7.11 Nutritional Physiology in Larval Fish
7.11.5. Feeding and Diet Acceptability
During intensive culture with prepared feeds, altricial larvae often will not eat enough to support growth and development. A second key problem
with artificial diets may relate to the larval fish’s inability to identify the diet as food and ingest it (Rust and Barrows 1998; Barrows and Rust 2000; Guthrie et al. 2000). Physical properties of the diet or rearing environment, such as color, intensity and wavelength of reflected light, degree of polarization and contrast, and/or chemical properties affecting gustation and olfaction, may be key attributes that stimulate the larvae to approach and ingest the diet in quantities sufficient to sustain growth (Barrows and Rust 2000).
Most fish larvae are visual feeders, although taste buds and olfaction are often also functional at this time (Noakes and Godin 1988; Poling and Fuiman 1997; Utne and Stenevik 1997). This makes vision and chemorecep- tion the two most important sensory systems used by first-feeding larvae to locate and ingest food (Blaxter 1988; Noakes and Godin 1988; Higgs and Fuiman 1998).
At first feeding, most developing larvae lack a duplex retina (Noakes and Godin 1988; Fuiman and Delbos 1998; Hagedornet al. 1998). Most species have cones but may or may not have developed rods in the retina [although the opposite is true in some species (Margulies 1997)]. Three or four types of cones may be operational in fish larvae, each with a different light wave- length of maximum sensitivity. As the larvae develop, visual acuity increases (Blaxter 1988; Noakes and Godin 1988; Utne and Stenevik 1997). More specialized retinal structures such as a tapetum lucidum and macrorecep- tors (which are adaptations to low light environments) do not develop until much later (Vandenbyllaardyet al. 1991; Margulies 1997).
A heart rate conditioning technique used by Hawrysyn and co-workers (1989) has led to the identification of up to four cone types in young rainbow trout that have different regions of maximal photosensitivity. In addition to the adult blue (400- to 450-nm)-, green (500- to 550-nm)-, and red (600- to 650-nm)-sensitive cones, a transient UV-sensitive (340- to 370-nm) cone was also identified. The UV cone was found only in very young trout and was completely absent in adults. This cone has now been identified in a number of other larval fish (McFarland and Loew 1994; Loseyet al. 1999) using a microspectrophotometric technique. The functional significance of this cone is unknown for most species, but it has been shown to be involved in prey identification and feeding behavior in a number of species feeding on zooplankton (Loew 1993, 1996; Browmanet al. 1994; Loseyet al. 1999).
A good example of where an understanding of eye development can posi- tively impact feeding and culture success with larval fish is lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus). Lingcod larvae reared outdoors under full-strength sunlight feed and behave much differently than larvae reared indoors under incandescent light. Incandescent light is lacking in the UV and near-UV ranges and high in the visible yellow bands. Fish reared indoors under these lights feed poorly and displayed “nosing” behavior typical of stressed larvae. All larvae reared
indoors died within 3 weeks of first feeding, a period of time only slightly longer than starvation. Larvae reared outdoors feed normally and survived to the juvenile stage, where they were weaned onto conventional salmon pellets (K. Massee, personal communication, 2000).
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Ava Campbell and Kathy Rust for their help with the figures, editing, and typing. I would also like to thank Mark S. Myers for taking and interpreting the histology photographs and reviewing the text and James Peacock for help with the figures and line drawings. In addition to the editors, John Halver and Ron Hardy, I would like to thank Bob Iwamoto, Walt Dickhoff, and Lyle Britt for reviewing drafts of the manuscript. Finally, I thank my family for their encouragement and patience.
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8
Nutritional Pathology
Ronald J. Roberts
Center for Sustainable Aquaculture, Hagerman Fish Culture Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Hagerman, Idaho 83332
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Principles of Nutritional Pathology 8.3. The Deficiency and Imbalance Diseases
8.3.1. Protein 8.3.2. Carbohydrate 8.3.3. Fats
8.3.4. Fiber 8.4. Micronutrients
8.4.1. Fat-Soluble Vitamins 8.4.2. Water-Soluble Vitamins 8.5. Mineral Deficiencies and Imbalances
8.5.1. Iodine 8.5.2. Iron 8.5.3. Copper 8.5.4. Manganese 8.5.5. Zinc 8.5.6. Phosphorus 8.6. Dietary Mineral Toxicity
8.6.1. Selenium 8.6.2. Calcium 8.7. Mycotoxins 8.8. Toxic Algae 8.9. Cottonseeds 8.10.SenecioAlkaloids 8.11.LeucaenaToxins
8.12. Anthropogenic Chemicals 8.13. Binders
8.14. Photosensitizers 8.15. Sekoke Disease
8.16. Spleen- and Liver-Induced Cataracts
453
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All rights reserved.
8.17. Single-Cell Protein Lesions
8.18. Antibiotic and Chemotherapeutic Toxicity References