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Ngày tải lên: 17/02/2014, 23:20

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Ngày tải lên: 07/03/2014, 01:20

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Ngày tải lên: 08/03/2014, 00:20

Ngày tải lên: 12/08/2014, 12:20

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Ngày tải lên: 11/12/2013, 14:15

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Ngày tải lên: 13/12/2013, 10:15

... put it together: 1. Create a new Automator workflow ( -N). The Starting Points screen appears. 2. Click Photos & Images. From the "Get content from" pop-up menu, choose "my ... is called Find iPhoto Items, and it lets you specify a time period like "Within the last 2 weeks." It would be perfect for this workflow—if it weren't so buggy. (For example, ... originals. But in this case, you've already copied the images you want to convert in Step 2, so you don't need to do it again. In the action's pop-up menu, choose By Percentage,...

Ngày tải lên: 14/12/2013, 10:15

... Hart 21 0 Patrick Henry 21 8 William Howe 22 8 John Jay 23 7 Thomas Jefferson 24 6 Index xxxiii Volume 2: K-Z Thaddeus Kosciuszko 25 7 Marquis de Lafayette 26 4 Pierre Charles L’Enfant 27 5 Louis XVI 28 4 Flora ... finally forced to leave office. 27 2 American Revolution: Biographies AmRevBio2.qxp 7 /29 /03 3:08 PM Page 27 2 Biographies American Revolution AmRev-Bio.V2tpgs 9 /29 /03 3:45 PM Page 1 country’s ... University Press, 1999, vol. 12, pp. 884-85. Thaddeus Kosciuszko 26 3 AmRevBio2.qxp 7 /29 /03 3:08 PM Page 26 3 Advisory Board ix Reader’s Guide xi Timeline xiii Words to Know xxiii Volume 1: A-J Abigail...

Ngày tải lên: 07/03/2014, 02:20

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Ngày tải lên: 19/06/2014, 19:20

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Ngày tải lên: 19/06/2014, 21:20

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Ngày tải lên: 19/06/2014, 21:20

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Ngày tải lên: 19/06/2014, 21:20

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Ngày tải lên: 21/06/2014, 13:20

