Lectures on english phonetics and phonology

ACADEMY OF FINANCE Pham Phuong Oanh, MA Cao Phuong Thao, MA ENGLISH PHONEMES CHART LECTURES ON ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY FINANCIAL PUBLISHER Năm 2019 - What physical properties they have? - In what way can speech sound be similar to or different from other speech sounds? Lecture 1: 1.2 Branches of Phonetics The introduction of phonetics and the productions of speech sound: consonants and vowels 1.2.1 Articulatory phonetics Describing how sounds are made is the business of articulatory phonetics which informs theories of speech production It describes in detail how the speech organs, also called vocal organs or articulators in the vocal tract are used in order to produce, or articulate, speech sounds What is Phonetics? Phonetics vs Phonology 1.1 What is Phonetics? Articulatory phonetics is the most widespread type of phonetics taught, underpinning both other types (acoustic and auditory), and is studied not only by linguistics students but also by students of speech and language therapy, many language students as well as some medical students, voice students, drama students, and students of singing, to name but a few Phonetics is the linguistic science that studies speech sounds: the way in which they are produced (uttered, articulated), the way in which they are perceived, their physical characteristics, etc The process by which we use our linguistic knowledge to produce a meaningful utterance is a very complicated one It can be viewed as chain of events starting with an “idea” or massage in the brain of the speaker and ending with a similar message in the brain of the hearer During the process of describing the speech sounds occurring at any stage of this chain, Phonetics give answers to the following questions: 1.2.2 Acoustic Phonetics Acoustic phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, i.e the way in which the air vibrates as sounds pass from speaker to listener A spectrograph is a machine that measures the sound- waves and depicts them as images, called spectrograms or sonograms, showing the duration, frequency, intensity, and quality of the sounds - What sounds occur in human language? - How these speech sounds are made? 1.2.3 Auditory Phonetics: sounds within the sound system (2) Suprasegmental phonology, also called prosody, is concerned with those features of pronunciation that cannot be segmented because they extend over more than one segment, or sound Such features include stress, rhythm, and intonation (also called pitch contour or pitch movement) Auditory Phonetics which is also considered a branch of physiology, is the study of how speech signal is sensed in the auditory canal and interpreted by the relevant parts of the brain In other words, it deals with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener 1.3 What is Phonology 1.4 Received Pronunciation: An accent Phonology is the study or description of the distinctive sound units (phonemes) of a language and their relationship to one another It involves studying a language to determine its distinctive sounds and to establish a set of rules that describe the set of changes that take place in these sounds when they occur in different relationships with other sounds The subject of phonology includes the following areas: A standard variety has a fixed grammar and vocabulary, but its pronunciation may vary according to the regional origin, social group, or ethnicity of the speaker We use the term “accent” to refer to the way a variety is pronounced It is quite possible, then, that a standard variety is spoken in different accents One of these accents usually carries the most prestige, and is used as a model in the teaching of pronunciation The most prestigious accent of Standard British English, for example, was first called Public School Pronunciation and renamed Received Pronunciation, or simply RP, in the 1920s There is no widely used term for the most prestigious accent of General American, but it is sometimes referred to as Network Standard or Network English - Study of the phonemic system - Phoneme sequences and syllable structure - Supra-segmental phonology (stress, intonation) Phonology can be divided into two branches: (1) segmental phonology and (2) suprasegmental phonology (1) Segmental phonology is based on the segmentation of language into individual speech sounds provided by phonetics Unlike phonetics, however, segmental phonology is not interested in the production, the physical properties, or the perception of these sounds, but in the function and possible combinations of Received Pronunciation is associated with the dialect spoken in the south-east of England The word received may seem awkward in this construction, but it is used here in the sense 'generally accepted as proper' RP was initially described by the British phonetician Daniel Jones (1881-1967) in the first edition of his English Pronouncing Dictionary in 1917 And although RP is probably the most discussed accent around the world, it is important to note that it is a minority pronunciation unlikely ever to have been used