Tài liệu Oxfore guide to english grammar part 58 docx

304 Differences with noun phrases 1 Group nouns The British can use a singular or a plural verb after a group noun. • 156 GB: The committee needs/need more time. Holland isn't/aren't going to win. The Americans prefer a singular verb. US: The committee needs/need more time. After a name the Americans always use a singular verb. US: Holland isn't going to win. 2 Two nouns together When we use two nouns together, the first is not normally plural: a grocery store, a word processor, • 147(4). There are some exceptions in Britain but Americans almost always use a singular noun. GB: a careers adviser an antique/antiques dealer US: a career counselor an antique dealer 3 The with musical instruments The British use the with a musical instrument (play the piano), but Americans sometimes leave it out (play piano). 4 The with hospital and university The British talk about a patient in hospital and a student at (the) university, • 168. Americans say that someone is in the hospital or at the university. 5 This and that on the telephone People in both countries say This is . to say who they are, but usage is different when they ask who the other person is. GB: Who is that? Mainly US: Who is this? 6 The pronoun one Americans do not often use one meaning 'people in general'; and they do not use one's or oneself. GB: One must consider one's legal position. US: You must consider your legal position. People must consider their legal position. PAGE 393 304 Differences with noun phrases 40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 394 7 Numbers The British use and between hundred and the rest of a number, but Americans can leave it out. GB/US: two hundred and fifty US only: two hundred fifty 8 Dates There are a number of different ways of saying and writing dates, • 195(2). Americans often say July fourth. In Britain the fourth of July and July the fourth are the most usual. 305 Differences with adjectives and adverbs 1 Well, ill etc The adjectives well, fine, ill and unwell referring to health usually come in predicative position. • 200(2) GB/US: Our secretary is ill. But they can be attributive, especially in America. Mainly US: an ill man NOTE Sick and healthy can go in both positions. In Britain be sick means to vomit, to bring up food. GB: Trevor's daughter was sick all over the carpet. 2 Adjectives and adverbs In informal speech we can sometimes use an adjective form instead of an adverb. Americans do this more than the British. GB/US: That was really nice of her. It certainly is raining. Mainly US: That was real nice of her. It sure is raining. 3 Somewhere and someplace In informal American English everyplace, someplace and noplace can be used as well as everywhere, somewhere and nowhere. GB/US: Let's go out somewhere. US only: Let's go out someplace. 306 Differences with prepositions 1 Out (of) and round/around The British normally say look out of the window, although look out the window is possible in informal speech. Americans prefer look out the window. The British say either round the park or around the park. Americans prefer around the park. 307 Differences with conjunctions 2 Except for and aside from Where the British use except for, Americans can also use aside from. GB/US: I'm all right now, except for a headache. US only: I'm all right now, aside from a headache. 3 Through and till/until Americans can use through for the time when something finishes. US: They will stay in New York (from January) through April. GB/US: They will stay in London (from January) till/until April. With through April, the time includes the whole of April. With until April they may leave before the end of April. We can also express the meaning of through like this. GB/US: They will stay in London until the end of April. In British English we can also use inclusive. This is rather formal. Mainly GB: Monday to Friday inclusive US only: Monday through Friday 4 Idiomatic uses GB US in Oxford Street at the weekend/at weekends a player in the team twenty (minutes) past ten ten (minutes) to three write to someone visit someone talk to someone protest about/against something on Fifth Avenue on the weekend/on weekends a player on the team twenty (minutes) past/after ten ten (minutes) to/of three write someone/write to someone visit someone/visit with someone talk to/with someone protest something protest about/against something 5 Prepositions after different GB: Your room is different from/to ours. US: Your room is different from/than ours. 307 Differences with conjunctions 1 Go/Come and . Americans can leave out and from this pattern. GB/US: Go and take a look outside. Mainly US: Go take a look outside. PAGE 395 2 In case and lest The British use in case meaning 'because something might happen', • 259(7). Americans use so or lest. Lest is formal. Mainly GB: Go quietly in case anyone hears you. GB/US: Go quietly so no one can hear you. Mainly US: Go quietly lest anyone hear you. (formal). In America, in case often means 'if. US: If you need/In case you need any help, let me know. 3 Immediately Americans do not use