Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - B potx
Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - B potx
... theVaisnava-SahajiydCult of< /b> Bengal.Chi-cago:University of< /b> ChicagoPress.McDaniel,June(1989).TheMadness of< /b> theSaints:EcstaticReligioninBengal.Chicago:University of< /b> ChicagoPress.Singer,Milton,ed.(1971).Krishna:Myths,Rites,andAtti-tudes.Chicago:University of< /b> ChicagoPress.JUNEMcDANIELBhilETHNONYMS:noneOrientationIdentification.TheBhilsarethethird-largest(aftertheGondsandSantals)andmostwidelydistributedtribalgroupinIndia.Althoughtheirracialoriginremainsundetermined,theyhavebeenvariouslyclassifiedasGondids,asProto-AustraloidVeddids,andasasubsection of< /b> the"Mundarace."Thename'Bhil"isbelievedtohavebeenderivedfromvilluorbill,whichinmostDravidianlanguagesisthewordfor"bow,"inreferencetotheweaponthat,untilrecenttimes,theyseemedalmostalwaystobecarrying.ManyUrduspeak-ers,however,equatetheterm'Bhil"withtheEnglish"aborig-inal,"leadingtospeculationthatthetermisagenericoneas-sociatedwithanumber of< /b> tribesincontiguousareasbearingculturalsimilarities.RecentworkontheBhilsappearstoin-dicatethatwhathasalwaysbeentreatedasonetribalgroupinfactisheterogeneousinnature.Thisisreflectedinthe1961censusbythenumeroustribesthataretobefoundunderthename of< /b> 'Bhil."Itseemsbesttoconsidertheterm"Bhils"ascoveringanumber of< /b> subtribesthatincludetheBarelas,Bha-galia,Bhilalas,Dhankas,Dholi,Dublas,Dungri,GamitsorGamtas,Garasias,Mankars,Mavchis,Mewasi,Nirle(Nilde),Patelia,Pathias,Pavadas,Pawra,Rathias,Rawal,Tadvis,Talavias,Vasavas,andVasave.TheDhankas,Tadvis,Pava-das,andtheGamitsorGamtasmayrefertothemselvesasseparatetribes,oratleastasdistinctfromthemainstock,withtheDhankasevenhavinganoriginmyththatupholdstheirderivationfromtheRajputs.TheBhilalasaregenerallyacknowledgedasamixture of< /b> BhilsandRajputs.Yetthemembers of< /b> eachtriberegardthemselvesasbelongingtoanethnicunitseparatefromtheirneighborsandhavedevelopedasharedtribalconsciousness.TheareasinhabitedbytheBhilsremainsome of< /b> themoreremoteandinaccessibleparts of< /b> Indiatoday.Theiruniquescatteredsettlementpatternhashinderedgovernmenteffortstoprovideservicesashastheirgeneraldistrust of< /b> governmentofficials.Recentstudies of< /b> theprogressmadebytheHinduBhagatmovementappeartoin-dicatethattheremaybeaprocess of< /b> transformationfromtri-balgrouptocasteunderwayamongtheBhils.Location.TheareaoccupiedbytheBhilistheforestedlands of< /b> theVindhyaandSatpurahillsinthewesternportion of< /b> centralIndiabetween20°and25°Nand73"and77°E.Straddlingtheborders of< /b> AndhraPradesh,Gujarat,MadhyaPradesh,Maharashtra,andRajasthanstates,most of< /b> thister-ritory,traditionallyreferredtoas"Rewakantha"(aGujaratitermforthedrainage of< /b> theRewa,anothernamefortheNar-madaRiver),isthehomeland of< /b> peoplescollectivelyreferredtoastheBhil.Demography.Atotalnumber of< /b> 5,172,129peoplearetobefoundundertheheading of< /b> 'Bhilsincludingothersub-tribes"inthe1971census.Thelargestconcentration,1,618,716strong,isfoundinMadhyaPradesh.InGujaratthereare1,452,987Bhils,whilethereare1,431,020inRaja-sthan.InMaharashtra678,750registeredasmembers of< /b> thetribalgroup.TheBhilsasawholerecordedanastounding64.5percentincreaseinpopulation(from2,330,278to3,833,331)duringthedecade195 1-1 < /b> 961,butthisremark-ableratemaybeinlargepartattributabletothereclassifica-tion of< /b> thetribalgroupinthecensus.Between1961and1971,theBhilpopulationregisteredamuchmoremoderate45.9percentgrowthrate.LinguisticAffiliation.ThenumerousandvariedBhilidia-lectsspokenbytheBhilbelongtotheIndo-AryanFamily of< /b> languagesandexhibitdivergentlevels of< /b> RajasthaniandGu-jaratiinfluence.Aradius of< /b> 32to48kilometersappearstobethelimit of< /b> eachdialect'sboundaries.HistoryandCulturalRelationsAlthoughempiricalevidenceislacking,theBhilarecreditedwiththeearliestoccupation of< /b> theirarea;withsuccessiveim-migrations of< /b> Rajputsandconflictswithperiodicwaves of< /b> 32Bengalibasicruleandmatrilateralcousinmarriageisalsoforbidden.Bycontrast,asIslamraisesnobarriertocousinmarriage,itsoccurrenceamongBengaliMuslimsiscommon,althoughempiricalstudiesshowthatitisneitherpervasivenorneces-sarilypreferred.Similarlypolygyny,rareandstronglydiscour-agedamongBengaliHindus,is of< /b> coursepermittedtoBengaliMuslims,althoughitsactualrate of< /b> occurrenceisnothigh.Divorceamonghigh-casteHindusisstronglydiscouragedand,atleastuntilrecently,hasalwaysbroughtgreatstigma.Islamdiscouragesbutnonethelesspermitsdivorce,andthusitsrateamongBengaliMuslimsismuchhigherthanamongBengaliHindus.Finally,amonghigh-casteHindus,widowre-marriage-despiteacentury of< /b> legislationoutlawingthean-cientcustom of< /b> proscribingit-isstillgreatlyfrownedupon.Islamplacesnobarrieronremarriageforeithersexafterspou-saldeathordivorce,althoughtheincidence of< /b> remarriage of< /b> elderlyMuslimwidowsisnothigh.ForbothHindusandMuslimspatrilocal/virilocalpostmaritalresidencepatternsaremuchpreferredandalmostuniversallypracticed,atleastintheruralareas.Neolocalnuclear-familyhouseholdsaremuchmorecommonamongurbanprofessionalfamiliesinbothWestBengalandBangladesh.DomesticUnit.ThroughoutruralBengalthepatrilineallyextendedfamilyhomesteadissubdividedintoitsnaturalseg-ments,calledparibar,consisting of< /b> men,theirwives,theirchildren,andotherdependents,whoformthebasicsubsis-tence-producingandconsumingkinshipunits.Theeconomicandsocial"jointness" of< /b> theparibarisunderlinedbytheshar-ing of< /b> acommonkitchenorhearth,aswellastheownershiporcontrol of< /b> landand/orotherproductiveassets,ifany.Inheritance.AmongBengaliHindus,inheritanceisgov-ernedbythedayabhagasystem of< /b> customarylawinwhichamanhassolerightsinallancestralpropertyuntilhisdeathandcaninprinciplepassitontohissurvivorsinanymannerthathewishes.Unlesshemakesawilltothecontrary,uponhisdeathaman'ssonsaretoinheritequallyallpropertyasamatter of< /b> survivorship,notamatter of< /b> right;hiswifeanddaughtershavenoclaimbyrighttoany of< /b> hisproperty,buttheydohavetherighttomaintenancesolongastheyarede-pendentontheirsonsorbrothers.AmongMuslimsinheri-tanceis of< /b> coursegovernedbyIslamiclaw,whichpermitsaman'sfemaledependentstoinheritaportion of< /b> hisproperty;sincesonsareexpectedtobethesoleprovidersfortheirfami-lies,thelawpermitsthemtoreceivemore of< /b> afather'sprop-ertythandodaughters.InactualBengaliMuslim(atleastrural,peasant)practice,however,daughterscommonlyforgooraredeprived of< /b> theirinheritance of< /b> immovablepropertyinfavor of< /b> theirbrothers,assumingthatiftheyneedtoreturntotheirnatalhomesafterwidowhoodordivorcetheirbrotherswilltakecare of< /b> them.Althoughjointretentionanduse of< /b> thefather'spropertybyhissonsistheculturalidealforbothHindusandMuslims,inpracticethesubdivision of< /b> aman'spropertybeginsnotlongafterhisdeath,andtheformationorfurtherproliferation of< /b> thedomesticunitsdiscussedabovebegins.Socialization.Childrenlearnproperbehaviorfrompar-entsandoldersiblings,graduallybecomingdifferentiatedac-cordingtogenderastheymature.Thepattern of< /b> olderchil-drencaringfortheiryoungersiblingsiswidespread.Whilesmallchildren of< /b> bothsexesarewarmlyindulged,asgirlsap-proachphysicalmaturitytheirmovementsoutsidethehouse-holdaregraduallycurtailedinanticipation of< /b> therelativere-strictionsthatbothhigh-casteHinduandMuslimadultwomenwillexperienceformost of< /b> theirchild-bearingyears.SchoolsaboundthroughoutBengal,butwhetherandhowlongachildwillattenddependmuchupongenderaswellasthesocialstandingandfinancialcondition of< /b> thefamily.Schoolsforreligiouseducation-HindupathsalasforboysandIslamicmadrassasopentobothsexes-arefoundevery-whereandcommonlyattended,atleastduringchildhoodyears.SociopoliticalOrganizationWestBengalisafederalstatewithintheRepublic of< /b> India,withitsownelectedgovernorandlegislature;italsosendsrepresentativestoabicameralnationalparliament.Bangla-deshisanindependentsovereignrepublicwithanelectedpresidentandaunicameral,electednationalassembly(theJatiyaSangsad).SocialOrganization.BengaliHindusocietyisorganizedalongthelines