by more than to per cent of the British population Most educated speakers of British English speak a modified RP or near RP Speech sounds are acoustic effects of the articulatory movements and positions of the human speech organs The immediate source of speech sounds is the human speech mechanism developed and perfected in the process of the historical development of man The organs of speech are the object of linguistic investigation mainly from the point of view of the functions they perform in speech production So before analyzing the linguistic function of phonetic units we need to know how the speech mechanism acts in producing oral speech In this book, we use RP, or near RP, as our model to illustrate English phonetics and phonology RP is also the accent used in practically all British dictionaries and introductory textbooks According to their main sound-producing functions the speech organs can be roughly divided into the following four groups: the power mechanism (lungs, diaphragm, windpipe, bronchi), the vibrator mechanism (larynx, vocal cords, glottis), the resonator mechanism (nasal and mouth cavities) and the obstructer mechanism (tongue, lips, hard and soft palate, teeth) The production of sounds From the lungs through the wind-pipe the airstream passes to the larynx, containing the vocal cords The opening between the vocal cords, through which the air passes, is called the glottis The linguistic function of the vocal cords consists in providing the source of energy necessary for speech production When the vocal cords are kept wide apart (i.e the glottis is open) the air passes between the cords and the result is non-phonic breath Then the vocal cords may be drawn together Vocal tract articulators tightly, so that air cannot pass between them The sudden opening of the glottis produces an explosion resembling a short cough; this sound is called the glottal stop It often occurs in English when it reinforces or even replaces the sounds [p], [t], [k] or even when it precedes the energetic articulation of vowel sounds palate When it is lowered, the pharynx opens into the nasal cavity When it is risen, the air-stream comes to the mouth cavity As in the mouth cavity a lot of movable speech organs are situated it can easily change its shape, thus forming the majority of speech sounds The movable (or active) speech organs, situated in the mouth cavity are: the tongue, the soft palate with the uvula, the lips and the lower jaw Of all the movable organs within the mouth cavity the tongue is the most flexible and active For convenience, the surface of the tongue or divided into several parts: the most flexible part of the tongue, which normally lies opposite the teeth ridge, is called the blade, the tip of the tongue being its extreme point The part of the tongue next to the blade is called the front of the tongue Then come the back and the root of the tongue The most important role of the vocal cords is their participation in the production of voice The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought loosely together, creating an obstacle to the air stream; when the air pressure becomes very strong the air forces its way between the vocal cords thus making the, vibrate When, as is usual, these vibrations are regular, they produce vocal tone, or voice, whose pitch depends on the frequency of vibrations We are able to vary the speed of vibration of our vocal cords and thus to change the pitch Conscious variations of pitch are responsible for intonation We are also able to modify the size of the puff of the air which escapes at each vibration, thus changing the amplitude of the vibration, which corresponds to the loudness of the sound heard by a listener The tongue being the most active speech organ in the mouth cavity, the main principles of the majority of articulatory classifications of vowels are based on the movements and positions of the tongue Classification of English speech sounds 3.1 Voiced vs voiceless sounds The air-stream, having passed through the vocal cords, is now subject to further modification, according to the shape of the pharynx, mouth and nasal cavities The air- stream from the lungs moves up through the trachea (windpipe) and arrives first at the LARYNX The larynx contains two small bands of elastic tissue, The direction in which the air-stream will follow from the pharynx depends on the position of the soft 10 which can be thought of as two flat strips of rubber, lying opposite to each other across the air passage 3.2 Nasal vs oral sounds The inner edge of the vocal cords can be moved towards each other so that they meet and completely cover the top of the windpipe, or they can be drawn apart so that there is a gap between them (known as the glottis) through which the air can pass freely: this is their usual position when we breathe quietly in and out When the vocal cords are brought together tightly, no air can pass through them and if the lungs are pushing air from below, this air is compressed If the vocal cords are then opened suddenly the compressed air bursts out with sort of coughing noise Nasal articulation Oral