Sự định vị các kênh ion trên neurons Các kênh ion hở (kênh không đóng mở leak chanels), trên màng sinh chất khắp neuron, và thường mở. Hình thành điện thế nghỉ. Các kênh đóng mở nhờ phối tử (Ligandgated channels). Ở neurons, hầu hết dày đặc ở các sợi nhánh dendrite và thân tế bào những nơi nhận sự liên lạc từ các neurons trước synap Các kênh đóng mở nhờ điện thế (Voltagegated channels). Kênh Na+, K+ định vị khắp neuron, nhưng kết cụm nhiều trên axon và mật độ cao nhất ở axon hillock. Mật độ cao nhất của các kênh canxi đóng mở nhờ điện thế ở tận cùng axon. Sự phân loại neurons theo cấu trúc Các neurons hai cực (bipolar neurons) neurons cảm nhận ở mắt và tai. Neuron đơn cực giả Pseudounipolar – các neurons cảm giác hướng tâm. Các axon đa cực (multipolar neurons), là neurons trung gian hoặc vận động, phổ biến nhất.
VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE FACULTY OF BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: HUMAN AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY Hanoi - 2021 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY HANOI UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE FACULTY OF BIOLOGY EXPERIMENTAL REPORT: HUMAN AND ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY Nguyễn Thúy An-19001145-K64 CNSH Vũ Bá Lê Duy-17000587-K62 CNSH CLC Nguyễn Thu Hà-19001218-K64 CNSH CLC Phạm Thị Thu Hà-19001175-K64 CNSH Phạm Thị Minh Nguyệt-16002372-K61 QTS Hồ Nguyệt Minh-19001206-K64 CNSH Hanoi - 2021 TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSES ACROSS NERVES AND SYNAPSES I OBJECTIVE ‐ ‐ Observe transmission of impulses across nerves and synapses Preliminary interpretation of experimental results to better understand the mechanism of nerve impulses II PRINCIPLE ‐ An action potential or nerve impulse is generated when a nerve or muscle is stimulated The impulses are transmitted along nerves and across synapses Nerves are capable of bidirectional conduction, but synapses only allow unidirectional conduction from the presynaptic membrane across the cleft to the ‐ postsynaptic membrane Create neuromuscular preparations of frogs and set up an experimental model, we can observe this phenomenon III MATERIALS ‐ Frog dissection kit ‐ Surgical tray, medical gauze, Ringer solution ‐ Electric stimulator IV PROTOCOL Step 1: Dissect and create neuromuscular products of frogs Step 2: Plug in the electrical system to stimulate Step 3: ‐ Place neuromuscular preparations on the canvas: the nerve of product crosses the muscle of product ‐ The nerve of product crosses the muscle of product Step 4: ‐ Detect threshold and stimulate the nerve of product (in A): muscles of all products contract ‐ If there is an accurate time recorder, it will get the results that the muscle of product contracts slower than the muscle of product 2, the muscle of product contracts slower than the muscle of product ‐ Thus, the electric current stimulates the nerves product 1, causing excitement, generating impulses The impulse is transmitted along the wire, through the synapse, stimulating the muscle to cause the muscle to contract When the muscle of product contracts (excited) produces an action potential, this potential stimulates the nerve of product and generates a new impulse that travels along the wire and through the synapse to the muscle of product 2, stimulating I love muscle contractions ‐ The same applies to the muscles and nerves of the product Step 5: ‐ Use a stimulation electrode in the middle of the nerve of product (in B) ‐ The result is that all muscles of the products work together Step 6: ‐ Switch the electrical stimulation site to the middle of the nerve of product (at C) ‐ The result is that only the muscles of product and contract while the muscles of product not V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result ‐ ‐ Stimulation at site A: Muscle bundle contracts, muscle group contracts, muscle group contracts weakly Stimulation at site B: Muscle bundle contracts, muscle bundle contracts ‐ Stimulation at site C: Muscle bundle and muscle contract Muscle bundle does not contract 5.2 Explain ‐ In this experiment, it is not possible to stimulate the muscle bundle by crossing the nerve on it ‐ Theoretically, when electrical stimulation is applied to a nerve, the impulse will travel in