of< /b> theHinducastesystem,inwhicheveryindi-vidualisamemberbybirth of< /b> acorporate,ranked,endoga-mousoccupationalgroup,calledacaste(jati).One'splaceinsocietyisdeterminedbytherank of< /b> one'scaste,andthelatterisdeterminedbytherelativeprestige-measuredbythede-gree of< /b> ritualpurityorimpurity-associatedwiththecaste'straditionaloccupation.Thecastestraditionallyassociatedwithreligiousleadershipareconsideredtobethemostpurerituallyandsohavethehighestrank.Atthebottom of< /b> thehi-erarchyarefoundthosecasteswhoseoccupations,becausetheyinvolvedirectorindirectcontactwithsuchdefilingsub-stancesasbloodandhumanexcretaormaybeassociatedwithdeathinsomeway,areconsideredtobethemostrituallyimpure.Thecustomsgoverningmuch of< /b> theindividual'sexis-tencearethose of< /b> hisorhercastecommunity;thewealth of< /b> one'sfamilyisalsocorrelatedwithone'scasteranking;theprobabilitythatapersonwillreceiveahighdegree of< /b> educa-tionisalsorelatedtocastestatus,and of< /b> coursemostpeoplemarryamember of< /b> theircasteaswell.Individualupwardso-cialmobilityishighlyrestrictedinthiskind of< /b> socialsystem,butitispossibleforawholecastetoelevateitsactualrankinitslocalhierarchyifitsmembersbecomewealthyandattempttoemulatenormsandcustoms of< /b> thehighercastes.CertaincastesfoundelsewhereinIndia,notablythoseassociatedinthepastwithroyalty(i.e.,theKshatriyavarna)andtheper-formance of< /b> traditionalrulingfunctions,havenotbeenhis-toricallypresentinBengal.AnywherefromsixtoadozencastegroupsmightbefoundinatypicalBengaliHinduvil-lage,butvillagesinBengaltendtobelesshighlystratified,inthesensethattheytendtohavea ... thatinBilaspurtheyadoptedChhattisgarhi,inMandlaandJub-bulporetheyspokeamodifiedEasternHindi,inBalaghattheyspokeMarathi,Hindi,Gondi(oracombination of< /b> Marathi,Hindi,andGondi),andBaigani(alanguage of< /b> Indo-AryanStockbelongingtotheIndo-EuropeanPhylum).HistoryandCulturalRelationsBaigacontactwithotherpeoplesandknowledge of< /b> regionsbeyondtheirownhasbeenminimal.Manyhaveneverheard of< /b> majorurbanareasadjacenttotheirimmediateenvirons,suchasNagpur,Delhi,andBombay.RelationswiththeBrit.ishduringcolonialrulewerefavorableoverall;theonlysub-stantialpoint of< /b> contentionbetweenthetwopartieswaslimi-tationsplacedonbewar(shiftingagriculture)bytheBritish.AsIndiasoughtindependencefromBritishrule,mythologi-caltraditionsaboutMahatmaGandhibegantoemerge,su-perhumanstatusbeingascribedtohimbytheBaiga.Never-theless,Gandhi'sattitudetowardalcoholprohibitiondid48Bohraandpracticesandthose of< /b> regularMuslimsare:theDaudiBohraspayspecialattentiontoAli,tohissons,HassanandHussain,andtotheirhighpriest,theMullahSahib of< /b> Surat;theypayspecialattentiontocircumcision;theyrejecttheva-lidity of< /b> thethreecaliphs,AbuBakrSidik,Umar,andUsman;andatdeathaprayerforpityonthesoulandthebody of< /b> thedeceasedislaidinthedeadman'shand.TheJaafariBohrasareSunnisinfaith.Theyhavenoreligioushead,butmanytraditionallyhavefollowedspiritualguides.Many of< /b> themareknownasKabariasfrombeingdevotedtothekabarorgrave of< /b> PirMuhammadShahatAhmedabad.Asalreadystated,theNagoshis'founderheldthepeculiardoc-trinethatanimalfoodwassinful;otherwisetheirreligioussectisverymuchliketheAliasect.TheSulaimaniBohrasonlydifferfromtheDaudiintheirrecognition of< /b> thereligioushead of< /b> thesect.TheirhighpriesttraditionallylivesinNajramintheHifainArabia.TheAliaBohrasstronglyre-sembletheSulaimaniBohrasintheirreligiouspractices.ManySunniBohrastraditionallyhavespiritualguides,whoaregivenmuchrespect,andmanyalsostillkeeptocertainHindupractices.Theygivedeathandmarriagedinners;theysometimesgiveHindunamestotheirchildrenormodifyMuslimones.SomeSunniBohras,however,arefollowers of< /b> theGheit-Mukallidteachers of< /b> theWahabisect,whofollowstrictMuslimcustoms.BibliographyEngineer,AsgharAli(1980).TheBohras.Sahibabad:VikasPublishingHouse.Enthoven,ReginaldE.,ed.(1920)."Bohoras."TheTribesandCastes of< /b> Bombay.Vol.1,19 7-2 < /b> 07.Bombay:GovernmentCen-tralPress.Reprint.1975.Delhi:CosmoPublications.groupsaredescendants of< /b> acommonancientAustroasiaticprogenitor.Theclassicethnographicaccount of< /b> Bondocul-tureisElwin's1950study.Location.Thelocus of< /b> Bondocultureextendsfromap-proximately18020'to18°30'Nand82°20'to82°30'E.TheBondohomeland(sometimesknownasBara-jangar-des)isahillyhabitatthatoverlookstheMachkundValleyandtheMalkangiriPlain.Theaverageannualrainfallisapproxi-mately150centimeters.Settlementsfallintothreegeo-graphicgroupings:theBara-jangargroup(alsoknownasMundlipadaorSerayen);theGadabagroup(northeast of< /b> Mundlipada);andthePlainsgroup.Thefirst of< /b> theseareasisthemostimportant.ItistheBondocapitalandisalsobe-lievedtohavebeentheancientBondohomeland.Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatthetwelvevillagesthatbringyearlytrib-utetotheruler of< /b> thisplacearetheoriginalBondosettle-ments(eachhavingbeenfoundedbyone of< /b> twelvebrothers).Demography.In1971therewere5,338Bondos,75,430Gadabas,and227,406Porojas.linguisticAffiliation.TheBondospeakalanguage of< /b> MundaStockbelongingtotheAustroasiaticPhylum.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyprehistory of< /b> theBondoisunclearbecausethereexistnophysicalremainsuponwhichtobaseareconstruc-tion of< /b> theirorigin.Itisbelievedthattheiroriginalhomeisnortheast of< /b> theirpresenthabitat.ElwinconcurswithChristophvonFurer-Haimendorf'ssuggestionthattheBondobelongtothegroup of< /b> neolithicAustroasiaticpeopleswhocultivatedricebymeans of< /b> irrigationandterracing,do-mesticatedcattleforsacrificialanddietarypurposes,anderectedmegaliths(e.g.,dolmens,stonecircles,andmenhirs).Insaf,Saifuddin(1986).TheBohraControversy(AsReflectedthroughNewspapers)(inGujarati).Surat:CentralBoard of< /b> DawoodiBohraCommunityPublications.JAYDiMAGGIOBondoETHNONYMS:BondaGadaba,BondoPoroja,PorJa,RemoOrientationIdentification.TheBondoareanAustroasiaticpeoplewhoinhabittheareanorthwest of< /b> theMachkundRiverinthestate of< /b> Orissa,India.WhiletheculturalrelationshipbetweentheBondoandneighboringpeoples(e.g.,thePorojaandGadaba)hasbeendebated,largelybecause of< /b> substantialdif-ferencesinappearance,personaladornment,socialnorms,andreligiousbeliefs,VerrierElwinhasconcludedthatasuffi-cientdegree of< /b> culturalcommonalityexistsbetweentheBondosandGadabastowarrantthesuggestionthatbothSettlementsGeneralizationsregardingthenature of< /b> Bondovillagesarenoteasilymade.ThetypicalBondovillageisbuilteitheralongorascendingahillside,reasonablyclosetoaspring.Theplace-ment of< /b> individualdomicilesfollowsnosetpatternandtherearenoregularthoroughfareswithinvillageboundaries.Thegrouping of< /b> housesaccordingtoclanobtainsattimes,butforthemostpartsocialandotherdistinctionshavenoimpactonthearrangement of< /b> houses.Thesindibor(thestoneplatformthatisthelocus of< /b> villagesocialandreligiousceremonies)isplacedatsomeshadyspotwithinthevillage.Villagesarenotfortifiedandtendtobesurroundedbygardenscontaininganassortment of< /b> trees,spiceplants,andotherplants.Fieldsforcultivationarelocatedinthegeneralproximity of< /b> thevillage.Publicstructureswithinthevillageconfinesincludemanurepitsandmaleandfemaledormitories.ThetypicalBondohouse,composed of< /b> mud,wood,andthatchinggrass,containstwomainroomsandaveranda.Attachedtotheoutside of< /b> thehouseisaplaceforpigs.Cattle,goats,andchickensarealsohousedinthevicinity of< /b> the ... herhusband'sproperty.Socialization.Motherandchildareconsideredpollutinguntiltheeleventhdayafterbirth,whenapurifyingceremonyisconductedandthebabyisgivenaname.Thefirstfeeding of< /b> rice,calledpasni,isgivenafter5monthsforagirland7monthsforaboy.Aboy'sheadisshavedatabout7years of< /b> age(asmalltuft of< /b> hairisleftonthebackasasignthatheisaHindu),andheisformallyinitiatedintofullcastemember-shipwhenhereceivesthesacredthread,eitheratthetime of< /b> thehaircutorafewyearslater.Atherfirstmenstruationagirlisremovedtoanotherhouse,wheresheisshieldedfromthesight of< /b> anymeninherfamilyandfromthesun.Bothparentsparticipateinraisingtheirchildren,butwomenperformmost of< /b> thechildcare,especiallyinthepreteenyears.Fathersactasdisciplinariansastheirchildrengrowolder.