articulation In the figure, you notice that the roof of the mouth is divided into the hard palate and the soft palate or velum The hard palate is the bonny structure at the front of the mouth You can feel the hard palate with your finger If the vocal cords are brought together quite gently, the air from the lungs will be able to force them apart for a moment, but then they will fall back together into the closed position; then the air will force them apart again, and they will close again and so on The rapid opening and closing of the vocal cords is a kind of vibration The sounds which are made with vibration of the vocal cords are voiced and there is no vibration are voiceless As you move your finger back you can feel the section of the palate where flesh become softer and is moveable This soft, moveable part is called the velum Hanging down from the end of the soft palate or velum, is he uvular which you can see in the mirror if you open your mouth wide and say ahhhhhhhh The soft palate can be raised so that it makes a firm contact with the back wall of the pharynx, and this stops the breath from going up into the nasal cavity and forces it to go into the mouth only 11 12 The sounds in whose making process, at the uvular the soft palate is raised, blocking off the nasal tract, the air- stream can only go into the oral tract and go out of the mouth are called “oral sounds” E.g /g/, /s/, /p/ cannot get out freely and it makes the vocal cords vibrate, then we have voiced sounds e.g /d/, /v/, /m/ If the air- stream goes through the vocal cords and they come apart, they are open, the air- stream can gout out through hem freely and it does not make them vibrate, and we have voiceless sounds e.g /s/, /t/, /∫/ In the process of making sounds, the air- stream is blocked somewhere in the oral cavity but the soft palate is lowered so that the air- stream can get into the nasal tract and get out through the nostrils, the we have nasal cavity E.g /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ 3.3 Consonant vs vowel When we are making sounds, if the two articulators come together, obstructing the air- stream and the air- stream cannot get out freely, we have consonants sounds E.g /k/, /f/, /b/ When we re making sounds if there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the lips and the air can get out freely, then we have vowel sounds e.g /a: /, /e/ /I/ 3.4 Voices vs voiceless sounds When we are producing sounds, the air- stream goes through the vocal cords, if the vocal cords come together, obstructing the air- stream, the air- stream 13 14 Note that the terms used to describe the sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sounds Lecture 2: English consonants As we know in the first lecture, consonant is defined as the sounds in the production of which one articulator move towards another or two articulators come together, obstructing the air- stream and the airstream cannot get out freely In English there are 24 consonants In order to form consonants, the air- stream through the vocal cords must be obstructed in some way Therefore, consonants can be classified according to the place where the air- stream is obstructed (the place of articulation) and the way in which the airstream is obstructed (manner of articulation) Places Articulators Bilabial Upper+lower lip Labio- dental Lower lip+ upper teeth /f, v/ Dental Teeth+ tongue /ð, θ/ Alveolar Alveolar ridge + tongue /t, d, s, z, l, n/ Retroflex Back of alveolar ridge _ tongue /r/ Palatoalveolar Join of hard palate and alveolar ridge + tongue /∫, 3, t∫, ʤ/ Palatal Hard palate tongue + /j/ Velar Soft palate tongue + /k, g, ŋ/ Glottal Vocal cords Place of articulation The place of articulation is the location of the obstruction of the air- stream in the articulation of consonants Ii describe the point at which the articulators actually touch or are at their closet The most important for places for the production of English consonants are listed in the table below 15 16 Examples lips /p, b, m, w/ /h/ 1.1 Bilabials: 1.2 Labio- dentals: Bilabials are consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two lips, then released with a slight explosion Bilabials may be voiced (vocal cords vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) or voiceless (vocal cords not vibrating during the articulation of the consonant) Here is a list of the bilabials in Present-Day English Labio- dental /f/, /v/ They are the sounds which are produced with the lower lip touching the upper front teeth e.g /f/, /v/ 1.3 Dentals /p/ (the phoneme spelled p in pat): voiceless bilabial stop /b/ (the phoneme spelled b in bat): voiced bilabial stop /m/ (the phoneme spelled m in mail): (voiced) bilabial nasal /w/ (the phoneme spelled w in wet): (voiced) bilabial semivowel /θ/, /ð/ Dentals are sounds which are produced with the tip or blade of the tongue touching the upper front teeth e.g /θ/, /ð/ /p/ and /b/ 17 18 Palato- alveolar are the sounds which are produced with the tongue tip or blade coming close to the area between the back of the alveolar ridge and the front of the hard palate 1.4 Alveolars e.g /∫/ , /3∫/, /t∫/, / 1.7 Palatal: /s/, /z/ /n/ Alveolars are the sound made with the tip or blade of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge 1.5 Retroflex A retroflex is a consonant formed when the tongue rises toward the back of the alveolar ridge and then retracts toward the back of the oral cavity Present-Day English has one retroflex, which is voiced /r/ (the phoneme spelled r in root): (voiced) alveolar retroflex 1.6 Palato- alveolar They are sound in the production of which the front of the tongue comes close to the hard palate /j/ Palato- alveolar 19 20 This diagram shows the approximate height of the voice on each syllable Case 3: The question is ‘Was John in a bad temper?’ The first five syllables have low pitch, then there is a jump to the stressed syllable of appallingly and the next two syllables are on the same rather high pitch, then bad is a little lower and temper glides downwards from the stressed to the unstressed syllables He was in an ap*pallingly *bad *temper Both bad and temper are not important in the answer because both are already in the questioner’s mind They are still stressed but they have no change of pitch Notice that there are three changes of pitch connected with three stressed syllables This shows that these words are important An important word always has a stressed syllables and usually has a change of pitch connected to it You should remember that stressed words may not be important, though important words must be stressed Any word may be important if the situation makes it important Functions of intonation Case 2: The question is ‘Was John in a good temper?’ Intonation is a powerful means of human intercommunication One of the aims of communication is the exchange of information between people The meaning of an English utterance derives not only from the grammatical structure, the lexical composition and the sound pattern It also derives from variations of intonation or its prosodic parameters We can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey The ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and there exist various points of view on the number and aims of intonation functions in a language He was in an ap*pallingly *bad *temper In this case, temper occurs in the question so that in the answer it is not especially important, it does not add anything to the picture, it gives little information There are two changes of pitch, connected with the stressed syllables of appallingly and bad, so these two words are marked important, but temper is not although it still has the first syllable stressed, and there is no change of pitch shows that the speaker is not treating it as important P Roach, for example, singles out the following intonation functions: 115 116 3.2 The accentual function - Attitudinal function The term ‘accentual’ is derived from ‘accent’ which has been used by some writers to mean stress - Accentual function Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed, and in particular the placing of the tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in the tone- unit This has been called the accentual function of intonation - Grammatical function - Discourse function 3.1 The attitudinal function Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of ‘meaning’ to spoken language This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation The location of the tonic syllable is of considerable linguistic importance The most common position for this is on the last lexical word (e.g noun, adjective, verb, adverb) of the tone unit For contrastive purpose, however, any word may become the tonic syllable In the following pairs of examples, (a) represents normal placement and (b) contrastive: For example, with the phrase ‘thank you’ you may say in two ways: In the first, the voice starts high and ends low, and this shows real gratitude a) I want to know where he is traveling to In the second, the voice starts low and ends high and this shows a rather casual acknowledgment of something not very important A bus collector will say thank you in this second way when he collects your money and this is quite reasonable since he does not feel great gratitude But if an English friend invites you to spend a weekend at his home and you reply with the second thank you instead of the first your friend will be offended because you not sound really grateful b) I don’t want to know where he is traveling from (I want to know where he is traveling to) Similarly, for the purpose of emphasis we may place the tonic stress in other positions; in this example, (a) is non- emphatic and (b) is emphatic a) It was very \boring b) It was \very boring In this example, the stress is logical 117 118 a) I’m ˈgoing to ˈleave soon| (normal) ˈThose who ˈsold quickly ┊ˌmade a profit| b) I’m ˈgoing to leave soon| (contrastive, meaning I’m going not to stay) The difference caused by the placement of the tone- unit boundary is seen to be equivalent to giving two different paraphrases of the sentences, as in: c) I am going to leave soon| (emphatic) a) A profit was made by those who sold quickly The position of the nucleus