The student of bioenergetics should always remember that organisms ingest and metabolize organic compounds, not “energy” per se. It should be apparent from a careful reading of this chapter that nutrients have dif- ferent fates and that energy losses are governed by how these nutrients are utilized. Energy is not a nutrient per se, but the sum of a number of processes resulting in the assimilation of specific energy-yielding nutrients.
There is a necessity to move to approaches based on a clearer under- standing of the role of specific absorbed nutrients and their metabolism for determining the productive responses of an animal (Reynolds, 1999).
More scientifically correct feed evaluation and requirement systems should be based on the characterization of nutrient fractions relevant to their actual digestion, metabolism, and utilization in the animal under varying practical conditions (Boisen and Verstegen, 1998).
Some attempts have been made to develop nutrient-based growth models for fish (Machiels and Henken, 1986; Conceicao, 1997). The models may provide a promising alternative to current bioenergetics modeling. How- ever, these research models are highly theoretical (causal) and incorporate considerable physiologic and metabolic details. As a result, they are too com- plex and expensive to use as predictive models or as components of feeding or management systems. However, they can be used to identify and charac- terize elements for incorporation into more empirical, predictive models for use under applied conditions (Baldwin and Bywater, 1984; DeLange, 1997). The second approach has been the development of predictive mod- els of energy transactions in animals that also consider the digestion of feed components and metabolism of absorbed nutrients explicitly rather than in the aggregate as energy and crude protein. In addition, they should also consider the turnover of macromolecules in the animal and partitioning of nutrients among tissues and functions within the animal (Baldwin and Bywater, 1984; DeLange, 1997).
Although there may be argument for describing a diet in terms of chem- ical composition, this should not obscure the fact that some of the animal
control mechanisms may, in effect, perceive the substrates as contributors to the energy supply rather than identifying them as specific chemicals (McLeod, 1999). Bioenergetics has made a great contribution to the greater understanding of nutrient utilization by fish over several decades and is likely to remain a useful discipline for decades to come.
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2
The Vitamins
John E. Halver
School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
2.1. Historical Introduction 2.1.1. Pioneers and Concepts 2.1.2. Avitaminosis
2.1.3. Hypervitaminosis 2.1.4. Test Diets and Conditions 2.2. The Water-Soluble Vitamins
2.2.1. Thiamin 2.2.2. Riboflavin 2.2.3. Pyridoxine 2.2.4. Pantothenic Acid 2.2.5. Niacin
2.2.6. Biotin
2.2.7. Folic Acid (Folacin) 2.2.8. Vitamin B12 2.2.9. Ascorbic Acid 2.2.10. Inositol 2.2.11. Choline
2.2.12. p-Aminobenzoic Acid 2.2.13. Lipoic Acid
2.3. The Fat-Soluble Vitamins 2.3.1. The Vitamers A 2.3.2. The Vitamers D 2.3.3. The Vitamers E 2.3.4. The Vitamers K 2.4. Other Factors
2.4.1. More Animal Protein Factors 2.4.2. Citrovorum Factor
2.4.3. Factors in Cell Permeability 2.4.4. Coenzyme Activation Factors 2.5. Anemias and Hemapoiesis
2.5.1. Megaloblastic Anemias
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All rights reserved.
2.5.2. Pernicious Anemias 2.5.3. Hemapoiesis References
2.1