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Acastesystemprevails,withtheBrahmansandChhetrisoccupyingaveryhighpositioninit.PoliticalOrganization.Villagepoliticallifetendstofol-lowitsowndynamic,regardless of< /b> changesinthenationalpo-liticalscene.Villageaffairstendtobemanagedbyformalorinformalcouncils of< /b> villageeldersinwhichBrahmansandChhetris,byvirtue of< /b> theirstatusaslandholdersandtheirrel-ativelyhighereducation,oftenplayprominentroles.Nation-allytheking,whoseancestorunifiedthecountryinroughlyitspresentformattheend of< /b> theeighteenthcentury,hasal-waysbeenaThakuri,anaristocraticsection of< /b> Chhetris.TheRanafamily,whichprovidedallprimeministersfrom1846till1950andisstillpowerfulinthegovernmentandarmy,isalsoChhetri.ThemovementtooverthrowtheRanasandsubsequentpoliticalmovementsaimedatdemocraticorso-cialistreformhavefrequentlybeenledbyBrahmansandChhetris.SocialControl.Until1963Nepal'sMulkiAin(nationalcode)explicitlystatedwhichactivitieswereproperforeachcastegroupandprescribedpenaltiesforinfractions of< /b> thelaw.Sincethecode'srevisionin1963,theMulkiAintreatsallcitizensequallyunderthelaw.Conflict.Thoseconflictsthatcannotbesettledthroughinformalmeansatthevillagelevelarereferredtothelegalandjudicialsystem of< /b> Nepal.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandsubscribetomost of< /b> thebasicHindubeliefs.Atamini-mumtheseincludethreenotions.Oneisdharma-theideathateachpersonhasaspecificduty,moralcode,andset of< /b> behaviorswhichareentailedbyvirtue of< /b> membershipinagroup(suchasacastegroup).Anotherideaisthat of< /b> karma-sometimeslikenedto'causeandeffect,"becauseitexplainswhateverpresentstate of< /b> affairsexistsinterms of< /b> theeventsinpreviouslivesthatproducedit.Thethirdismoksha(salvation)-releasefromtheround of< /b> rebirthsthatreincar-nationinvolves.ReligiousPractitioners.Brahmansmayactasfamilypriests(forBrahmanandChhetrihouseholds,butnotforothercastesandethnicgroups),aswellasofficiateatshrinesandtemplesandatritualsassociatedwithmajorfestivals.Theyalsohandlealltheritualsperformedduringmarriage.Theyaregenerallypresentonreligiousoccasionsandreadex-cerptsfromtheVedasorotherSanskrittexts.TheyalsorecitefromthePuranasandfromthetwogreatHinduepics,theRamayanaandtheMahabharata.Ceremonies.AllBrahmansandChhetrisareHindusandobservefestivals,performrituals,andworshipdeitiesassoci-atedwithHinduism.One of< /b> themoreimportantannualfesti-valsisDasein(orDurgaPuja),inwhichthegoddessDurga(Kali)isworshipedoverafortnightinthemonth of< /b> October.Manyritualofferingsandanimalsacrificesaremadeatthistime,andthereismuchfeastingandvisitingamongimmedi-atefamilyandextendedkin.Onthetenthday of< /b> thefort-nighteachindividualmaleandfemalepaysrespecttoseniorrelatives,whothenreciprocatebyplacingacoloredtikaontheforehead of< /b> thejuniorperson.AlsoobservedisPhagu(calledHoliinIndia),thespringrite of< /b> HinduculturerelatedtofecundityandthegodKrishna.Itcomesinthemonth of< /b> Phagun(February-March)andisariotoustimewhenmen,women,andchildrensing,dance,andthrowcoloredpowderandwaterateachother.OtherannualfestivalsincludeTihar(Dipavali,thefestival of< /b> lights),JanaiPurnima(changing of< /b> thesacredthread),andTij-panchami(apurificatoryriteforwomen).Ritualsinadditiontothosementionedabove(underSocializationandMarriage)includeworship of< /b> thehouseholdgod(kuldevta),worship of< /b> brothersbysisters(bhaitika,celebratedduringTihar),anddaily(morningandsome-timesevening)worship of< /b> various of< /b> theHindudeities,in-cludingGanesh,Shiva,Vishnu,Ram,Krishna,Saraswati,Durga,Parvati,Narayan,Bhairab,andmanyothers.SomeChhetris of< /b> westNepalworshipMashtathroughshamans(dhamisorjhankris)andknowlittleornothingabouttradi-tionalHindudeitiesandfestivals.Arts.BrahmansandChhetrisarenotknownfortheirar-tisticinterestsorabilities.Music,dance,andvisualandplas-ticartsaretraditionallythedomain of< /b> other,generallylowercastes,andexceptamongeducatedurbanpeopleBrahmansandChhetrisdonotindulgethemselvesintheseactivities.Theirsimple,mostlyundecoratedhousesreflectthislack of< /b> artisticbent.Medicine.BrahmansandChhetriswillacceptmedicalhelpfromanyavailablesource,whetheritisanAyurvedicdoctor(aspecialistinherbalmedicine),apassingBuddhistlamawithareputationforeffectivemedicines,ashamanwhoBadaga15HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheearlyBadagas,refugeesfromtheMusliminvaders of< /b> My-sore,hadtocuttheirfarmsteadsout of< /b> theNilgiriforests.Theycontinuedsomeslash-and-burncultivationthereuntilthe1870s.Bythattimethelanddemands of< /b> Britishteaandcoffeeplanters,thenresidentforhalfacentury,hadcreatedamarketforfarmland,whichtemptedmanyBadagastosellsome of< /b> theirland.Butmost of< /b> theirlandwasretained.Bytheearlytwentiethcenturytheywerepursuingadvancededu-cationandsomeurbanprofessions.FormanyyearsnowtheBadagashavebeenadaptingtotheirownusecertainaliencustomsandtechniques.Nowhereisthismoreevidentthaninagriculture.SettlementsThevillages,eachinhabitedonlybyBadagas of< /b> aparticularclanandusuallycontainingnomorethanseveralhundredpeople,consist of< /b> parallelrows of< /b> stoneorbrickhouseswithtiledroofs.Theyliealongtheslope of< /b> ahillonitsleewardside,forprotectionfromthewesterlymonsoon.Thefieldsspreadoutallaround.Uptoahalf-dozentemplesandshrinesfordifferentHindugodsarefoundineachvillage.Modernvillageshaveelectricityandpipedwatertocommunaltaps,butnotlongagothewatersupplywasanearbystreamoratbestachannelrunningintothevillagefromastream.Oneotheruniversalfeatureisavillagegreen,importantasacoun-cilplace,playground,danceground,funeralplace,andgen-eralgrazingareaforthecalves.ThetraditionalBadagatwo-roomhouses,stillincommonuse,arebuiltingroups of< /b> adozenorlesstoformacontinuouslinealongalevelpiece of< /b> ground.Theyarenowmade of< /b> whitewashedbrickandhavetiledorcorrugated-ironroofs,butthetraditionalbuildingmaterialwaswattleanddaub.Scarcelyanythatchedroofsnowremain.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.IngeneralBadagasusefieldsaroundthevillagestopracticemixedfarm-ing of< /b> millets,barley,wheat,andavariety of< /b> Europeanvegeta-bles,two of< /b> which-thepotatoandcabbage-havenowas-sumedmajorcommercialimportance.Milletswerethestapleuntilthiscentury,andtheyweresometimescultivatedinfor-estclearingsbytheslash-and-burntechnique.Badagafarm-ersusenoirrigation;instead,theyrelyontherainfall of< /b> tworegularmonsoonseasons.Duringthiscenturytheyhavegrad-uallyshiftedfromsubsistencefarming of< /b> traditionalgrainstocash-cropfarming of< /b> potatoesandcabbages.Afterseveralseasons of< /b> disease,potatoeswererecentlysupersededbynu-meroussmallplantations of< /b> tea(whichwasfirstintroducedherebytheBritishin1835)andcabbagefields.Crops of< /b> Eu-ropeanoriginarenowgrownonmachine-madeterraceswiththehelp of< /b> chemicalfertilizers,trucktransport,improvedseed,andevencropinsurance;similartechniquesareusedontheteaplantations,whichmustmaintain world< /b> marketstan-dards.Herds of< /b> buffaloandcowsarekeptfordairypurposes;thesearelessnumerousthaninthepast,andtheyareneverkeptformeat,eventhoughmostpeoplearenotvegetarians.Poultryarefrequentlykeptandponiesoccasionally.Bee-keepingispracticednow,butinearlierdaysonlywildhoneywascollectedintheforests.Althoughpotatoesandpur-chasedricearethestaplesnowadays,theBadagastradition-allyatewheatandvariousmillets.Theirmixedfarmingpro-ducesagoodvariety of< /b> bothlocalandEuropeancrops,andtheirdietalsomaybecomplementedwithsomewildforestplants.MostBadagasarenonvegetarian,eatingmuttonandoccasionalwildgame.Thereisnoevidence of< /b> opiumaddic-tion,althoughthiswasanopium-producingcommunityinthelastcentury.Illicitliquorisproduced.IndustrialArts.AlthoughBadagashavebeendoingbuild-ingandurbantradesforaboutacentury,until1930theylookedtotheKotastosupplyall of< /b> theirneedsinpottery,car-pentry,leather,blacksmithing,silverornaments,thatching,andfurniture.Badagasincludenospecializedartisanphra-triesorsubcastes.Trade.Thiscommunityiswellknownforitscomplexsym-biosiswiththeToda,Kota,andKurumbatribesof...