two directions and cause contraction of two muscles next to that nerve At site A, when stimulated, it will cause muscle bundles to contract At site B, bundle contracts, bundle contracts theoretically, bundle will contract Site ‐ C causes bundle to contract, bundle to contract and bundle to not contract because the electrical signal will not be able to propagate back from the posterior membrane to the anterior membrane However, in all three experiments, we see a difference compared to the theory The difference in practice can be explained by the following reasons that at this time the nerve impulse is obstructed by: ● The amount of fat in the muscle reduces the intensity of nerve impulses, making it impossible to reach the threshold to generate action potentials that ‐ ● cause muscle contraction The amount of potential is not enough because when the nerve is placed across the muscle, it only contacts the muscle bundles in that position, and the muscle ● bundles below have not received the impulse, so they not contract At the same time, at the point of contact of nerves and muscles, there is a layer of Ringer's physiological solution, which can also be a factor in reducing the intensity of the pulse When stimulating at site A, we see that most of the time, only muscles I and II contract, even in some cases only muscle I It can be speculated that the nerve impulse has been reduced after passing through the nerves nerves and muscles ‐ ‐ Therefore, it is not possible to reach the threshold to induce muscle stimulation on the third muscle bundle Site B did not show muscle contractions, possibly because the electrical impulse was obstructed and weakened during transmission The reduction in nerve impulses can be explained by the amount of fat in the muscle, the individual physiological characteristics of each muscle bundle, whether the impulse conduction or muscle contraction is done well, and the intensity of the excitation current ANALYSIS OF SPINAL REFLEX ARC IN FROG I OBJECTIVE ‐ Calculate the reflex time ‐ Learn the role of component elements in the reflex arc II PRINCIPLE ‐ Reflex is the body's response to any form of stimulus from the environment That is the principle of operation that covers and runs through each individual's life Each reflex must have a corresponding reflex arc The reflex arc consists of elements: ● ● ● ● ● Acceptance Afferent nerve Central nervous system Centrifugal nerve Implementing agency (or agency) ‐ Later, it was also recognized that a sixth element in the reflex arc is the reverse radial line from the agency to the center Reflection is only possible when the elements of the reflex arc are intact in both structure and function ‐ The time from when the stimulus acts to when the reflex occurs is called the reflex time or the latent time ‐ On a frog-marrow preparation, it is possible to measure the time as well as analyze the components of the reflex arc III MATERIALS ‐ Frog ‐ Frog dissection kit ‐ Operating table, operating tray ‐ Ringer solution ‐ 1% H2SO4 solution ‐ Crystal salt NaCl, ether ‐ Two small beakers for acid, one large beaker for water ‐ Thread, stopwatch, small and medium scissors, amputee, hanger ‐ Two glass rods with hooks IV PROTOCOL Step 1: ‐ Frogs don't poke marrow ‐ Wrap a frog with a towel and use large scissors to cut across the frog's head below the eyes ‐ ‐ ‐ Hook the lower jaw and hang it on the test stand Bleeding in the cut Let the frog be quiet for a while When the frog was quiet, the hind legs were hanging down before starting the experiment Step 2: ‐ Use a small glass cup containing H2SO4 solution, 0.5%, gently lift from the bottom so that the frog's feet are dipped in the acid but not touch the wall of the cup ‐ ‐ When the frog's feet start to touch the acid, press the clock When the frog reacts, he lifts his legs and presses the clock The difference in ‐ time is the reflex time Rinse the frog's legs with water several times and wait for the frog to calm down again ‐ ‐ ‐ Repeat the experiment times to get the average time Replace with 1% acid solution and the same as above When the frog's legs come into contact with acid and begin to contract, the frog often squirms and shoots the acid, so be ready to hold the frog and put it in a cup of water to wash it right away Step 