... Ajii 7 donia changed the spelling to 'Kanak" and this marked the birth of a Black-power type of consciousness. If they are suc- cessful in their quest for independence, their new country will be named "Kanaky." Location. Ajii is spoken primarily on the east coast of New Caledonia's main island, La Grande Terre, from Monio to Kouaoua in the Houailou Valley, but it has spread as far as Poya. Ajii is also spoken or understood by other western and southern language groups in New Caledonia, particularly those on the Ajii's border. Rainfall distribution reflects the classical opposition between windward and leeward slopes, and this feature is accentuated by the mountainous character of the main island. Average local rainfall may exceed 400 cen. timeters in the east and may be less than 100 centimeters in the west. Seasonal distribution is marked by maximum rain- fall during the first three months of the year, although heavy daily rainfall is rare. The average temperature falls between 22 0 C and 24 ° C, with February being the hottest period and July-August the coolest. Demogiaphy. In 1774, Captain Cook estimated that there were 60,000 natives on La Grande Terre and other sources guess that there were another 20 ,000 in the Loyalty Islands at that time. Regardless of the actual numbers, it is clear that every part of the islands was claimed or occupied by the local population. In 1989 the total population of New Caledonia was 164,173, of which 73,598 were Kanak. The Kanaks are the largest ethnic group in the territory (44.8 per- cent of the total population), followed by the Europeans (33.6 percent), Wallisians (8.6 percent), Indonesians (3 .2 percent), Tahitians (2. 9 percent), Vietnamese (1.5 percent), and Ni-Vanuatu (1 percent). The Ajii are approximately 3,600 or 5 percent of the native population. They can be found in the commune of Houa~lou and in the territorial cap- ital of Noumea. linguistic Affiliation. New Caledonian languages belong to the Eastern Subdivision of the Austronesian languages. There are thirty-two native languages in New Caledonia, of which twenty-eight are still spoken. Ajii is one of the nine major languages of the southern language group. It is from the same proto-Melanesian root language as all the other lan- guages in New Caledonia with the exception of Faga Uvea, which is spoken in the north and south of the island of Ouvea and has Polynesian origins. History and Cultural Relations According to the archaeological record, the earliest ancestors of the Kanaks came to New Caledonia from southeast Asia between 6,000 and 5,000 years ago. They brought with them slash-and-bum agriculture, irrigation techniques, a polished- stone tool complex, pottery, and double-pontoon sailing craft. There was also settlement from within Melanesia, espe- cially from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. After 1840 there was regular contact with European and American whal- ers, merchants, and sandalwood traders in addition to British and French missionaries. After New Caledonia was annexed by France in 1853, tribal lands were expropriated for the es- tablishment ofa penal colony, settler colonialism, and nickel mining. This systematic and radical reduction of Kanak lands meant that the culturally cohesive and contiguous clan terri tories of the past were reduced to a shattered collection of iso- lated communities. By the end of the nineteenth century, Kanaks were confined to native reserves and compelled to do corv&e (forced labor) for the settlers and on public works. After World War II, colonial policy was liberalized, forced labor was abolished, and the Kanaks were accorded the right to vote. However, in spite of increased political participation, the Kanaks continued to be economically marginalized as the financial gap between the Kanaks and the rest of the New Caledonian population continued to widen. The early 1970s was a boom period for New Caledonia because of the rise in world nickel prices (the territory has one-fourth of the world's nickel deposits). Urbanization increased as the rural areas were drained of labor. The collapse of the nickel boom in the mid- 1970s led to unemployment and economic recession. Kanak youths returned to overcrowded native reserves only to find that there was little place for them. At this time Kanak demands for participation in economic and political decision making increased and the Kanak independence movement grew. In 1984 the Kanaks boycotted territorial elections, set up a provisional government, and demanded freedom from French rule and a "Kanak socialist independence." A settle- ment known as the Matignon Accords was negotiated in 1988 between Kanaks, the settlers, and the French govern- ment. This agreement heralds a ten-year 'peace period" dur- ing which the French government will attempt to redress the socioeconomic inequalities in the territory, particularly by promoting development and training programs in Kanak communities. In 1998, at the end of this ten-year period, New Caledonians will be asked to choose between independence and staying within the French republic. Settlements Ancient settlements were collections of round men's and women's huts, rectangular collective kitchens, oblong meet- inghouses, and variously shaped ateliers. Each woman had a hut where she raised her small children. These structures were built alongside one large dwelling known as bweamwva in Ajii, which was the symbol of the clan. This large central dwelling, used by the chief and adult males, was erected on a raised mound with a central alleyway lined with coconut palms and tropical pines leading up to it and two smaller alleyways flank- ing it. The central alleyway served as a collective ceremonial ground for activities such as public speeches and yam redistribution while the smaller alleyways were used for more intimate rituals such as ceremonial exchanges of shell money. Around inland settlements were yam mounds and irrigated taro gardens on hillsides. It was this social space of family res- idences, agricultural lands, water channels, and hunting and gathering territories that formed the basis for ritual, eco- nomic, political, and social action in traditional times. Economy Subsistence and Conmercial Activities. Inland settle- ments cultivated several varieties of bananas, yams, and taro using elaborate irrigation methods. Yams were, and still are, considered 'noble" and were used in ceremonial exchanges in the past. It was the yam's annual cycle that established the rhythm of the Kanak year. Fishing was a regular activity for settlements by the sea and on riverbanks. In the forest Kanaks gathered fruit, nuts, and palm-tree buds. Captain Cook intro- duced pigs and dogs to the islands and other Europeans in- ... Anuta 13 Medicine. In the people's view, traditional and Western medicine complement each other. Despite the existence of a small hospital on each end of the island, well-respected spe- cialists in traditional 'leaf medicine" still exist on Ambae. Pa- tients usually pay for the spells and herbal compounds these experts provide with pandanus mats and pigs rather than money. Death and Afterlife. A dead person's closest relatives hold a series of funerary feasts in his or her honor. They ar- range small feasts every ten days until the hundredth day of mourning, when a major feast is held. During this time, the spirit of the deceased is believed to linger near his or her com- munity. A final feast is held 1,000 days after a death. This feast signals the end of mourning and the complete separa- tion of the spirit of the dead person from the world of the liv- ing. According to custom, spirits then go to the crater lakes on the top of the Ambae volcano. There they join their ances- tors in a shadow world similar to the world of living people. See also Pentecost Bibliography Allen, M. R (1968). "The Establishment of Christianity and Cash-Cropping in a New Hebridean Community." Journal of Pacific History 3 :25 -46. Blackwood, Peter (1981). 