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Encyclopedia of World Cultures Volume III - South Asia - M potx
... fromitemshecarriedinanoldarmyrucksack.Hispharmacopoeiaincludedthefol-lowing:someAyurvedictreatmentsavailableinthelocalormoredistantbazaars;abull'stooth;ahumanlegbone;thenavel of< /b> amuskdeer;ashred of< /b> aleopard'stongue;aporcu-pine'sjawbone,plusitsstomach,stillstuffedwiththedriedcontents;atortoiseshell;apiece of< /b> redbrick;ablackstone;andnumerousbits of< /b> leafandbark.Oftenthepatientwasre-quiredtodrinkaconcoction of< /b> selectedground-upbitsfromthisarray.Ground-upbrickwasafrequentlyusedcompo-nent.Harder,nongrindableitemssuchasabull'stoothweremerelytouchedtothemedicine.Ceremonies.Disregardingsmallvariations,themethod of< /b> sacrificegenerallyfollowsapredictablepattern.Theritualtakesplaceatalocalitywherethedeityisthoughttobepres-ent.Itiscarriedoutbyayoungunmarriedboywhohasbathedanddressedhimselfinacleanwhiteloincloth.Aftersanctifyingthegroundwithcowdungandwaterandcon-structingasmallopen-endedroomfromflatstones,heselectsasmallstonetorepresentthedeityandprovidesitwithnewclothingbywrappingwhitestringaroundit.Hethensetsthenewlydresseddeityinthestoneroomandfashionsacow-dungplatformwithanumber of< /b> depressionsinit.Thisheplacesbeforethedeitytoholdfoodofferings.Suchofferingsincludericeflourfriedinghee,puffedrice,ricemixedwithwaterandsage,andcow'smilk.Thedeityishonoredfurtherbydecoratingtheshrinewithturmeric,bits of< /b> coloredcloth,andflowersandbythepresence of< /b> fireintheform of< /b> amustard-oillampinacoppercontainer.Justbeforethesacrifice,thesacrificermakesanincense of< /b> gheeandsageandpraysforwhateverboonhewishesthedeitytogive.Theanimaltobeofferedisreadiedbysprinklingwater,rice,andsageonitsheaduntilitshakesit,thusshow-ingitswillingnesstobesacrificed.Iftheanimalissmallenough,itisthenwavedovertheincensecontainer.Other-wisetheincenseburneriswavedunderit.Nexttheanimalisbeheaded,andthebloodthatspurtsfromthecarcassisdi-rectedtowardtheshrineandtheimageinside.Theheadisthenplacedinfront of< /b> theimage.Thesacrificerthengivestikatoallwhoarepresentbypressingasmallamount of< /b> ricemixedwithbloodontotheirforeheads.One of< /b> theworshipersdoesthesameforhim.Asagiftforhisservices,thesacrificerreceivestheheadandwhateverfoodisnotneededforofferingintheshrine.Sometimesthesacrificedanimaliscookedneartheshrineandeveryoneeatsthefoodsanctifiedbyitshavingbeensharedwithadeity.DeathandAfterlife.AMagarwhodiesdoesnotceasebeingamember of< /b> thefamily.Heorshecontinuestobeaware of< /b> descendantsandcanaffectthem.Thedescendants,inturn,continuetobeaware of< /b> himorherandrealizethatwhattheydocontrols,atleastpartially,thewayheorshetreatsthem.Therearetwokinds of< /b> deceasedancestor.Onekind,calledbai,isaspiritbeingwhowandersaboutonEarthandlikessacrificialblood.Theother,calledpitri,isinheavenanddoesnotlike ... ac-cordancewithMuslimcustom;however,thebridemustbepresentbecauseinSriLankathegroomadornsherwithaweddingnecklaceusuallyhavingacrescentonit.Postmaritalresidenceisatthebride'shouseamongallSriLankanMus-lims,andthecouplemayremainthereforsomemonthsoryears.Divorceisrare,andpolygynyinsignificant.Alargenumber of< /b> mentakebridesfromanyMuslimcategoryexceptthebarbercaste.BibliographyArasaratnam,S.(1964).Ceylon.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.Maloney,Clarence(1984)."SriLanka."InMuslimPeoples:A World< /b> EthnographicSurvey,editedbyRichardV.Weekes,72 3-7 < /b> 27.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Mauroof,Mohamed."Aspects of< /b> Religion,Economy,andSo-cietyamongtheMuslims of< /b> SriLanka."ContributionstoIn-dianSociology,n.s.6:6 6-8 < /b> 3.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia< /b> of< /b> India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Yalman,Nur(1967).UndertheBoTree:StudiesinCaste,Kin-ship,andMarriageintheInterior of< /b> Ceylon.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of< /b> CaliforniaPress.JAYDiMAGGIOMundaETHNONYMS:Hor,Kol,KolarianOrientationIdentification.Mundarefersprimarilytoagroup of< /b> lan-guages,butthetribesthatspeakthoselanguageshavecollec-tivelybecomeknowntoscholarshipbythesamename.Indi-vidually,ethnicdesignationsare(withimportantalternativesinparentheses):Korku,Santal(includingtheMahalisub-group),Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Birhor,Asur,Turi,Korwa,Kora,Kharia,Juang,Sora(Saora,Savara),Gorum(Parenga),Gadaba,Remo(Bondo,Bonda),andGataq(Didayi,Dire).Some of< /b> thesenames(especiallyKharia,Sora,andGadaba)aresharedwithlocalgroups of< /b> non-Mundaspeakers.Theterm"Munda"appearstobederivedfromaSanskriticrootmeaning"substantial,wealthy,"later"head,"hence"head-man";itwasthusoriginallyatermappliedbyoutsiders,ausagethatbecameespeciallyconsolidatedundertheBritishregime.Theword"Kol"(Kolarian),althoughpejorative,isprobablyreallyacorruption of< /b> theirownhor,kor,etc.,mean-ing"man,"commoninthenorth of< /b> theirareabutreplacedbyremoinsouthernOrissa,India.Location.TheKorkuarelocatedinsouthwestMadhyaPradeshandareisolatedfromotherMunda.ThelastfivegroupsinthelistabovearefoundmainlyintheKoraputandGanjamdistricts of< /b> southernOrissa.TheremainderarefoundmainlyonandaroundtheChotaNagpurPlateau-thatis,insouthernBihar,northernOrissa,easternMadhyaPradesh,andwesternWestBengal,withanoutlier of< /b> KorwainMirzapurDistrict,UttarPradesh.TherearealsosomeSantalinsoutheastNepal(wheretheyarecalledSatar),Bhu-tan,andnorthernBangladesh.Demography.Therearejustover6millionMundaspeak-ers,two-thirds of< /b> whombelongtojustonetribe,theSantal,one of< /b> thelargesttribesonearth.Otherlargegroups of< /b> Mundaspeakers(withcensusfiguresinparentheses)aretheKorku(275,654in1971),Munda(1,181,151in1971),Ho(538,124in1971),Kharia(274,540in1971),andSora(521,187in1971).Therestnumberafewthousandeachatthemost,theBirhor4,300in1971.Togethertheyconstitutewellunder1percent of< /b> thetotalIndianpopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Mundaisthewesternmostbranch of< /b> theAustroasiaticLanguageFamily,whichisotherwiseas-sociatedmainlywithcontinentalSoutheast Asia.< /b> Thecon-nectionisremoteandhasbeenamatter of< /b> controversybuttodayisgenerallyaccepted:itmanifestsitselfincommonlexemesratherthananysimilaritiesingrammar,wordmor-phology,orphonology.Literacyisgenerallylow,andmostlit-eratureisoralratherthanwritten.However,missionariesandtribaleducatorshavereducedmanytextstowriting,usingtheRomanscriptorone of< /b> theregionalIndianscripts.Therearealsotwodedicatedtribalscripts,oneforSantali(calledolce-mit),theotherforHo.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheviewthattheMundaoriginallyenteredIndiafromSoutheast Asia< /b> isbasedmainlyontheirlinguisticaffiliations;Mappila167languagethathasabsorbedloanwordsfromSanskrit,Arabic,andEuropeanlanguages.Arabicisgenerallyusedforreligiouspurposes.KeralaisthemostdenselypopulatedstateinIndiaandtheeducationallevelthereisquitehigh.