immediately as a conjunction. GB/US: As soon as I saw him, I recognized him. GB only: Immediately I saw him, I recognized him. 308 American spelling Some words end in our in Britain but in or in America: color, labor, neighbor. Some words end in tre in Britain but in ter in America: center, liter. Some verbs can end either with ize or with ise in Britain but only with ize in America: apologize, organize, realize. In Britain there is doubling of l in an unstressed syllable; • 293(3) Note. In some American words there is no doubling: marvelous, signaled, councilor. Here are some words with different spellings. GB US GB US analyse analyze labelled labeled apologize/apologise apologize labour labor axe axe/ax litre liter behaviour behavior marvellous marvelous catalogue catalog/catalogue metre (= 100 cm) meter centre center neighbour neighbor cheque (money) check organize/organise organize colour color plough plow councillor councilor practise (verb) practice (verb counsellor counselor practice (noun) and noun) defence defense/defence pyjamas pajamas dialogue dialog/dialogue realize/realise realize favour favor signalled signaled grey gray/grey skilful skillful honour honor theatre theater humour humor through through jail/gaol jail thru (informal) jeweller jeweler travelling traveling kerb (edge of curb tyre (on a wheel) tire pavement) 40 AMERICAN ENGLISH PAGE 396 PAGE 397 Glossary abstract noun See concrete noun. action verb a verb that refers to something happening or changing, e.g. do, walk, buy, speak • 62 active See passive. active participle the ing-form of a verb used after be in the continuous (I was watching) and in other patterns • 134 adding relative clause a clause with commas around it that adds extra information, e.g. Bernard, who was feeling unwell, left early. • 274 adjective a word like big, new, special, famous • 197 adjective phrase An adjective phrase is either an adjective on its own, e.g. sweet, tall, hopeful, or an adjective with an adverb of degree, e.g. very sweet, a lot taller, quite hopeful. adverb In the sentence The time passed slowly, the word slowly is an adverb. Adverbs are words like easily, there, sometimes, quite, possibly. They express ideas such as how, when or where something happens, or how true something is. adverb phrase An adverb phrase is either an adverb on its own, e.g. carefully, often, probably, or an adverb which is modified by an adverb of degree, e.g. very carefully, more often, quite probably. adverbial The adverb late, the phrase in a hurry and the clause because I was cold all function as adverbials in these sentences: The show started late. We did everything in a hurry. I put a coat on because I was cold. adverbial clause In the sentence I'll ring you when I get home, the clause when I get home functions as an adverbial. Compare I'll ring you later. • 248 agent The agent is the person, animal or thing doing the action. In an active sentence it is the subject: Max told me the news. In a passive sentence there is sometimes an agent after by: I was told the news by Max. agreement the choice of the correct verb form after a subject: My ear torts but My ears hurt. •150 apostrophe In the phrase Karen's friend there is an apostrophe between Karen and s. apposition In the sentence The Chairman, Mr Byers, was absent, the two noun phrases are in apposition. • 14 article A/an is the indefinite article, and the is the definite article. aspect A verb can have continuous aspect (is walking, was looking) or perfect aspect (has walked, had looked), or both (have been waiting). attributive the position of an adjective before a noun, e.g. a cold day auxiliary verb a verb such as be, have, do, will, can which we use with an ordinary verb • 60 (2) bare infinitive an infinitive without to, e.g. come, drive •115 base form the form of a verb without an ending, e.g. come, call, decide classifying relative clause a relative clause that tells us what kind is meant, e.g. a computer that will correct my spelling • 272 (3b) clause The sentence We stayed at home is a single clause. The sentence We stayed at home because it rained has two clauses. We stayed at home is the main clause, GLOSSARY PAGE 398 and because it rained is the sub clause. A clause always has a verb (stayed, rained). The verb can be finite or non-finite. In the sentence We all wanted to go out, there is a finite clause with wanted and a non-finite clause with to go. See finite. comment adverb e.g. luckily, incredibly • 215 comparative Comparative forms are older, more famous, more efficiently etc. • 217 complement a noun phrase or adjective phrase that comes after a linking verb such as be: You're the boss, Al looked unhappy, • 9. These complements relate to the subject; they are subject complements. See also object complement. compound a word made up of other words, e.g. something (some + thing), wristwatch (wrist + watch) concrete noun A concrete noun is a noun referring to something that we can see or touch, e.g. man, bottle, grass, shop. An abstract noun refers to an idea, quality or action, something we cannot see or touch, e.g. science, excitement, stupidity, routine. conditional