can also differentiate the actual meaning of the sentences, as in the example: b) A profit was quickly made by those who sold a) I have ˈplans to leave| (=I’m planning to leave) The intonation-group boundary can occur not only between words, but other grammatical units such as phrases and clauses, thus showing what is subordinate to what, as in the example: b) I have plans to leave| (=I have some plans that I have to leave) By putting the stress on one particular word, the speaker shows that he is treating the word as the carrier of new information, and that the information of the other words is not new and can be easily understood from the situation The boys ┊ who weren’t punished ┊ were happy| The boys who weren’t punished ┊ were happy| (only some boys) Some skilful speakers use this ability of intonation as a special rhetorical device to attract the listeners’ attention or to hold the floor a bit longer 3.3 The grammatical function Intonation serves to mark boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences to indicate the grammatical subordination and to show the difference between questions, statements, commands, etc., so this function is called grammatical The placement of the intonationgroup boundary is important for differentiating the meaning of some ambiguous sentences, as in the example: The choice of nuclear tones also has grammatical significance, as it makes clear whether the person is telling something, asking or commanding Basic tones are generally associated with certain communicative types of sentences The falling tone is most common in statements, special questions, commands and exclamations The rising tone is characteristic of nonfinal parts of statements, general questions, requests and Those who sold ┊ˌquickly ˌmade a profit| 119 120 warnings The grammatical function here seems to overlap with the pragmatic function and depends on the speaker’s pragmatic aim The choice of the nuclear tone can turn the command into a polite request: what kind of response is expected Such functions are examples of intonation’s discourse function Consider the following examples: A: Have you got any free time this morning? ˈClose the door ┊will you| B: I might have later on if that meeting’s off ˈClose the door ┊will you| A: They were talking about putting it latter a question into an exclamation: B: You can’t be sure Isn’t she beautiful| Each sentence could be studied in isolation and analyzed in terms of grammatical construction, lexical content and so on But it is obvious that the sentences form part of some larger act of conversational interaction between two speakers: Then sentences contain several references that presuppose shares knowledge (e.g ‘that meeting’ implies that both speakers know which meeting is being spoken about) and in some cases the meaning of a sentence can only be correctly interpreted in the light of knowledge of what has preceded it in the conversation (e.g ‘You can’t be sure’) ˈIsn’t she beautiful| an apology into a request to repeat: I’m sorry| I’m sorry| a statement into a question (mostly in colloquial speech): You did it| You did it| 3.4 The discourse function In fact, intonation may be related to discourse in two ways: Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as ‘new’ information and what is already “given” can suggest when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another toneunit and, in conversation, can convey to the listener First, it is used to focus the listener’s attention on the most important information Second, it regulates conversational behavior 121 122 In the case of ‘attention focusing’, the most obvious use is the placing of tonic stress on the appropriate syllable of one particular word in the tone unit In many cases it is easy to demonstrate that the tonic stress is placed on the word that is ‘most important’ as in: Writers on discourse intonation have proposed that the falling tone indicates new information while rising (including falling- rising) tones indicate ‘shared’ or ‘given’ information Another use of intonation connected with the focusing of attention is intonational subordination We can signal that a particular tone- unit is of comparatively low importance and as a result give correspondingly greater importance to adjacent tone- unit For example: She went to \Scotland but sometimes it seems more appropriate to describe tonic stress placement in terms of ‘information content’: the more predictable a word’s occurrence is in given context, the lower is information content is The tonic stress will tend to be placed on words with high information content a) As I expect you’ve heard|, they’re only admitting emergency cases| b) The Japanese for| some reasons or other| drive on the left like us| The intonation can assist in focusing attention in two ways: The first tone- unit of (a) and the second and the fourth tone- unit of (b) might be treated as intonationally subordinate with the pitch being lowered, speech increased, voice lowered, etc The tone chosen can indicate whether the toneunit in which it occurs is being used to present new information or to refer to