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMappilawereevidentlyfirstconvertedtoIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturiesA-D.bytraderswhoarrivedinKerala.Thearrival of< /b> thePortuguesebegantodisruptMappilalifein1498.ThePortuguesesoughtbotheconomicandreligiousdomina-tion.Economically,theysoughtashare of< /b> thespicetradeandaseaconnectionwiththeFarEast.Theirreligiousgoalsstemmedfromthedesire of< /b> thepopetoconquerIslamicandHindusocie-ties.ThePortuguesehaddirectorderstoestablishtheirauthor-ityovertheregionsothattheCatholicreligion,business,andculturewouldflourishinaharmonioussystemthatwouldbegoodforthechurch,thekingandthepeople.ThePortugueseperiodresultedinadeclineintheindigenouseconomicsystem,estrangementfromHinduism,andincreasedbitternessandten-sionbetweentheChristiansandMuslims;finally,theMappilabecamemilitantagainstthePortuguese.Theareacameunderthepoliticalcontrol of< /b> theBritishinthe1790s,andtheyruledMalabarfrom1792to1947.MappilaleadersagreedtopaytheBritishfortheirprotection of< /b> theterritoryandtoacceptadvicefromanappointedBritishadministrator,butin1921theMappilaresistancebegan,continuinguntilIndiawonitsinde-pendencein1947.EconomyTheoverpopulation of< /b> Kerala,andespecially of< /b> theMalabararea,hascausedmanyeconomicproblems.Today,most of< /b> theunemployedareeducatedpeoplefromuniversitiesortrainingschools.Anotherproblemisthatthesepeoplecan-notfindworkinotherstatesbecauseeachstatewantstohireitsowncitizensfirst,beforeabsorbinganyoutsiders.Agricul-tureisthemainoccupation of< /b> theKerala,althoughlandsuit-ableforagricultureislimited.Cashcropsearnareasonableamountfromexport,butthishascausedashortageforlocalconsumption.Rubber,pepper,cardamom,coconut,cashewnuts,tea,andcoffeearethemajorcashcrops.Foodstaplesarerice,pulses,andsorghum.Theareaholdsgreatforeststhatyieldrawmaterialssuchasbamboo,charcoal,andgum.Industrialenterprisesproducebricksandtilesanddooilmill-ing.Thesefactoriesemployasizablepercentage of< /b> thepopu-lation.StillMalabarremainseconomicallyaprimitiveandstagnantarea,anditisnotsurprisingthatinrecentyearstens of< /b> thousands of< /b> residentshavesoughtworkinthePersianGulfcountries.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMatrilinealitywasintroducedtotheMappilafromtheNayarcommunitythatisalsolocatedinMalabar.Leadershipandpropertyownershipweretraditionallyvestedintheoldestsis-ter,apracticethatwasandisveryrareinIslamicsocieties.Amajority of< /b> theMappilanowfollowthepatrilinealsystem;onlysomewealthyfamiliescarryonthematrilinealtradition.Familiesmaintainstrongbondsandmostlyliveunderoneroof.Butmodemconditionsareforcingthispracticetochange,witheachnuclearfamilynowoftenstrivingtoownahomeandconcentrateonitsownsurvivalandprosperity.Islamplaysamajorpartinchildbirth,marriage,death,andburialceremonies.Atmarriage,themarriagecontractandblessingaresignedandreadbyaqazi,areligiousjudge.Followingdeath,theKoranischantedinthemosque,andthenthebodyisburiedfacingtowardMecca.Prayersarechantedathomeontheanniversary of< /b> adeath.Mappilalifehasbeeninfluencedbynewattitudesandtheyhavebecomegreatlyconcernedabouttheirhealthandsurroundings.HeadshavingisnotpracticedanylongerbyMappilamen.ThedowrysystemisbecominglessprominentastheMappilawomenchangetheirsocialstatustothat of< /b> citizens of< /b> Kerala.Women'spositionaspropertyisalsochanging,aswomenarenowseekinghighereducationandbecomingschoolteachers,doctors,etc.Traditionally,thewomen of< /b> lowerlaboringcastesinKeralawererelativelyfreecomparedtowomen of< /b> uppercastes,becausetheycoulddoanyavailablework,whereastheupper-classwomencouldnotdoanythinginap-propriatetotheirsocialstatus;thissituationisalsochangingforthebetter.Polygamyisnotpracticed,eventhoughIslampermitsmentomarryuptofourwives.SocialOrganizationTherearevariousdistinctionswithintheMuslimgroup.Onemajordistinctionisbetweenthose of< /b> Indianandthose of< /b> for-eignorigin.HigherclassstatusisenjoyedbythosedescendedfromtheProphet'sfamily,theSayyids.Oneinternaldistinc-tionisbetweentheUntouchablesandthehighercastesamongtheMappilas.Anotherdistinctgroupareallthose of< /b> Arabdescent.ReligionIslamwasintroducedtoKeralaintheseventhandeighthcen-turiesbySunniArabs.Islaminallprobabilityspreadtopen-insularIndiafromKerala.ArabscamethroughKeralaforthepurchase of< /b> pepperandslaves.Keralawasalsoaveryconven-ientreststopformerchantspassingeastandwestthroughtheIndianOcean.TheseMuslimmerchantsestablishedahar-moniousrelationshipandintroducedIslamtothepeople.TheMappilawerereadypsychologicallyfornewchangesbe-cause of< /b> previouspoliticalandeconomicsetbacks.MostMappilatodayenrichtheirlivesbyprayersandQuranicread-ings.Mullahs(religiousclergymen)arepaidbyfamiliestovisitandconductspecialprayersorchanttheQuran.Map-pilaattendamosqueforreligiousholidaysandsometimestolistentoapreacher.IslampreachesthatlifeisunderoneLordandhiscommandisone;butthisideahasbecomeperhapslessimportantfortheMappilaastheystrugglethroughlife.Mappilacultureischanging,withmodemeducationandcommunistconceptsplayingamajorrole.ThemullahsnowcanrelyonlyonspecialoccasionssuchasRamadanforanop-portunitytosermonizeandstrengthenthepeople'sfaith.SeealsoMalayaliBibliographyAnanthakrishnaIyer,L.K.(1912)."TheJonakanMappilas."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Cochin.Vol.2,45 9-4 < /b> 84.Madras:Higginbotham&Co.Reprint.1981.NewDelhi:CosmoPublications.Malayali165ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligiousbeliefs of< /b> thoseMaharswhohavenotconvertednowarebasicallythose of< /b> mostHindulowcastesinMaharashtra:astrongbeliefinpossession,participa-tioninthefestival of< /b> thegodKhandoba,activeparticipationinthewarkaricultandthepilgrimagetoPandharpur,anddevotiontovariousnon-Sanskriticgods.TheMaharsweretraditionallytheservants of< /b> thevillagegoddessMariai,thegoddess of< /b> pesti-lence.Sincetheconversion,many of< /b> thepotrajclasswhoservedthegoddesshavegivenupthatworkItisclearfromthegazet-teers of< /b> theBritishinthelatenineteenthcenturythatMaharshadmanysomewhatunusualreligiouspractices,butthegreatrationalreformmovementhasmadeanyrecentstudy of< /b> specialcastepracticesimpossible.Thereweredevrishis(treatments of< /b> illnessbyashandmantras)amongtheMahars,andtherestillmaybe.Somepotrajservants of< /b> thegoddessstilloperate,butinmanyvillagesthecare of< /b> theMariaitempleisnowinthehands of< /b> theMangs.Theleadership of< /b> thecastediscouragesHindupractices,andmanythatarestillperformedaredonesowithoutmajorityapproval.ForthosewhohaveconvertedtoBuddhism,therational,nonsuperstitious,egalitarianform of< /b> BuddhismpromulgatedbyAmbedkardominates.Hediedshortlyaftertheinitialconversionceremonyin1956,andtheconvertshaveslowlybuiltviharas(monasteries)inwhichtomeetforBuddhistworship,havecreatedasangha(community) of< /b> monks,havetaughtPallandgivenmorallessonstothechildren,andhaveat-temptedtoestablishconnectionswithBuddhistsinothercoun-tries.TheTheravadaform of< /b> BuddhismisthebaseforAmbedkar'steaching.Hisgrandson,PrakashAmbedkar,isnowhead of< /b> theBuddhistSociety of< /b> India.BeliefingodorghostpossessioniscommoninIndia,andMaharsnotfirmlyfixedinBuddhistrationalitytakepartinpossessionrituals.Ceremonies.NopeculiarlyMaharceremonieshavebeenreported.Arts.FortheMahar,theneo-Buddhistmovementhasproducedaflowering of< /b> arts of< /b> allsorts.Maharstraditionallywerepart of< /b> tamasha,thevillagetheater,andsongwastradi-tionallyaMaharproperty.SincetheBuddhistconversion,lit-eraturehaspouredforth,creatinganewschool of< /b> Marathilit.eraturecalled"DalitSahitya."Poetry,plays,autobiography,andshortstoriesnowareanessentialpart of< /b> theveryimpor-tantMarathiliteraryscene.Thereisalsosomeemphasisonotherarts,andmostDalitliteraryworksareillustratedwithDalitart,butnooneartisthasyetachievedthefame of< /b> thewriterssuchasDayaPawarorNamdeoDhasal.ThelatesttrendinDalitliteratureiswritingbywomen,especiallyauto-biographies of< /b> minimallyeducatedwomen.Medicine.TheMahardidnotdevelopanyparticularlyMaharspecialtiesinthisarea.DeathandAfterlife.Buddhistconvertsdonotholdwiththetheory of< /b> rebirth.Maharsgenerallyholdthestandardbe-liefs of< /b> lower-classHindus.SeealsoMaratha;Neo-Buddhist;UntouchablesBibliographyAmbedkar, B. R.(1989).Dr.BabashahebAmbedkar:WritingsandSpeeches.6vols.Bombay:EducationDepartment,Gov-ernment of< /b> Maharashtra.Enthoven,ReginaldE.(1922)."Mahir."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Bombay.Vol.2.Bombay:GovernmentCentralPress.Keer,Dhananjay(1954).Dr.Ambedkar:LifeandMission.Bombay:PopularPrakashan.3rded.1971.Robertson,Alexander(1938).TheMaharFolk.Calcutta:YMCAPublishingHouse;OxfordUniversityPress.Zelliot,Eleanor(1978)."Dalit-NewCulturalContext of< /b> anOldMarathiWord."InContributionstoAsianStudies,editedbyClarenceMaloney.Vol.9,LanguageandCivilizationChangein South< /b> Asia.