3: ‐ After rinsing and letting the frog rest, use scissors to cut a loop of skin near the knee joint, then peel off the skin from there down to the toes ‐ Repeat the above experiments on skinned frogs and observe the results, explaining what happened Step 4: ‐ On the opposite leg (with the skin intact), cut the posterior thigh muscle about cm with scissors, and then use two glass hooks to separate the sciatic nerve Test the reflex leg contractions with acid in the following cases ‐ Normal (after separating the nerve, wet the physiological solution, wait for the frog to be quiet before doing the experiment) ‐ Use a thread to thread under the nerve and tighten (1 knot) After threading, test reflexes and observe the results Step 5: ‐ Using the second frog, peck and separate the sciatic nerve in both thighs On the first leg, test the acid reflex ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Then take a cotton pad soaked in ether and place it between the sciatic nerve in the thigh After minutes, test again the leg contraction reflex with acid Observe, compare, and interpret results On the second leg, test the acid reflex Then put some salt crystals in the middle of the sciatic nerve After about - 10 minutes, test again with the acid reflex Observe, compare and interpret results Step 6: ‐ ‐ Using the third frog, cut off the head and hang it on the rack Dissect and separate the sciatic nerve in one leg ‐ Test the acid reflex, then sever the nerve, and then test the reflex again Observe, compare and interpret results In the intact leg, test the leg contraction reflex with acid ‐ ‐ ‐ The amputee is then poked directly into the spinal cord at the cross-head incision Retest the leg contraction reflex with acid Observe, compare and interpret results V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Experiment 1: Determine the reflex time ‐ Experiment results 1st time: T1 = 1.5 seconds 2nd time: T2 = 2.0 seconds 3rd time: T3 = 2.0 seconds Average time: (T1+T2+T3) :3 = 1.83s Explain ‐ After the experiment, the frog's feet must be washed thoroughly because: If the frog's feet are not washed, a moderate stimulus for a long time will lead to resistance to stimulation and prolong the reflex time ‐ The results after experiments showed that there was not too much difference in the reflex time In the latter two times, the reflex time is longer than the first time because it is likely that they have become accustomed to the stimulus 5.2 Experiment 2: Determine the role of the receptor Characteristic Result Explain After peeling, there is still Reflex Because there are still receptors located on some skin on the tips of the skin at the tips of the toes, frogs can still the toes perceive stimuli and perform reflex responses to stimuli Peel off all skin No reflexes Due to the absence of receptors, frogs cannot perceive stimuli from the environment, leading to no longer reflexes 5.3 Experiment 3: Determine the role of nerves Characteristic Test reflex with acid Result Explain Reflex The reflex time is Frogs still have all the components of a reflex arc seconds Nerve exposure, Reflex Frogs still have all the components of a reflex test with acid arc If the nerve is affected during the process, there may be no reflex or weak reflex Cut the sciatic nerve No reflexes The nerve has been destroyed, the nerve impulse cannot be transmitted, so there is no reflex 5.4 Experiment 4: Determine the role of the central nervous system Characteristic When not tying the thread Test reflex with acid Result Reflex Explain Due to the elements of the reflex arc are still intact INSULIN SHOCK THERAPY I OBJECTIVE ‐ Observe the state of mouse after insulin injection II PRINCIPLES The pancreas is a mixed or heterocrine gland, it has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function ‐ As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct ‐ As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormone insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide Insulin: regulate the body’s energy supply by balancing micronutrient levels during the fed state, such as decreasing the rate of glucose in blood Glucagon: promote the conversion of glycogen into glucose, reduces fatty acid synthesis in adipose tissue and liver as well as promotes lipolysis