information which is felt to be already possessed by speaker and hearer Foe example, in the following sentence: As a result, the subordinate tone- units are less easy to hear Native speakers usually still understand what is said by guessing at inaudible or unrecognizable words on the basis of their knowledge of what the speaker is talking about Foreigners, on the other hand, often find that these subordinate tone- units cause serious difficulties in understanding Since the v last time we met| when we had that huge vdinner|, I’ve been on a \diet| The first two tone- unit present information which is relevant to what the speaker is saying, but which is not something new and unknown to the listener The final tone- unit, however, does present new information 123 124 We now turn to the second main area of intonational discourse function, the regulation of conversational behavior It can be seen that speakers use various prosodic components to indicate to others that they have finished speaking, a particular response is required or what they are actually doing in speaking: questioning challenging, advising, encouraging, disapproving, etc 4.1 The falling tune (the glide down) 4.1.1 How the voice falls? In the shortest word- group, where we use jus one important word, the falling tune consists of a fall in the voice from a fairly high pitch to a very low one The fall is on the stresses syllable or from the stressed syllable to a following one *No In conclusion, it seems clear that studying intonation in relation to discourse makes it possible to explain much more comprehensively the uses that speakers make of intonation Practically all the separate function traditionally attributed to intonation (attitudinal, accentual and grammatical) could be seen as different aspects of discourse function *Two *Excellent Notice: a) On a single syllable, the voice falls within the syllable b) On more than one syllable, the voice either falls within the stressed syllable or it jumps down from that syllable to the next The basic English tunes c) In this section, the term ‘tune’ is used to mean ‘tone’ that has been used in chapter seven English intonation is determined by the shapes of the English tunes and they may be quite different from the normal tunes of your owm language In English, different tunes are used to convey different meanings According to O’Connor (1977) there are four basic tunes in English, namely the falling tune (the glide down), the first rising tune (the glide up), the second rising tune (the take off), and the falling- rising tune (the dive) Unstressed syllable at the end are all very low If there are other words following the fall, they may still have stress but they are still said on that very low pitch, just like unstressed syllables He was in an ap*pallingly *bad *temper 125 126 When there is more than one important word in the group, the last one has the fall but the others are treated differently: Also, any stressed syllable near the beginning which belongs to a word which is not important is said on that same rather low pitch a) The stressed syllable of the first important word is high and any unstressed syllables following it are on the same pitch He *seems *very *nice b) The unstressed syllable of the second important word is a little lower and any unstressed syllables following it are on the same pitch 4.1.2 Symbols We have a way of showing the Glide Down which is simpler and quicker than the dots and lines used up to now c) The fall starts at the same pitch as the syllable just before it Before the stressed syllable where the voice falls we put (\) Notice that no other mark is needed to show the very low unstressed syllables at the end- any unstressed syllables after the fall are always low *How can I *possibly *pay him *two *hundred *pounds? \Two \No Before the stressed syllable of each other important word, we put (ˡ) Each of these marks shows a step, beginning with a high one and gradually coming lower until the fall is reached Notes: If there are any unstressed syllables before the stressed syllable of the first important word, these are said on a rather low pitch ˡHow can I ˡpossibly ˡpay him ˡtwo ˡhundred \pounds Unstressed syllables at the beginning have no mark before them But it was ri*diculous I was \glad 127 128 I was ˡvery \glad ˡGood \heavens! What a ˡvery ˡpretty \dress! If there is a low- pitched stress near the beginning, \Nonsense! it is marked by (╷) And the same mark is used for 4.2 The first rising tune- the glide up stressed syllables which come after the fall 4.2.1 How the voice rise The Glide- Up is just like the Glide- Down except that it ends with a rise in the voice instead of a fall Both important and unimportant words before the rise are treated exactly the same as in the Glide- Down He was in an ap\pallingly ╷bad ╷temper 4.1.3 How to use the tune? The tune can be used in the following contexts: At the stressed syllable of the last important word, the voice rises from a low pitch to one just above the middle of the voice i When the statement are complete and definite I ˡlike it ˡvery \much I ˡwouldn’t ˡmind ˡseeing it a‵gain