< /b> Leiden:E.J.Brill.ELEANORZELLIOTMalayaliETHNONYMS:Keralite,Malabari(innorthKerala),Malaya-lee,Travancorean(in south< /b> Kerala).Locatedonthefarsouthwesternedge of< /b> India,Keralaisastatewhosehistoryhasalwaysbeenmoldedbyitsgeogra-phy.Ineffectitconsists of< /b> along,narrow,butextremelyfer-tilestrip of< /b> coastlandbackedbythehighmountainranges of< /b> theWesternGhats,whicharebrokenbyveryfewpasses.Nu-merousshortandfast-flowingstreamscomedownfromthesemountainstodisgorgeintothecoastalbackwatersthatrunforgreatlengthsbehindtheoceanbeaches.Ithasthusbeennaturalthatmany of< /b> theMalayaliswhoinhabitthecoastalarealooktotheseaforfishingandtrade,andconverselythatnumerousforeignmaritimepowershavelookedtotheformerprincipalities of< /b> Keralafortrade,religiousconverts,andsometimesslavesorloot.Thustheculture of< /b> thepeoplehasbeenformedbyforeigncontactstoagreaterextentthanwastrueforanyotherpart of< /b> premodernIndia.HellenistictradersfromAlexandriaandevenRome,Arabsailors,Chineseex-plorers,thePortuguesefleet of< /b> VascodaGama,theDutch,andFrenchandBritishimperialistsrepresentedthehighpoints of< /b> afairlyconstantcommerceacrosstheIndianOcean;Keralahappenstoliealmostinthecenter of< /b> thatocean.AncientshippingthatwentfromtheRedSeatoMal-akka,fromJavatoMadagascar,fromChinatoArabia,nearlyalwaysstoppedinKeralaforwater,food,andtrading.Hencetheextremeethnicandreligiousdiversity of< /b> thestate.Itisone of< /b> thesmallestIndianstates,with38,863squarekilometersanda1981population of< /b> 25,453,680persons.Keralaproducesirrigatedrice,coconuts,pepper,cardamom,andotherspices,aswellastwovaluableplantationcrops,teaandcoffee.Itsotherimportanteconomicresourcesareitsfisheries,timber,ironore,andtourism.Malayalis,whomaysimplybedefinedasthosepeoplewhospeaktheDravidianlanguageMalayalam(theKeralastatelanguage,closelyrelatedtoTamil),includenotonlya164MaharSettlementsTheMaharquarters,calledthemaharwada,werealwaysout-sideMaharashtrianvillages,traditionallytotheeast,ordownriver.Inthenineteenthcentury,colonies of< /b> Maharsgrewinrailwaytowns,inmilltowns,nearammunitionfacto-ries,andinBritisharmycantonmentareas(whereMaharswereservants),butcityhousingnowissegregatedmorebyeconomiclevelthanbycaste.Thevillagepattern of< /b> segrega-tionisstillstrictlyobserved.TheMaharvillagehutistypical of< /b> thepoorintheMaharashtrianarea.Therearenospecialfeatures.EconomySubsistenceandCommercialActivities.Traditionally,theMaharswereservantstoallthevillage,withanumber of< /b> responsibilities.Theywerethedecidingvoicesinlanddis-putes,buttheyalsobroughtwoodtotheburninggrounds,carriedoffdeadanimals,tookmessagestoothervillages,caredforthehorses of< /b> travelinggovernmentofficials,mendedthevillagewall,actedasvillagewatchmen,andservedthevil-lageheadmanastowncriers.Inthiscapacitytheywerewatan-dars(leaseholders)andsoheldsomeland,buttheywereneverprimarilyagriculturists.Maharswhennotengagedinvillagedutiesservedasagriculturallaborers.Intheeasternportion of< /b> theMarathi-speakingregion,Maharshadmoreeconomicfreedom,andtheyweresometimesweaversorcon-tractors.Maharskeptnodomesticanimals,andtheydespisedtheMangsfortheirpigkeeping.Maharswereexpectedtoeattheflesh of< /b> thecattlecarcassestheydraggedfromthevillage,andthisconsumption of< /b> carrionbeefbecameanearlytargetforMaharreformers.IndustrialArts.TheMaharpossessednoskillotherthanwallmendingtocarrythemintothemodemperiod.SomeMaharsbecamemasonsintheearlytwentiethcentury.Trade.TheMahar'suntouchabilitypreventedany"clean"trade,andtheChambharshadamonopolyonleatherwork,whichtheMahardidnottouch.Division of< /b> Labor.Bothmenandwomenworkedinthefieldsasagriculturallaborers.Onlymenservedaswatandarvillageservants.LandTenure.ThewatandarlandownedbytheMaharsfortheirvillageservicewasnotalienable.KinshipKinGroupsandDescent.AlthoughtheMaharsseemtobeafairlyconsistentcastegroupacrosstheMaharashtraarea,therewerepotqatdivisionsinvariousareas.Thesepotjatswereendogamous,rankedaccordingtostatus,andtosomeextentbasedonoccupation.Fromthe1920son,Maharreformersattemptedtowipeoutpotjatdifferences,andthedivisionstodayarelargelyignored.Thecasteispatrilineal,butpovertydictatedlessstressonthejointfamilyandmoreimportanceforwomenthanamongmanyhighercastes.KinshipTerminology.MaharkintermsarethesameasthoseusedbyBuddhistsinMarathi.MarriageandFamilyMarriage.Thecross-cousinmarriagesystem of< /b> south< /b> Indiaand of< /b> somecastesinMaharashtraiscommontotheMahars.Marriagetomother'sbrother'sdaughterorfather'ssister'ssonisallowed.Therehasneverbeenabartowidowre-marriage.Residenceisgenerallypatrilocal,butthisislessstrictlyobservedthaninhighercastes.DivorceisandhasbeenpracticedinformallyamongthelowercastesinIndia,in-cludingtheMahars.DomesticUnit.Thejointfamilyistheideal,butpovertyandmobilitymakethislesscommonthaninmanycastes.Socialization.AsiscommoninIndia,boysareraisedper-missively,girlsmuchmorestrictly.Inthemodernperiod,therehasbeenmuchstressoneducation,onpride,andoncleanliving,andmanyBuddhistscredittheirmotherswiththestimulustoimprovethemselves.Inheritance.Propertydescendspatrilineallytomalein-heritors,althoughinpoint of< /b> factitisrareforMaharstoownanyland.SociopoliticalOrganizationSocialOrganization.Manyfeatures of< /b> Maharcasteorga-nizationthatexistedbeforethereformperiodhavedisap-peared.Thereseemstohavebeenacaste"guru"(aspiritualcounselornotaversetospeakingwithUntouchables)insomeareas,butthereislittledescription of< /b> thispractice.Localleadershipseemstobedeterminednowbymerit,wealth,andpoliticalskill.Thereneverwasacastecenternoranover-archingcasteorganization.PoliticalOrganization.Dr. B. RAmbedkarbeganhisfirstpoliticalparty,theLabourparty,in1935,andsincethattime,mostMaharsandneo-Buddhistshaveconsideredthemselvesmembers of< /b> hissuccessiveparties:theScheduledCastesFed-erationfrom1942andtheRepublicanpartyfrom1956.Sincethepartieshavebeenunabletoattracthigher-castemembers,theyremainunimportantpoliticallyatthenationalandstatelevels.Ambedkar'sfollowersare,however,verypoliticallyaware,andtheydofigureinlocalpoliticswheretheyhavethenumbersandtheleadership.Anorganizationcallingitselfthe"DalitPanthers,"aftertheBlackPanthers of< /b> theUnitedStates,aroseintheearly1970s,ledbyeducatedMaharsorBuddhists.Afterinitialsuccesses,theDalitPantherssplitintovariousgroups,butmilitantlocalgroupsoperateeffec-tivelyeventodayinvariousslumlocalities.Anissuesuchasthebanning of< /b> one of< /b> Ambedkar'sbooksin1988broughthalfamillionScheduledCastesintothestreets of< /b> Bombayinone of< /b> thatcity'smosteffectivepoliticalprotests.SocialControl.Thereisnomechanismforcontrol,otherthantheexampleorthechiding of< /b> localleaders.Conflict.Competitionandrivalrywithinthegrouparekeen.AmbedkarwasabletounifytheMaharthroughhisex-ceptionalqualifications,planning,andrecognitionbyoutsideforcesaswellasbyhischarisma;nootherleaderhasbecomeacceptabletoall.ThePanthergroupsandthepoliticalpartiesareallfactionalized.TheBuddhistconversionmovementhasbroughtabouteffortstounifyonthebasis of< /b> religiousmoral-ityaswellasageneraldisapproval of< /b> politicalinfighting.Mauritian173ethniclines.TheHindu-dominatedMauritiusLabourpartyruledtheislandfromitsindependenceto1982,anditsleader,SirSeewoosagurRamgoolam(190 0-1 < /b> 985),wasanimportantsymbol of< /b> nationalunity.Themostimportantpo-liticalpartiestodayaretheHindu-dominated"MouvementSocialisteMauricien"(MSM)andtheostensiblynonethnic,butinpracticeCreole-Muslimalliance,"MouvementMili-tantMauricien"(MMM).Theso-calledbest-losersystem,whichsupplementstheWestminsterelectoralsystem,ensurestherepresentation of< /b> ethnicminoritiesintheparliament.AmaintaskforindependentMauritiansocietyhasbeentocre-atepoliticalconsensusandsomedegree