in these tissues, causing them to release fatty acids into the bloodstream, where they can be transported converted into energy for certain essential tissues, such as skeletal muscle ‐ In blood, the stable sugar level is 0,8 – 1,2 g/l Under 0,45g/l => insulin shock Above 1,2g/l => promotes the conversion of glucose into glycogen and other storage products in the cell III MATERIALS ‐ Mouse ‐ Insulin ‐ Glucose solution (hypertonic 30%) ‐ Syringe 1mL ‐ Glucose monitors ‐ Scale ‐ Other items IV PROTOCOL Step 1: Mark different mice: mouse injected with 0.9% saline, mouse injected insulin marked on the tail Step 2: Measure the blood glucose of mice before injection by taking blood from the tail of the mouse and putting it into the blood glucose meter ‐ Mouse 1, without saline injection, had a blood sugar level of 5.0mM/l ‐ Mouse 2, without insulin injection, had a blood sugar of 5.2mM/l Step 3: Injecting saline into the mouse and injecting insulin into the mouse Be careful not to bulge the mouse skin when injected subcutaneously V RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Mouse after insulin injection: Have a strong movement After a period of time, the mouse began to have the phenomenon: ‐ ‐ Legs outstretched The whole body shook, not moving, very poor movement ‐ ‐ Had convulsions The hairs on the nape of the neck stand up ‐ Eyes closed ‐ Cold but sweaty due to lack of energy to generate heat Compare with mouse as control mouse ‐ Control mouse function normally Measure the blood sugar of the mouse after injection: ‐ Mouse with saline injection: 5.0 mM/l ‐ Mouse with insulin injection: 3.1 mM/l EARLY PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS I OBJECTIVE Using pregnancy quickstick to diagnose early pregnancy in humans II PRINCIPLE The diagnosis of pregnancy is based on the hormone HCG secreted by the placenta: HCG is produced in the earliest stages of pregnancy, and tells the body not the shed the inner lining of the uterus that month As the pregnancy progresses, HCG supports the formation of the placenta which transfers nutrients from mother to fetus From 6-8 days, the zygote begins to nest However, in the early stages, the placenta secretes very little HCG hormone, must rely on a very sensitive test kit measured in the blood to detect the hormone, but cannot measure the amount of HCG in the urine by regular pregnancy test Every 2-3 days, hormone levels will double When the amount of hormone exceeds the standard threshold of blood sugar, it will be filtered by the kidneys, not reabsorbed, and will be excreted through excretion At this time, the quickstick can be used III MATERIALS ‐ ‐ Quickstick Urine from women suspected of being pregnant ‐ The urine from the control person IV PROTOCOL Step 1: Check the quality of the pregnancy test kit (NSX, HSD…) Step 2: Dip the pregnancy test stick in the urine cup of the woman suspected of being pregnant Step 3: Read the results in 2-5 minutes Note: Do not dip beyond the reaction zone line V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result: If the test strip shows line, there are cases: ‐ Non – pregnant ‐ Pregnant but due to testing in the early days of pregnancy, the amount of HCG residue is not enough to pass the filtering threshold of the kidneys to enter the urine If the test strip shows line, there are cases: ‐ Pregnant ‐ False negative 5.2 Explain The test starts when the urine is applied to the exposed end of the strip As the fluid travels up the absorbent fibers, it will cross three separated zones, each with an important task: Quickstick including zones ‐ Reaction zone: including Y- shaped proteins called antibodies Antibodies grab onto any HCG Attached to these antibodies is a handy enzyme with the ability ‐ to turn on dye molecules, which will be crucial later down the road Then the urine picks up all the AB1 enzymes and carries them to the test zone Test zone: where the result shows up Secured to this zone are more Y – shaped antibodies that will also stick to HCG on one of its five binding sites This type of test is called a sandwich assay ■ If there is no HCG, the wave of urine and enzymes just passes on by ■ ‐ If HCG is present, it gets sandwiched between the AB1 enzyme and AB2 and sticks to the test zone, allowing the attached dye activating