'Rank, Exchange and Leadership in Four Vanuatu Societies." In Vanuatu: Politics, Economics, and Ritual in Island Melanesia, edited by Michael Allen. New Yorlck Academic Press. Rodman, Margaret Critchlow (1987). Masters of Tradition: Consequences of Customary Land Tenure in Longana, Van- uatu. Vancouver University of British Columbia Press. Rodman, William L (1985) "'A Law unto Themselves'": Legal Innovation in Ambae, Vanuatu." American Ethnologist 12: 603- 624 . Rodman, William L, and Margaret C. Rodman (1990). "To Die on Ambae: On the Possibility of Doing Fieldwork For- ever." In The Humbled Anthropologist: Tales from the Pacific, edited by Philip DeVita. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub- lishing Co. WILLIAM L RODMAN AND MARGARET C. RODMAN Anuta ETHNONYMS: Cherry Island, Nukumairaro Orientation Identification. Anuta is a volcanic island in the eastern Solomon Islands. Its inhabitants are physically, linguistically, and culturally Polynesian. The island's European name was bestowed in honor of a Mr. Cherry, who first sighted it from the HMS Pandora in 1791 while searching for the Bounty mutineers. Nukumairaro, meaning "land from below," is said to be an archaic name deriving from the fact that Anuta is "below" (ice., to the east of) Tikopia, its nearest populated neighbor, about 1 12 kilometers distant. Location. Anuta is at approximately 169°50' E and 11°40' S. It is a small volcanic island, roughly circular, and three- quarters of a kilometer in diameter. Its southern portion is coastal flat, the northern part is covered by a hill, rising to a maximum altitude of 78 meters. The climate is tropical and may be divided into two seasons. The trade-wind season (tonga) lasts from mid-April to mid-October. It is relatively cool and dry, although the sky is frequently overcast, and a brisk wind blows constantly from the southeast quadrant. Weather during the monsoon season, or raki-mid-October through mid-April-is more variable. Periods of hot sun al- ternate with drenching rains. Winds may be calm for days at a time, but during this season Anutans also experience occa- sional devastating hurricanes. Demography. The population at the time of European contact is unknown. In the early twentieth century, the popu- lation numbered between 100 and 150 people. In March 19 72 there were 1 62 people living on Anuta and 42 Anutans residing overseas, mostly on Tikopia and in the central Solo- mons. People return and depart with every ship. However, if one takes the resident population to be 160, population den, sity is on the order of 1,000 persons per square kilometer, making Anuta one of the most densely populated islands in the Pacific. Between 19 72 and 1988, the resident population rose to more than 20 0 people, with another 50 or so living overseas. Linguistic Affiliation. Linguists have classified Anutan (Anu) as a Nuclear Polynesian language, within the vast group of Austronesian languages. However, in contrast with the languages of other western Polynesian "outliers," Anu in- cludes many words of Tongic origin. The extent to which this is due to direct Tongan contact as opposed to indirect bor- rowing via East Uvea is a matter for debate. History and Cultural Relations Archaeological remains show Anuta to have been inhabited by humans for almost 3,000 years. According to Anutan oral traditions, however, the island's present population arrived much more recently-about 300 to 350 years ago-from Tonga and Uvea (most likely East Uvea or Wallis Island). The first chief was the Tongan leader known as Pu Kaurave. The Uvean leader was named Pu Taupare. When Pu Kau- rave's son, Ruokimata, left no heir, the chieftainship passed to the Uvean line. Later there were immigrants from Samoa and Rotuma, as well as extensive contact and exchange with Tikopia. Visitors from Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) and Taumako in the Santa Cruz group made little lasting impact. Settlements Dwellings are distributed in a somewhat ragged line along the island's southern shoreline. The closest the Anutans have to a term for "village" is noporanga, which literally means "dwell- ing place." Villages are not demarcated by any physical ... ashes of a fire." All other deaths are attributed to magic and sorcery mostly performed in other villages. Symbols of people's life souls are kept in spe- cialized villages. As soon as a lethal illness is suspected these are checked in order to find the cause and origin of the sor- cery performed. After death the corpse is displayed in front of the ceremonial house and a wake is held. The body is buried the following morning. There are many rituals held over sev- eral years until the soul is eternally freed from its bond to life. There are different souls, one associated with blood, one with bones. The latter is considered the eternal one, who becomes visible during the night as a shining star. See also latmul, Yangoru Bolken Bibiography Forge, Anthony (1966). "Art and Environment in the Sepik." Royal Anthropological Institute, Proceedings for 1965, pp. 23 -31. London. Kaberry, Phyllis M. (1941). "The Abelam Tribe, Sepik Dis- trict, New Guinea: A Preliminary Report." Oceania 11 :23 3- 25 8, 345-367. Kaberry, Phyllis M. (1971). "Political Organization among the Northern Abelam.' In Politics in New Guinea, edited by Ronald M. Berndt and Peter Lawrence, 35-73. Seattle: Uni- versity of Washington Press. Lea, David A. M. (1969). "Access to Land among Swidden Cultivators: An Example from New Guinea." Australian Geo- graphical Studies 7:137-1 52. Scaglion, Richard (1981). "Samukundi Abelam Conflict Management: Implications for Legal Planning in Papua New Guinea." Oceania 52: 23-38. Scaglion, Richard. (1983). "The 'Coming' of Independence in Papua New Guinea: An Abelam View."Journal of the Poly- nesian Society 92: 463-486. BRIGrITA HAUSER-SCHAUBLIN Ajie ETHNONYMS: Canaque, Houalou, Kanak, Kanaka Orientation Identificadmi. Ajii is one of the major southern languages found in New Caledonia. Today, Ajii speakers call them- selves "Kanak," which has deep political meaning for them, because along with the vast majority of the other native peo- ples in New Caledonia, they are asking for independence from France. "Canaque' was introduced to the territory by Polynesian sailors, and in the local context it had a pejorative meaning. In the early 1970s the native peoples of New Cale- ...

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

Ngày tải lên: 02/07/2014, 17:20

Ngày tải lên: 06/07/2014, 21:21

Ngày tải lên: 06/07/2014, 21:21