective teaching methodologies develop organically from the teaching process Nonetheless, it is still possible to plan and conceptualize effective teaching strategies in advance.
According to Brown (1995), a language program can enhance teachers' effectiveness through its curriculum in four key ways: orienting teachers to the new curriculum, supporting their teaching efforts, monitoring instruction, and providing opportunities for self-renewal The first aspect, orienting teachers, involves supplying essential information to educators, particularly newcomers, to address their initial questions and streamline their transition into the program This information can be delivered through orientation meetings, comprehensive written guides, or other relevant reference materials, ensuring that teachers have the necessary resources to perform their roles effectively.
A successful curriculum, according to Brown (1995), offers various forms of teacher support, including guidance on understanding their role in relation to students and encouraging reflection on their teaching practices.
To effectively support language programs, it is essential to establish a framework that includes both administrative and curricular assistance while addressing the political dynamics that may arise Monitoring teachers' performance, though often perceived as a challenge to their autonomy, can enhance teaching quality and foster professional growth Regular evaluations—whether through administrator or peer observations or student feedback—should be designed to reduce defensiveness and promote constructive reflection on teaching practices Additionally, recognizing that teachers are creative individuals facing personal challenges, it is crucial to implement strategies that encourage their well-being and professional development To prevent stagnation, curricula should incorporate opportunities for teachers to engage in self-improvement and continuous learning.
Selection or compilation of materials
Materials development encompasses the creation of resources by writers, teachers, or learners to enhance language input and facilitate effective language learning According to Tomlinson (1998), this process aims to maximize the intake of language by supplying relevant information and experiences Additionally, Dudley-Evans & St John (1998) emphasize that practitioners in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are often responsible for planning their courses and providing the necessary materials.
In the field of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), it is often necessary to supplement textbooks with additional materials, as suitable published resources may not always be available ESP teachers play a crucial role in this process by selecting appropriate published materials, adapting them when needed, or creating original content when no suitable options exist Furthermore, it is essential for ESP educators to evaluate the effectiveness of both published and self-produced teaching materials used in their courses.
Effective instructional materials play a crucial role in the teaching process by clearly defining objectives, outlining tasks, guiding learners, and offering feedback to enhance skill retention (Richards, 1990) In language education, these materials should be grounded in sound learning principles, engage learners' interest, and align with their needs and backgrounds They must also showcase practical language use, facilitate meaningful activities, and encourage authentic communication Addressing these elements is vital for designing impactful instructional resources.
Jolly and Bolitho (1998) outline a comprehensive process for materials writing, which includes six essential steps: identifying the need for materials, exploring that need, realizing the context for the materials, applying pedagogical principles, producing the materials for student use, and evaluating the materials against established objectives The evaluation step is crucial as it creates a dynamic feedback loop, prompting the teacher or writer to assess whether the objectives have been met This reflective process is vital for continuous improvement in educational materials.
Objectives can encompass various steps from identifying a need to the actual use of materials For instance, a proposal for a specific language exercise may lead to reflections on the language being practiced, while considerations about the material's physical production might trigger thoughts on contextualization Therefore, alongside evaluation as a crucial aspect of material writing, it is important to envision diverse pathways and feedback loops that contribute to a dynamic and self-regulating process.
In 1998, researchers identified key factors contributing to the failure of language materials, which can guide their improvement during the writing process and after their implementation By addressing these reasons, we can enhance the effectiveness of language resources for better learning outcomes.
Figure 2.7: A teacher’s path through the production of new or adapted materials
Determination of assessment methods and contents
In educational contexts, assessment is associated with students’ language achievement and test performance (Lynch, 2003, p 11) Nunan (1990, p 27) notes that
“in language teaching, assessment refers to the processes for determining a learner’s
55 proficiency” We assess the product of a language course or its students’ gains by means of tests However, as Guba and Lincoln (1981, p 2) put it, tests can tell
The article highlights the focus on individuals rather than the educational programs and curricula that shaped their learning It identifies common types of assessments, including diagnostic, placement, progress, achievement, and performance tests, which are utilized for both formative and summative evaluation purposes.
Curriculum evaluation
Program evaluation is an ongoing process of gathering, analyzing, and synthesizing information to improve curriculum elements based on their interrelationships (Brown, 1995) It involves collecting evidence and making judgments about the entire curriculum, including its planning, design, and implementation (White et al., 1991) Evaluation is crucial for determining whether modifications are needed to meet course objectives effectively, especially if some learners are not achieving the desired outcomes (Nunan, 1988b) It assesses not only the effectiveness of the course in enhancing students' language abilities (Fink, 1995) but also the appropriateness of its content and the adequacy of teaching activities Furthermore, evaluation helps identify weaknesses or unsuitable features for specific learner groups (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998) Thus, course evaluation is an integral part of development, serving as an effective tool for identifying problem areas and addressing shortcomings.
Lynch (1996, p 2) defines evaluation as “the systematic attempt to gather information to make judgments or decisions As such, evaluative information can be
Course evaluation can be defined as the systematic collection and analysis of relevant information aimed at improving curriculum and assessing its effectiveness within specific institutions (Brown, 1995) While this definition is precise, it lacks consideration of the evaluators and their audience A comprehensive definition should encompass key aspects such as the types of information required, methods for data collection and analysis, intended purposes of the evaluation, contextual specifications, and the roles of both evaluators and audiences.
Evaluating a course's effectiveness requires a product-oriented assessment along with the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data, while determining its appropriateness demands a process-oriented approach with similar data collection methods In English for Specific Purposes (ESP), the appropriateness of a course is crucial, as it focuses on meeting learners' needs A course is deemed appropriate when its content and methodology align with its stated objectives, which should reflect the needs of all stakeholders involved.
Assessment and evaluation are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings in educational contexts According to Popham (1975, p 8), evaluation encompasses a broader scope than assessment, highlighting the importance of understanding their differences for effective educational practices.
‘consists of a formal assessment of the “worth” of educational phenomena’ Formal assessment suggests the use of only quantitative measurements (such as tests) (Lynch,
2003, p 5), which, in state-of-the-art course evaluation practice, constitute only one means of information collection According to Streiff (1970, p 365), measurement
‘should be used to refer to quantitative descriptions of behavior, things or events; while evaluation has a broader scope, which includes measurement’ That is to say, the use of
57 tests in evaluation studies is probable and often preferable but not necessarily inevitable.