enzyme to its job and create a visible pattern Control zone: confirms that the test is working properly Whether the AB1 enzymes never saw HCG, or they are extras because zone is overstocked with them, all the unbound AB1 enzymes picked up in zone should end up here and activate more dye Therefore, if no pattern appears, that indicates that the test was faulty False negative pregnancy test: The excessive proliferation of cancer cells is responsible for the secretion of HCG (ex: uterine cancer of testicular cancer…) => False negative test In male, if false negative pregnancy occurs, the possibility of cancer should be considered ‐ Ectopic pregnancy ‐ IVF injections Why can the observation time be different? In the early days of pregnancy, the amount of HCG is not enough to pass through the filtering threshold of the kidneys to enter the urine After implantation, HCG levels double every two to three days Future direction ‐ ‐ Pregnancy care Check the indicators: check if the pregnancy has entered the uterus, measure the fetal heart rate, nuchal translucency (if the nuchal translucency at week 11 is too large, it must be rechecked will have to have amniocentesis to check the chromatogram, must culture for month to check the chromatogram) ‐ Termination of pregnancy if there are too many abnormalities BLOOD TYPING I OBJECTIVE ‐ Use serum (anti A, anti B and anti AB) to determine blood type II PRINCIPLE ABO blood typing system The distinction between blood groups is based on the presence of A and B antigens on the red blood cell membrane, α, and β antibodies in the plasma A B AB O Antigens on the red blood cell membrane A B A, B None Antibodies in the blood plasma β α None α, β When the A antigen meets the α antibody and when the B antigen meets the β antibody, an immune interaction reaction will occur, causing the red blood cells to stick and settle down called agglutination (agglutination) Principles of blood transfusion ‐ Blood transfusions should be given in the same group ‐ If a non-group transfusion is required, the minimum rule must be followed: “The donor erythrocytes must not be agglutinated with the recipient serum” However, a small amount (250ml) must be infused and given at a very slow rate Diagram for blood transfusion Rh+ blood group: Has type D antigen Rh blood group -: No D antigens III MATERIALS ‐ Serum ‐ Syringe ‐ Cotton ‐ 90% ethanol ‐ Ether ‐ Glass rod ‐ Microscope slide IV PROTOCOL ‐ Prepared the clean microscope slide, which was tucked in positions A, B, and O separated to from 1.5 cm ‐ ‐ ‐ Used different pipette tips, sucked serum samples into positions Disinfect fingertips and draw blood Use the glass rod to mix the blood with each serum sample ‐ Swung the microscope slide, waited for 2- mins, then read the result V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result Aggregation occurs at three sites: anti B, AB and D ‐ Agglomeration at anti B, AB blood group B ‐ Anti-D causes agglutination of RBCs with Rh+ group This person's blood type is B+ 5.2 Explain When antigens and corresponding antibodies meet (A and α; B and β), an immune interaction reaction causes red blood cells to stick and settle, called agglutination In people with type B, there will be B antigen on the surface of red blood cells Therfore, when coming into contact with serum containing β antibodies (anti AB and anti B), it will cause red blood cells to agglutinate THE ROLE OF BLOOD COAGULATION FACTORS I OBJECTIVE ‐ Demonstrate the role of coagulation factor II PRINCIPLE In the blood vessels, blood is always in liquid form to circulate throughout the body However, when the body is injured and bleeds, the blood automatically coagulates into a clot that seals the wound, preventing blood from flowing out, avoiding blood loss Hemostasis is accomplished through three main mechanisms: vasoconstriction, platelet plug formation, and clot formation + Vasoconstriction: As soon as the blood vessel is damaged, the vessel wall will be constricted, the more damaged the vessel wall, the stronger the contraction Vasoconstriction can last for several minutes to several hours During this time, platelet plug formation and coagulation may take place -> Limits the amount of blood leaving the damaged vessel wall Platelet plug formation: ‐ Platelet