But *Is it *true that you’re *changing your *job? ii When Wh- questions sound more business- like and the speaker is only interested in the subject, not the person spoken to: ˡWhy did you ˡchange your \mind? ˡWho on ˡearth was \that? The last important word is job and here the voice rises from a low pitch to one just above the middle of the voice Apart from this, the tune is the same as in the Glide - Down: the unstressed syllable at the beginning is low, and there is a step at the stressed syllable of each important word iii Short questions used as responses: John’s on holiday? \Is he? I went to the theatre last night \Did you? iv Strong exclamation: 129 130 All the syllables (stressed as well as unstressed) after the stresses syllables of the last important word are on the rise: ii This tune can be used with the Wh- question if you want to show as much interest in the other person as in the subject: I was *only *trying to *help him with it ˡHow’s your /daughter? If the sentence consists of only one unimportant word, the voice stars at a very low pitch ˡWhen are you ˡcoming to /see us? (There are forty people there?) *Forty of them were *there iii For Yes- No questions: ˡDid ˡJohn ˡpost that /letter? 4.2.2 Symbols ˡCan I /see it? In the simpler intonation marking, we use (/) before the stressed syllable of the last important word to show where the rise starts and (•) before any stressed syllable within the rise iv For greeting as saying goodbye ˡGood /morning! The other marks are the same as for the GlideDown (We put (ˡ) before the stressed syllable of each important word.) ˡGood /night! ˡGood͵bye! Have you been at /work to∙day with ˡJohn? v For exclamations which refer to something not very exciting or unexpected 4.2.3 How to use the tune? Thank you! i When the statement is intended as soothing or encouraging: Good! All right! ˡJohn’ll be ˡhere /soon vi If the statement is intended as question: I ˡwon’t ˡdrive ˡtoo /fast (so don’t worry.) You are / single? 131 132 4.3.3 How to use the tune 4.3 The second rising tune- The Take Off After the Glide Down and the Glide up we have the Take Off, this also end with a rise in the voice , like the Glide up but any words and syllables before the rise are low We call it the Take Off because, like an aeroplane taking off, it starts by running along at a low level and finally rises into the air We use the Take Off in the following situations: i For repetition questions, when you are repeating someone else's question or when you want the other person to repeat some information /Where did I go? (Or where?) /Why? (because I wanted to) 4.3.1 How the voice rises (I arrived at ten o'clock) /When? The rise, as in the Glide Up, either takes place on one syllbale, or it is spread over several syllables: (It took me two hours) /How •long? I was only trying to help him with it (John told me to it) /Who •told you to •do it? Notice that in examples like the last three, where the other person is being asked to repeat information, the rise begins at the wh- word ii For tag questions after commands, use the Before the rise any stressed word is felt to be important, even though there is no change of pitch All the syllables before the rise are said on the same low pitch as the beginning of the the rise; they must not be higher than this Take Off: 'Come over here, /will you? 'Let's have some music, /shall we 'Hold this for me, /would you 4.3.2 Symbols iii If neither the statement nor the tagquestion have the word not in them, use the Take Off  In the simpler intonation marking the rise has the same mark as before ///, any stressed syllables after this has () and any stressed syllables before it have (') You like it, /did you? They'd like some more, /would you? 133 134 iv When you don't want the other person to agree with you, but to give his opinion The fall is on the stressed syllable of the last important word and the rise of the other syllable on the last syllable of all You're coming to tea with us, /arent's you If there are stressed (but not important) words following the fall, in that case the rise at the end is from the last of the stressed syllable You weren't here in Wednesday, /were you? He didn't look ill, /did he? v If the exclamation is questioning Words or syllables before the fall are said in the same way as for the Gide Down and Glide Up /Oh? She was quite nice /Really? /Well? 4.4 The Falling- Rising tune - The Dive 4.2.1 How the voice falls and rises? I may be not able to come on Monday In its shortest form this consists of a fall from rather high to low and then rises to about the middle of the voice Five Soon Why The fall- rise is also connected with the stressed syllable of the last important word, like the fall and the rise of the other tunes But it is only completed on one syllable if that syllable is final in the group if there is one or several syllables following, the fall and the rise are separated: Twenty Seventy Notice that the fall of the fall- rise is always form a fairy high note 4.2.2 Symbols If the stressed syllable of the last important word is final in the group, or it is followed only by unstressed