of< /b> culturalintegra-tion.Thishasbeenachievedinpolitics.Althoughpartiesre-mainethnicincharacter,thereiswideconsensusregardingtherules of< /b> parliamentarydemocracy.SocialControl.Mauritiushasnomilitaryforce,andaspe-ciallytrainedsegment of< /b> thepoliceforceisresponsibleforcontrollingviolentconflict.Mauritianlawisanamalgam of< /b> NapoleonicandBritishjudicialprinciples.Althoughoftenaccused of< /b> corruption,thecourtsystemfunctionseffectively.Atthevillagelevel,conflictsoverproperty,adultery,orotherminorcrimesareoftensolvedinformally,sometimesinvolv-ingrespectedeldersasmediators.Ethnicconflictsareavoidedorresolvedthroughinformalpolicies of< /b> avoidanceandthroughawidespreadideology of< /b> tolerance,aswellasfor-malpolicies of< /b> compromise.Conflict.Therehavebeentwogeneralstrikes(1970and1979)sinceMauritianindependence.Strikesandotherforms of< /b> protestarewidespreadamongworkersinthemanu-facturingindustry,whofeeltheyareunderpaidandover-worked.Ethnicconflicts,whichturnedviolentthroughriotsin196 5-1 < /b> 968,areusuallymediatedby,andexpressedthrough,theformaljudicialandpoliticalsystems.Inrecentyears,drugcrimeshavebecomecommon.Violentcrimesarerare.Therapidrate of< /b> economicgrowthmayhelpexplainthecomparativelack of< /b> manifestsocialconflict,especiallyethnicconflict,incontemporaryMauritius.ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligions of< /b> MauritiusareHindu-ism(52percent),RomanCatholicism(31percent),Islam(16percent)andBuddhism(1percent).WithinHinduismtherearemanyvariants,whichcorrespondtovariantsfoundinIndiaitself.Low-castepractices of< /b> animalsacrificearecommoninruralareas.MarathaandTamilvariants of< /b> Hin-duismarealsodistinctiveinrelationtothedominantBiharivariety.Everyyear,theMahaShivaratriiscelebratedbyHin-dus,whomarchtoalakeinsouthernMauritius(sincetheGangesistoodistant).MostMuslimsareSunnis;afewareShiasandAhmadis.AlocalCatholiccustomisanannualpil-grimagetothetomb of< /b> Jacques-D1siriLaval,anow-beatifiednineteenth-centurypriest.Syncretistbeliefsarecommon,andtraces of< /b> heterodoxEuropeanandIndianbeliefsandtra-ditionalAfricanbeliefscanbeidentifiedamongHindusandCreolesalike,particularlyinruralareas.Beliefinwitchcraftiscommon,butitisrarelyimportantsocially.ReligiousPractitioners.TheCatholicchurchisledbytheArchbishop of< /b> theMascareignesandtheSeychelles,themostpowerfulreligiouspersoninMauritius.Catholicpriestsarehighlyrespectedandpowerfulintheirlocalcom.munities.Manyareinvolvedinsocialwork.HindupunditsandMuslimimamsarealsopowerful,althoughtheirreli-gionsdonotrequireformalleadership.Punditsandimamswieldpowerinritualandinthecontext of< /b> HinduandMus-limyouthclubs(baitkasandmadrassahs,respectively).Bud-dhismis of< /b> negligibleimportanceinMauritius;most of< /b> theBuddhistsarealsoCatholics.Thelonganis(Frenchlonganiste)isasorcererwithconsiderablepowerinmanylo-cations.Hisorhermagicalpowerconsists of< /b> theabilitytohealthesick,divinethefuture,andinfluencepeople'schar-acter.Thelonganisisusedbypeople of< /b> allethnicgroups;mostlonganisareCreolesorHindus.Ceremonies.Therearethreespectacularannualreligiousceremonies.TheTamilfestivalCavadiisarite of< /b> passagein-volvingfirewalking;itisparticipatedinbymanynon-Tamils.TheCatholicPireLavalpilgrimageisexclusivelyChristian,andtheMahaShivaratriisexclusivelyHindu.Allmajorritu-alsandfestivals of< /b> thelargestreligioustraditions,includingtheChineseNewYear,arecelebratedbytheirfollowers.Arts.Theonlyindigenousartform of< /b> Mauritiusisthesega,aform of< /b> musicsimilartotheTrinidadcalypso,havingbeenshapedintheencounterbetweenFrenchplantersandAfri-canslaves.Nowevolvedintopopanddancemusic,thesegaisverypopular.Indiantraditionalandpopularmusicarealsowidespreadandareperformedlocally,butEuropeanclassicalmusichasonlyalimitedappeal.Theliterature of< /b> Mauritiusiscomparativelyrich;authorswritemostlyinFrenchandHindi,althoughradicalnationalistshaveinrecentyearstakentowritinginKreol.WhereasMauritianliteraturetendstodealwithethnicityandthesearchforculturalidentity,thevisualartstendtoberomanticandnature-worshipingincharacter.Medicine.Asmanyassevendistinctivetraditionalmedi-calsystemshavebeenidentifiedinMauritius,inadditiontoscientificmedicine.Mauritianstendtobelievein,andusetheservices of,< /b> severaldifferentpractitioners of< /b> medicine.Heal-ingtechniquesmayrangefromIndianAyurvedicmedicinetoChineseherbalmedicineandtheincantations of< /b> thelon-ganis.Althoughthemainkillersareheartdiseaseanddiabe-tes,acommoncomplaintismoveler("badair"),whichisper-ceivedaspsychosomatic.Thegeneralsymptomsaregiddinessandtiredness.Healthservicesarefree,andallmajorvillageshaveadispensary.DeathandAfterlife.Thebeliefinanafterlifeisuniver-sallycommon,anddeathisgenerallyacceptedasaninevita-blefate.HindusandChristiansarrangewakesfortheirde-ceased.MuslimandChristiangraveyardsarevisitedaroundthetime of< /b> importantreligiousceremonies,andflowersareplantedonthegraves.TheHinduscrematetheirdeceased.BibliographyArno,Toni,andClaudeOrian(1986).L'ileMaurice,uneSoci&t9Multiraciale.Paris:L'Harmattan.Benedict,Burton(1961).IndiansinaPluralSociety.London:HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice.Bowman,LarryW.(1990).Mauritius:DemocracyandDevel-opmentintheIndianOcean.Boulder,Colo.:Westview.Mogul179He,hissecretary,andmembers of< /b> hiscouncilareelectedthroughadultfranchiseonthebasis of< /b> politicalparty.Thisdemocraticsystemreplacesthetraditionalsystembasedonprivilegeandnonprivilege.Thevillagecouncilmanagestheaffairs of< /b> thevillage:mattersconcerningagriculturalactivi-ties,allocation of< /b> agriculturalplots,collection of< /b> taxes,distri-bution of< /b> water,control of< /b> themarket,communityactivities,andwelfare of< /b> thepeople.Thereligiousactivitiesareat-tendedtobythedifferentchurch ... ac-cordancewithMuslimcustom;however,thebridemustbepresentbecauseinSriLankathegroomadornsherwithaweddingnecklaceusuallyhavingacrescentonit.Postmaritalresidenceisatthebride'shouseamongallSriLankanMus-lims,andthecouplemayremainthereforsomemonthsoryears.Divorceisrare,andpolygynyinsignificant.Alargenumber of< /b> mentakebridesfromanyMuslimcategoryexceptthebarbercaste.BibliographyArasaratnam,S.(1964).Ceylon.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.Maloney,Clarence(1984)."SriLanka."InMuslimPeoples:A World< /b> EthnographicSurvey,editedbyRichardV.Weekes,72 3-7 < /b> 27.Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress.Mauroof,Mohamed."Aspects of< /b> Religion,Economy,andSo-cietyamongtheMuslims of< /b> SriLanka."ContributionstoIn-dianSociology,n.s.6:6 6-8 < /b> 3.Robinson,Francis,ed.(1989).TheCambridge Encyclopedia< /b> of< /b> India,Pakistan,Bangladesh,SriLanka,Nepal,Bhutan,andtheMaldives.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.Yalman,Nur(1967).UndertheBoTree:StudiesinCaste,Kin-ship,andMarriageintheInterior of< /b> Ceylon.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:University of< /b> CaliforniaPress.JAYDiMAGGIOMundaETHNONYMS:Hor,Kol,KolarianOrientationIdentification.Mundarefersprimarilytoagroup of< /b> lan-guages,butthetribesthatspeakthoselanguageshavecollec-tivelybecomeknowntoscholarshipbythesamename.Indi-vidually,ethnicdesignationsare(withimportantalternativesinparentheses):Korku,Santal(includingtheMahalisub-group),Munda,Ho,Bhumij,Birhor,Asur,Turi,Korwa,Kora,Kharia,Juang,Sora(Saora,Savara),Gorum(Parenga),Gadaba,Remo(Bondo,Bonda),andGataq(Didayi,Dire).Some of< /b> thesenames(especiallyKharia,Sora,andGadaba)aresharedwithlocalgroups of< /b> non-Mundaspeakers.Theterm"Munda"appearstobederivedfromaSanskriticrootmeaning"substantial,wealthy,"later"head,"hence"head-man";itwasthusoriginallyatermappliedbyoutsiders,ausagethatbecameespeciallyconsolidatedundertheBritishregime.Theword"Kol"(Kolarian),althoughpejorative,isprobablyreallyacorruption of< /b> theirownhor,kor,etc.,mean-ing"man,"commoninthenorth of< /b> theirareabutreplacedbyremoinsouthernOrissa,India.Location.TheKorkuarelocatedinsouthwestMadhyaPradeshandareisolatedfromotherMunda.ThelastfivegroupsinthelistabovearefoundmainlyintheKoraputandGanjamdistricts of< /b> southernOrissa.TheremainderarefoundmainlyonandaroundtheChotaNagpurPlateau-thatis,insouthernBihar,northernOrissa,easternMadhyaPradesh,andwesternWestBengal,withanoutlier of< /b> KorwainMirzapurDistrict,UttarPradesh.TherearealsosomeSantalinsoutheastNepal(wheretheyarecalledSatar),Bhu-tan,andnorthernBangladesh.Demography.Therearejustover6millionMundaspeak-ers,two-thirds of< /b> whombelongtojustonetribe,theSantal,one of< /b> thelargesttribesonearth.Otherlargegroups of< /b> Mundaspeakers(withcensusfiguresinparentheses)aretheKorku(275,654in1971),Munda(1,181,151in1971),Ho(538,124in1971),Kharia(274,540in1971),andSora(521,187in1971).Therestnumberafewthousandeachatthemost,theBirhor4,300in1971.Togethertheyconstitutewellunder1percent of< /b> thetotalIndianpopulation.LinguisticAffiliation.Mundaisthewesternmostbranch of< /b> theAustroasiaticLanguageFamily,whichisotherwiseas-sociatedmainlywithcontinentalSoutheast Asia.