adhesion: When the vessel wall is damaged, exposing the collagen layer, ‐ platelets will come and contact collagen Platelet aggregation: contact with collagen makes platelets active, releasing factors such as: ADP, PDGF, Ca2+ that make other platelets come and stick to them => In this way, more and more layers of platelets come to stick to the lesion to form a platelet plug Clot formation: Thromboplastin secreted from the surface of damaged cells combines with activated Ca2+ to form the Prothrombinase complex Formation of Thrombin helps the blood clotting process continue to take place Thrombin hydrolyzes fibrinogen and produces fibrin monomer Then, these fibrins will combine to form a stable fibrin network that traps blood cells, platelets, and plasma to form clots III MATERIALS ‐ Test tube rack ‐ Timer ‐ Pipettes ‐ 10% CaCl₂ solution ‐ Blood solution had 5% NaCl and 1% NaNO₃ ‐ IV Mini Q water PROTOCOL Ca 2+ ‐ Used pipette, sucked 3mL blood had 1% NaNO₃ into test tube ‐ Add 0.1mL 10% CaCl₂ solution, mix and use a timer to calculate the time for coagulation NaCl ‐ Use pipette, sucked 1mL blood and had 5% NaCl into the test tube ‐ Add 5mL miniQ water, mix and use a timer to calculate the time for coagulation Trombin ‐ Collect serum from the blood for natural coagulation ‐ Use pipette, sucked 1mL blood had 1% NaNO₃ into test tube ‐ Add 2mL serum, mixed and use a timer to calculate the time for coagulation V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result ‐ Tubes 1,2,3 have no clotting phenomenon ‐ Tube has coagulation phenomenon 5.2 Explain For NaCl ‐ In normal blood, the concentration of NaCl is 0.9% With a concentration of NaCl ‐ solution greater than 5%, it works to prevent the formation of Thrombin, making the blood unable to clot Sodium citrate has the effect of keeping Ca2+ ions in the blood, so the blood ‐ cannot clot When diluted with distilled water, the concentration of sodium citrate in table salt gradually decreases, allowing blood to clot Therefore the coagulation in the test tubes increases gradually due to more volume of distilled water added in each tube For CaCl2 ‐ When adding CaCl2 solution, which means providing more free Ca2+ ions, the ‐ blood will clot Ca2+ combines with clotting factors released from platelets to form blood fibrils that cross each other to form a network that holds blood cells tightly and forms a ‐ clot However, the above solution contains 5% NaCl, which has an anticoagulant effect, preventing the formation of fibrin fibers that prevent blood from clotting ECG RECORDING I OBJECTIVE ‐ Record the ECG of the frog's heart and determine the frog's heart rate in minute II PRINCIPLE In the thorax, the heart is located at an angle α from the longitudinal axis of the body in the right-to-left direction, with the base of the heart above, the apex below The cardiac cycle begins at the base of the heart and gradually spreads to the apex Unequal excitement between the base and apex of the heart causes an electric potential, called an electrocardiogram: Using an electrocardiogram to record the heart, we have an electrocardiogram (ECG) The electrocardiogram is characterized by a wave consisting of stretches, denoted PQRST as follows: ‐ P stretch corresponds to atrial activity The QRS complex corresponds to ventricular activity T stretch appear in the dilated phase of the heart, which is the ‐ metabolic potential The shape of the peak, the distance between the peak in msec, the amplitude of the peak in mV are important indicators to evaluate the heart's activity Basic leads ‐ DI: Record from two electrodes placed in the right-left hand ‐ DII: Recording from two electrodes placed in the right hand-left foot ‐ DIII: Record from two electrodes placed in the left arm-left foot Unipolar leads only ‐ aVR: Right hand voltage ‐ aVL: Left hand potential ‐ aVF: Potential in the leg Thoracic unipolar leads ‐ V1: The electrode is placed in the right 4th intercostal space, close to the sternum border ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ V2: The electrode is placed in the left 4th intercostal space, close to the sternum border V3: The electrode is placed in a straight line connecting V2 - V4 V4: The electrode is placed at the intersection of the straight line from the center of the left