syllables, we put (v) before it in the simpler intonation marking, so Seventy of them 135 136 vFive vSoon vSeventy Twenty vWhy vSeventy of them but or by you must admit or I must admit, use the Dive v He's vgenerous He's vhandsome But if the fall is followed by one ore more stressed syllables we mark the fall with (\) and we put (/) before the last stressed syllable of all; any other stressed syllables have (|) before them, so the other intonation marks are the same as for the Glide- Down and Glide Up I could 'take you there tovmorrow I 'like your vhat It wasn't a 'very nice 'thing to vdo iii If the statement is the correction of what someone else has said, use the Dive She was 'quite vkind (He's forty- five) 'Forty vsix I may be 'able to 'come on vMonday (I like him a lot) You \ used to /like him Notice that when the first syllable has a short vowel there may be a jump down to the next syllable rather than a fall (I can't it) You can't it \that /way iv If the statement is a warning 4.2.3 How to use the tune You'll be vlate i If the statement is not complete but leading to a following word- group, use the Dive I 'shan't tell you avgain I vlooked at him (and recognized him at once) You' mustn’t \shake it too /much She took the vcar (and drove to London) When ever he comes to vvisit us (he tries to borrow money) v If the statement ahs two parts of which the first is more important than the second, use the Dive with the fall at the end of the first part and the rise at the end of the second: ii For statements which show resevation on the part of the speaker and which might be followed by 137 138 I 'went to \London on /Monday You can't \keep it if you really /want it He was 'very \well when I last /saw him I'm 'very \comfortable, /thank you/ vi If you want the command to sound pleading, more a request than an order, use the Dive, with the fall on Do or Don't if they occur, or on the main verb if not, and the rise at the end \Shut the /window \Do have some |more /tea \Send it as |soon as you /can /Don't |make me /angry 139 140 O'Connor, J.D 1980 Better English nd pronunciation edition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press REFERENCES Pavlík, R 2000 Phonetics and Phonology of English A Theoretical Introduction Bratislava: Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity Komenského, 300 p ISBN 80-88868-67-X Carr, Ph 2013 English Phonetics and Phonology An Introduction 2nd edition Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Cruttenden, A 1990 Nucleus placement and three classes of exception In Ramsaran, 1990: 9-18 Roach, P 2009 English Phonetics and Phonology 4th edition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gimson A.C Jones and Standards of English Pronunciation // English Studies - 
Vol 58 - No 1977 - P 152-157 Wells, J.C.2006 English pronunciation, an introduction 1st edition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Gussenhoven, C., 2004 The Phonology of tone and intonation Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Laver J 1995 Principles of Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Phonetics Jones, D 1993 An Outline of English Phonetics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ISBN 9780521290418 
 McMahon, A.2002 An introduction to English Phonology Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press O'Connor, J.D & Arnold, G.F 1961, 1973 Intonation of colloquial English: a practical handbook London: Longman 141 142 LECTURES ON ENGLISH PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY -MỤC LỤC Chịu trách nhiệm xuất bản: GIÁM ĐỐC - TỔNG BIÊN TẬP Phan Ngọc Chính Lecture 1: The introduction of phonetics and the productions of speech sound: consonants and vowels Chịu trách nhiệm biên soạn: Th.S Phạm Phương Oanh Th.S Cao Phuong Thảo Lecture 2: English consonants …… 15 Lecture 3: Vowels …………………………… 27 Biên tập: Lê Thị Anh Thư Lecture 4: Phonemes ………………………… 37 Trình bày bìa: Ban quản lý Khoa học, Hưng Hà Lecture 5: Stress ……………………………… 51 Lecture 6: Aspects of connected speech ……….73 Biên tập kỹ thuật: Hưng Hà Lecture 7: Tones ……………………………… 89 Lecture 8: Intonation ………………………….113 Đơn vị liên kết: Học viện Tài chính, số 58 Phố Lê Văn Hiến, Phường Đức Thắng, Quận Bắc Từ Liêm, Hà Nội REFERENCES ……………………………… 141 -In 500 cuốn, khổ 14.5 x 20.5cm Công ty TNHH Sản xuất Thương mại Hưng Hà Địa chỉ: Số 20, Hoàng Quốc Việt, Cầu Giấy, Hà Nội Số xác nhận ĐKXB: 2860-2019/CXBIPH/9-62/TC Số QĐXB: 142/QĐ-NXBTC ngày tháng năm 2019 Mã ISBN: 978-604-79-2184-3 In xong nộp lưu chiểu năm 2019 143 144 ... is Phonetics? Phonetics vs Phonology 1.1 What is Phonetics? Articulatory phonetics is the most widespread type of phonetics taught, underpinning both other types (acoustic and auditory), and. .. (1) segmental phonology and (2) suprasegmental phonology (1) Segmental phonology is based on the segmentation of language into individual speech sounds provided by phonetics Unlike phonetics, however,... sounds? Lecture 1: 1.2 Branches of Phonetics The introduction of phonetics and the productions of speech sound: consonants and vowels 1.2.1 Articulatory phonetics Describing how sounds are made