Tài liệu Oxfore guide to english grammar part 55 doc

36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 372 h Noun + ly: friendly, costly, cowardly, neighbourly, monthly i Verb + able/ible: eatable, manageable, excusable, acceptable, comprehensible, defensible These mean that something 'can be done'. This sweater is washable. (= It can be washed.) But not all adjectives in able/ible have this meaning, e.g. pleasurable (= giving pleasure), valuable (= worth a lot). j Verb + ing: exciting, fascinating • 203 k Verb + ed: excited, fascinated • 203 6 Adverbs We form many adverbs from an adjective + ly, e.g. quickly. • 207 286 Vowel and consonant changes 2 There can be a different consonant sound. That's what I believe. That's my belief. Also: advise advice, descend descent, prove proof, speak speech 3 Sometimes more than one sound changes: choose choice, lend loan, 287 Words belonging to more than one class 1 Many words can be both verbs and nouns. Verb: You mustn't delay. I hope I win. Noun: a short delay my hope of victory Some words of this kind are answer, attack, attempt, call, care, change, climb, control, copy, cost, damage, dance, delay, doubt, drink, drive, experience, fall, help, hit, hope, interest, joke, laugh, look, love, need, promise, rest, ride, run, search, sleep, smile, sound, swim, talk, trouble, visit, wait, walk, wash, wish. NOTE For We swim/We have a swim, • 87. 2 Some verbs and nouns differ in their stress. The verb is usually stressed on the second syllable, and the noun is stressed on the first. Verb: How do you trans'port the goods? Noun: What 'transport do you use? live life , succeed success, think thought Also: blood bleed,food feed,full fill, lose loss, proud pride, sell sale, shoot shot, sing song, sit seat, tell tale 1 Sometimes two related words have a different vowel sound. It was very hot. We could feel the heat. Some words of this kind are conflict, contest, contrast, decrease, discount, export, import, increase, insult, permit, produce, progress, protest, rebel, record, refund, suspect, transfer, transport. NOTE For nouns formed from phrasal verbs, e.g. hold-up, •231(7). Some concrete nouns can also be verbs. He pocketed the money. (= put it in his pocket) We've wallpapered this room. (= put wallpaper on it) The man was gunned down. (= shot with a gun) The goods were shipped to America. (= taken by ship) Some others are bottle (wine), box, brake, butter (bread), garage (a car), glue, hammer, mail, oil, parcel, (tele)phone. Some adjectives can also be verbs. This wind will soon dry the clothes. (= make them dry) The clothes will soon dry. (= become dry) Some words of this kind are calm, cool, dry, empty, narrow, smooth, warm, wet. NOTE Some adjectives with similar meanings take en as verbs, e.g. widen. • 285(4b) 288 Nationality words 1 We form nationality words from the name of a country: Italy Italian, France French, Japan Japanese. We can use them in different ways. NOTE Some of these words do not refer to a political nation, e.g. European, Jewish. a As an adjective Italian food a French town Japanese technology a Russian novel b As the name of a language I learnt Italian at evening classes. Do you speak Russian? I don't know any Greek. c Referring to a specific person or group of people Debbie is married to an Italian. There are some Russians staying at the hotel. The Japanese were looking round the cathedral. d Referring to a whole people Italians are passionate about football. The French are proud of their language. These expressions take a plural verb. We can also say e.g. Italian people, Russian people. PAGE 373 288 Nationality words The stress can make a difference to the vowel sounds. For example, progress as a verb is and as a noun 36 WORD-BUILDING PAGE 374 2 There are different kinds of nationality words. a Many end in an: Italian, American, Mexican. We can add s to form a plural noun. Three Italians are doing the course. (The) Americans think they can see Europe in a week. NOTE a To this group also belong Greek, Czech, Thai, Arab and words ending in i, e.g. Pakistani, Israeli. The Greeks invented democracy. b The language of the Arabs is Arabic. b Some end in ese: Chinese, Portuguese. We cannot add s. Several Chinese (people) were waiting in the queue. When we talk about a whole people, we must use the or people. The Chinese welcome/Chinese people welcome western tourists. NOTE Swiss (= from Switzerland) also belongs in this group. c With some words, the adjective is different from the noun. She's Danish./She's a Dane. I like Danish people./I like (the) Danes. Also: Swedish/a Swede, Finnish/a Finn, Polish/a Pole, Spanish/a Spaniard, Turkish/a Turk, Jewish/a Jew. NOTE From Britain we form the adjective British. There are a lot of British people in this part of Spain. The nouns Brit and Briton are not very usual in spoken British English. There are a lot of Brits/Britons in this part of Spain. This usage is rather journalistic. Brit is informal. The Americans say Britisher. For the whole people we say the British. The British prefer houses to flats. d With some words, the noun has the suffix man He's English./He's an Englishman. Englishmen are reserved. Also: Welsh/a Welshman, Irish/an Irishman, French/a Frenchman, Dutch/a Dutchman. For a whole people, we can use the adjective with the or people. The English are/English people are reserved. NOTE a It is less usual to use woman as a suffix, but we can use an adjective + woman. The English woman works at the university. b When we talk about people from Scotland, we can use the adjective Scottish or the nouns Scot and Scotsman. He's Scottish./He's a Scot/He's a Scotsman. How do you like Scottish people/Scots? We use Scotch mainly in fixed expressions such as Scotch whisky. 