clause a clause expressing a condition, e.g. If you need a ticket, I'll get you one. • 255 conjunction A conjunction is a word like and, but, because, when, that, which links two clauses. consonant See vowel. continuous a verb form with be and an active participle, e.g. The film is starting now. • 61(4) continuous infinitive e.g. to be doing, to be working co-ordinate clause a clause linked to another by and, but or or countable noun a noun that can be either singular or plural, e.g. bag(s), road(s), hour(s) • 144 definite article the word the degree An adverb of degree is a word like very, rather, quite. • 212 demonstrative This, that, these and those are demonstrative determiners or pronouns. • 175 determiner a word that can come before a noun to form a noun phrase, e.g. a, the, this, my • 143(2a) direct object See indirect object. direct speech See indirect speech. echo question a form which requests the repetition of information, e.g. She's gone to Siberia. ~ Where has she gone? • 35(1) echo tag a short question form expressing interest, e.g. I play chess. ~ Oh, do you? • 35(2) emphasis/emphatic/emphasize making a word or phrase more important, drawing special attention to a word or phrase emphatic pronoun a pronoun such as myself or themselves, emphasizing a noun phrase, e.g. The Queen herself visited the scene. •186 empty subject In the sentence It was raining, it is an empty subject. It has no meaning, but we use it because we need a subject. empty verb In expressions like have a wash, give a laugh, have and give are empty verbs. It is the nouns wash and laugh which express the action. • 87 end position at the end of a sentence exclamation a special pattern with how or what, e.g. What a time you've been! or any sentence spoken with emphasis and feeling, e.g. Quick! PAGE 399 GLOSSARY finite A finite verb is one like goes, waited, was causing, have seen, will be, can carry. It either has a tense (present or past) or a modal verb. It can be the verb in a simple one-clause sentence. A non-finite verb is an infinitive, gerund or participle, e.g. to go, waiting. A clause is a finite clause (she goes to college) or a non-finite clause (going to college), depending on whether the verb is finite or not. • 59 focus adverbial e.g. only, even, especially • 213 formal We speak in a more formal style to strangers than we do to our friends. We use formal language to be polite, or on official occasions. A business letter is more formal than a letter to a friend. I am afraid I have no information is more formal than Sorry, I don't know. frequency An adverbial of frequency tells us how often, e.g. always, twice a week • 211 front position at the beginning of a sentence full form See short form. future continuous a form with will + be + active participle: I will be playing golf all afternoon. • 75 future perfect a form with will + have + past participle: We will have saved enough money soon. • 79 gender The words waiter (male/masculine) and waitress (female/feminine) are different in gender. gerund the ing-form of a verb used like a noun, e.g. Sailing is fun. I've given up smoking. gerund clause a clause with a gerund as its verb, e.g. Running a business isn't easy. I like sitting outside. group noun (or collective noun) a noun referring to a group, e.g. team, gang, class, audience • 156 identifying relative clause (or defining relative clause) a relative clause that tells us which one is meant, e.g. the man who lives next door • 272(3a) idiom/idiomatic a group of words with a meaning which is different from the meanings of the individual words, e.g. come off (- succeed), make up your mind (= decide) imperative the base form of the verb used to give orders, express good wishes etc: Wait there. Have a good time. • 19 indefinite article a or an indirect object In the sentence They gave the children presents, the noun phrase presents is the direct object, and the noun phrase the children is the indirect object. The indirect object often expresses the person receiving something. • 10 indirect question How much is this picture? is a direct question. In an indirect question, we put the question in a sub clause: Could you tell me how much this picture is? indirect speech Direct speech is reporting someone's words by repeating them: 'I know the answer,' Karen said. Indirect speech is giving the meaning in our own words: Karen said she knew the answer. • 263 infinitive The infinitive is the base form of the verb, e.g. They let us stay the night. We often use it with to, e.g. They invited us to stay the night. • 115 infinitive clause a clause with an infinitive as its verb, e.g. He decided to open the box. You'll need to work hard. informal We use an informal style in everyday conversation and when we write to a friend. See also formal. . Holland isn't going to win. 2 Two nouns together When we use two nouns together, the first is not normally plural: a grocery store, a word processor,. active participle, e.g. The film is starting now. • 61(4) continuous infinitive e.g. to be doing, to be working co-ordinate clause a clause linked to another