< /b> Thecon-nectionisremoteandhasbeenamatter of< /b> controversybuttodayisgenerallyaccepted:itmanifestsitselfincommonlexemesratherthananysimilaritiesingrammar,wordmor-phology,orphonology.Literacyisgenerallylow,andmostlit-eratureisoralratherthanwritten.However,missionariesandtribaleducatorshavereducedmanytextstowriting,usingtheRomanscriptorone of< /b> theregionalIndianscripts.Therearealsotwodedicatedtribalscripts,oneforSantali(calledolce-mit),theotherforHo.HistoryandCulturalRelationsTheviewthattheMundaoriginallyenteredIndiafromSoutheast Asia< /b> isbasedmainlyontheirlinguisticaffiliations;Mappila167languagethathasabsorbedloanwordsfromSanskrit,Arabic,andEuropeanlanguages.Arabicisgenerallyusedforreligiouspurposes.KeralaisthemostdenselypopulatedstateinIndiaandtheeducationallevelthereisquitehigh.HistoryandCulturalRelationsMappilawereevidentlyfirstconvertedtoIslamintheseventhandeighthcenturiesA-D.bytraderswhoarrivedinKerala.Thearrival of< /b> thePortuguesebegantodisruptMappilalifein1498.ThePortuguesesoughtbotheconomicandreligiousdomina-tion.Economically,theysoughtashare of< /b> thespicetradeandaseaconnectionwiththeFarEast.Theirreligiousgoalsstemmedfromthedesire of< /b> thepopetoconquerIslamicandHindusocie-ties.ThePortuguesehaddirectorderstoestablishtheirauthor-ityovertheregionsothattheCatholicreligion,business,andculturewouldflourishinaharmonioussystemthatwouldbegoodforthechurch,thekingandthepeople.ThePortugueseperiodresultedinadeclineintheindigenouseconomicsystem,estrangementfromHinduism,andincreasedbitternessandten-sionbetweentheChristiansandMuslims;finally,theMappilabecamemilitantagainstthePortuguese.Theareacameunderthepoliticalcontrol of< /b> theBritishinthe1790s,andtheyruledMalabarfrom1792to1947.MappilaleadersagreedtopaytheBritishfortheirprotection of< /b> theterritoryandtoacceptadvicefromanappointedBritishadministrator,butin1921theMappilaresistancebegan,continuinguntilIndiawonitsinde-pendencein1947.EconomyTheoverpopulation of< /b> Kerala,andespecially of< /b> theMalabararea,hascausedmanyeconomicproblems.Today,most of< /b> theunemployedareeducatedpeoplefromuniversitiesortrainingschools.Anotherproblemisthatthesepeoplecan-notfindworkinotherstatesbecauseeachstatewantstohireitsowncitizensfirst,beforeabsorbinganyoutsiders.Agricul-tureisthemainoccupation of< /b> theKerala,althoughlandsuit-ableforagricultureislimited.Cashcropsearnareasonableamountfromexport,butthishascausedashortageforlocalconsumption.Rubber,pepper,cardamom,coconut,cashewnuts,tea,andcoffeearethemajorcashcrops.Foodstaplesarerice,pulses,andsorghum.Theareaholdsgreatforeststhatyieldrawmaterialssuchasbamboo,charcoal,andgum.Industrialenterprisesproducebricksandtilesanddooilmill-ing.Thesefactoriesemployasizablepercentage of< /b> thepopu-lation.StillMalabarremainseconomicallyaprimitiveandstagnantarea,anditisnotsurprisingthatinrecentyearstens of< /b> thousands of< /b> residentshavesoughtworkinthePersianGulfcountries.Kinship,Marriage,andFamilyMatrilinealitywasintroducedtotheMappilafromtheNayarcommunitythatisalsolocatedinMalabar.Leadershipandpropertyownershipweretraditionallyvestedintheoldestsis-ter,apracticethatwasandisveryrareinIslamicsocieties.Amajority of< /b> theMappilanowfollowthepatrilinealsystem;onlysomewealthyfamiliescarryonthematrilinealtradition.Familiesmaintainstrongbondsandmostlyliveunderoneroof.Butmodemconditionsareforcingthispracticetochange,witheachnuclearfamilynowoftenstrivingtoownahomeandconcentrateonitsownsurvivalandprosperity.Islamplaysamajorpartinchildbirth,marriage,death,andburialceremonies.Atmarriage,themarriagecontractandblessingaresignedandreadbyaqazi,areligiousjudge.Followingdeath,theKoranischantedinthemosque,andthenthebodyisburiedfacingtowardMecca.Prayersarechantedathomeontheanniversary of< /b> adeath.Mappilalifehasbeeninfluencedbynewattitudesandtheyhavebecomegreatlyconcernedabouttheirhealthandsurroundings.HeadshavingisnotpracticedanylongerbyMappilamen.ThedowrysystemisbecominglessprominentastheMappilawomenchangetheirsocialstatustothat of< /b> citizens of< /b> Kerala.Women'spositionaspropertyisalsochanging,aswomenarenowseekinghighereducationandbecomingschoolteachers,doctors,etc.Traditionally,thewomen of< /b> lowerlaboringcastesinKeralawererelativelyfreecomparedtowomen of< /b> uppercastes,becausetheycoulddoanyavailablework,whereastheupper-classwomencouldnotdoanythinginap-propriatetotheirsocialstatus;thissituationisalsochangingforthebetter.Polygamyisnotpracticed,eventhoughIslampermitsmentomarryuptofourwives.SocialOrganizationTherearevariousdistinctionswithintheMuslimgroup.Onemajordistinctionisbetweenthose of< /b> Indianandthose of< /b> for-eignorigin.HigherclassstatusisenjoyedbythosedescendedfromtheProphet'sfamily,theSayyids.Oneinternaldistinc-tionisbetweentheUntouchablesandthehighercastesamongtheMappilas.Anotherdistinctgroupareallthose of< /b> Arabdescent.ReligionIslamwasintroducedtoKeralaintheseventhandeighthcen-turiesbySunniArabs.Islaminallprobabilityspreadtopen-insularIndiafromKerala.ArabscamethroughKeralaforthepurchase of< /b> pepperandslaves.Keralawasalsoaveryconven-ientreststopformerchantspassingeastandwestthroughtheIndianOcean.TheseMuslimmerchantsestablishedahar-moniousrelationshipandintroducedIslamtothepeople.TheMappilawerereadypsychologicallyfornewchangesbe-cause of< /b> previouspoliticalandeconomicsetbacks.MostMappilatodayenrichtheirlivesbyprayersandQuranicread-ings.Mullahs(religiousclergymen)arepaidbyfamiliestovisitandconductspecialprayersorchanttheQuran.Map-pilaattendamosqueforreligiousholidaysandsometimestolistentoapreacher.IslampreachesthatlifeisunderoneLordandhiscommandisone;butthisideahasbecomeperhapslessimportantfortheMappilaastheystrugglethroughlife.Mappilacultureischanging,withmodemeducationandcommunistconceptsplayingamajorrole.ThemullahsnowcanrelyonlyonspecialoccasionssuchasRamadanforanop-portunitytosermonizeandstrengthenthepeople'sfaith.SeealsoMalayaliBibliographyAnanthakrishnaIyer,L.K.(1912)."TheJonakanMappilas."InTheTribesandCastes of< /b> Cochin.Vol.2,45 9-4 < /b> 84.Madras:Higginbotham&Co.Reprint.1981.NewDelhi:CosmoPublications.Malayali165ReligionandExpressiveCultureReligiousBeliefs.Thereligiousbeliefs of< /b> thoseMaharswhohavenotconvertednowarebasicallythose of< /b> mostHindulowcastesinMaharashtra:astrongbeliefinpossession,participa-tioninthefestival of< /b> thegodKhandoba,activeparticipationinthewarkaricultandthepilgrimagetoPandharpur,anddevotiontovariousnon-Sanskriticgods.TheMaharsweretraditionallytheservants of< /b> thevillagegoddessMariai,thegoddess of< /b> pesti-lence.Sincetheconversion,many of< /b> thepotrajclasswhoservedthegoddesshavegivenupthatworkItisclearfromthegazet-teers of< /b> theBritishinthelatenineteenthcenturythatMaharshadmanysomewhatunusualreligiouspractices,butthegreatrationalreformmovementhasmadeanyrecentstudy of< /b> specialcastepracticesimpossible.Thereweredevrishis(treatments of< /b> illnessbyashandmantras)amongtheMahars,andtherestillmaybe.Somepotrajservants