clavicle down to the intercostal space V5: The electrode is placed at the intersection of the left anterior axillary line with the transverse line V4 ‐ V6: The electrode is placed at the intersection of the left midaxillary line with the transverse line V4 III MATERIALS ‐ ECG monitor ‐ Cotton, medical gauze ‐ ‐ ‐ 90% ethanol Ether 10% NaCl IV PROTOCOL ‐ Turn on the machine and adjust the parameters ‐ ‐ Place the sample neatly on the bed Use alcohol-soaked cotton swabs to disinfect the electrode locations, take gauze ‐ impregnated 10% NaCl wraps around wrists, ankles and electrode locations to reduce resistance and increase conductivity ‐ Place the electrodes according to the protocol ‐ Run the machine, receive and read the results V RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result Paper speed: 25mm/s => small square = 0.04 s • note: ‐ I Electrode waves recorded from electrodes placed in the right hand - left hand ‐ ‐ II Electrode waves recorded from electrodes placed in the right hand - left foot III Electrode waves recorded from electrodes placed in the left arm - left leg • calculate: Leads Wave Amplitude (mV) P QRS T DI 0.1 0.23 0.17 DII 0.13 0.45 0.2 DIII 0.03 0.23 0.03 DI + DII 0.13 0.46 0.2 Through calculation, we see that the wave amplitude of DI + DIII is approximately the same as that of DII • Calculate heart rate: 4x20=80 5.2 Explain ‐ Because the heart is skewed to the left compared to the longitudinal axis of the body, when operating, the potential vector generated by the heart will also be skewed to the left So that the wave amplitude of DII = DI + DIII ‐ Through actual calculation, we see that the wave amplitude of DI + DIII is always approximately DII → The electrocardiogram process is accurate, there is a few mV error between the amplitude of the DII and the DI + DIII may be due to mild movements or breathing MEASUREMENT OF BLOOD PRESSURE I II OBJECTIVE AND MATERIALS ‐ Measure systolic and diastolic blood pressure of people PRINCIPLE Heart work when contracting to force blood into the arteries creates a constant flow of blood and creates a compressive pressure on the vessel walls Therefore, each time the heart contracts, the pulse bounces once Non-invasive blood pressure measurement based on hearing amplifiers The cuff is inflated to prevent blood flow in the artery, then the sound cannot be heard through a stethoscope placed over the brachial artery distal to the cuff Open the valve to let the gas out to reduce the pressure Until we hear the smallest first sound, we record the maximum value of blood pressure - systolic Then heard a louder sound Finally, when the veins return to their normal state, without friction we will hear the last sound and then nothing more III MATERIALS ‐ Blood pressure monitor ‐ Stethoscope IV PROTOCOL Step 1: The person to be measured blood pressure is lying in a comfortable position or sitting Step 2: Pulling the sleeve up to the armpit, wrap the cuff of the septum lightly just tight enough around the left arm, above the elbow Step 3: Tighten the knob and pump air into the airbag until the meter reads 160180mmHg, then stop V Step 4: Turn the knob back slowly to release steam, and at the same time listen to the heart to hear the first beat, that is the maximum blood pressure Continue listening until no more beats are minimum blood pressure RESULT AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Result Maximum blood pressure: 165 Minimum blood pressure: 90 The normal maximum blood pressure reading is usually in the range of 100-130 mmHg The minimum blood pressure readings are in the range of 60-80 mmHg => The person being measured had high blood pressure 4.2 Explain Because each person's heart rate, cardiovascular system, and circulatory system are different, each person's blood pressure will also be different The blood pressure index of female friends is often lower than that of male friends It may also be due to the error of the process, so the measurement results are not really accurate When exercising, the body needs more oxygen, so the blood must circulate faster to provide enough oxygen to the cells Therefore, blood pressure after exercise will also increase Depending on the intensity of exercise, the blood pressure index will increase more or less respectively