288 Nationality words 3 Here is an overview of nationality words. Adjective Person/man A whole people Africa African an African Africans America American an American (the) Americans Arab/Arabic an Arab (the) Arabs Asia Asian an Asian Asians Australia Australian an Australian (the) Australians Austria Austrian an Austrian (the) Austrians Belgium Belgian a Belgian (the) Belgians Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian (the) Brazilians Britain British • (2c) Note the British China Chinese a Chinese the Chinese Czech Republic Czech a Czech (the) Czechs Denmark Danish a Dane (the) Danes England - English an Englishman the English Europe European a European Europeans Finland Finnish a Finn (the) Finns France French a Frenchman the French Germany German a German (the) Germans Greece Greek a Greek (the) Greeks Holland Dutch a Dutchman the Dutch Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian (the) Hungarians India Indian an Indian (the) Indians Ireland Irish an Irishman the Irish Israel Israeli an Israeli (the) Israelis Italy Italian an Italian (the) Italians Japan Japanese a Japanese the Japanese Jewish a Jew (the) Jews Mexico Mexican a Mexican (the) Mexicans Norway Norwegian a Norwegian (the) Norwegians Pakistan Pakistani a Pakistani (the) Pakistanis Poland Polish a Pole (the) Poles Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese the Portuguese Russia Russian a Russian (the) Russians Scotland Scottish a Scotia Scotsman (the) Scots Spain Spanish a Spaniard the Spanish Sweden Swedish a Swede (the) Swedes Switzerland Swiss a Swiss the Swiss Thailand Thai a Thai (the) Thais Turkey Turkish a Turk (the) Turks Wales Welsh a Welshman the Welsh PAGE 375 PAGE 376 37 Word endings: pronunciation and spelling 289 Summary Some words have grammatical endings. A noun can have a plural or possessive form: friends, friend's. A verb can have an s-form, ed-form or ing-form: asks, asked, asking. Some adjectives can have a comparative and superlative form: quicker, quickest. A word can also end with a suffix: argument, idealist, weekly, drinkable. When we add these endings to a word, there are sometimes changes in pronunciation or spelling. The s/es ending • 290 290 The s/es ending To form a regular noun plural or the s-form of a verb, we usually add s. rooms games looks opens hides After a sibilant sound we add es. kisses watches bushes taxes But if the word ends in e, we add s. places supposes prizes match matches The ed ending •291 wait waited Leaving out e • 292 make making insure insurance The doubling of consonants • 293 big bigger regret regrettable Consonant + y • 294 easy easily beauty beautiful 2 A few nouns ending in o add es. potatoes tomatoes heroes echoes But most add s. radios stereos pianos photos studios discos kilos zoos 291 The ed ending 1 The ed-form of most regular verbs is simply verb + ed. played walked seemed offered filled If the word ends in e, we add d. moved continued pleased smiled NOTE For the doubling of consonants before ed, • 293. For y before ed, • 294. 2 The ending is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound and 292 Leaving out e We normally leave out e when it comes before an ing-form. make making shine shining use using But we keep a double e before ing. see seeing agree agreeing When e comes before ed, er or est, we do not write a double e. type typed late later fine finest We usually leave out e before other endings that start with a vowel, e.g. able, ize, al. love lovable private privatize culture cultural NOTE PAGE 377 292 Leaving out e or after a sibilant. 3 The ending is pronounced /s/ after a voiceless sound, /z/ after a voiced sound and Voiceless: hopes , fits , clocks Voiced: cabs , rides , days , throws Sibilant: loses or , bridges or , washes or 4 The possessive form of a noun is pronounced in the same way. Mick's the teacher's Mrs Price's or But we do not write es for the possessive, even after a sibilant. Mr Jones's the boss's after /t/ or /d/. , guided, handed , expected waited jumped /pt/, baked /kt/, wished robbed /bd/, closed /zd/, enjoyed , allowed Voiceless: Voiced: or 1 2 3 But when a word ends in ce /s/ or ge , we keep the e before a or o. enforce enforceable courage courageous We can also keep the e in some other words: saleable/salable, likeable/likable, mileage/milage. 37 WORD ENDINGS PAGE 378 4 We keep e before a consonant. hate hates nice nicely care careful NOTE Exceptions are words ending in ue: argue argument, true truly, due duly. Also: whole wholly, judge judgment/judgement. 5 To form an adverb from an adjective ending in a consonant + le, we change e to y. simple simply possible possibly To form an adverb from an adjective in ic, we add ally. dramatic dramatically idiotic idiotically NOTE An exception is publicly. 293 The doubling of consonants 1 Doubling happens in a one-syllable word that ends with one written vowel and one written consonant, such as win, put, sad, plan. We double the consonant before a vowel. win winner put putting sad saddest plan planned NOTE 3 The rule about doubling is also true for words of more than one syllable, but only if the last syllable is stressed. for'get forgetting prefer preferred We do not usually double a consonant in an unstressed syllable. 'open 'opening 'enter 'entered NOTE In British English there is some doubling in an unstressed syllable. We usually double l. travel travelling tunnel tunnelled marvel marvellous jewel jeweller We also double p in some verbs. handicap handicapped worship worshipping But in the USA there is usually a single l or p in an unstressed syllable, e.g. traveling, worshiping. 4 When a word ends in ll and we add ly, we do not write a third l. full fully a Compare top tapping and tope taping. b The consonant also doubles before y: fog foggy. 2 We do not double y, w or x. stay staying slow slower fix fixed We do not double when there are two consonants. hold holding ask asking And we do not double after two written vowels. keep keeping broad broader . people in this part of Spain. The nouns Brit and Briton are not very usual in spoken British English. There are a lot of Brits/Britons in this part of Spain The British prefer houses to flats. d With some words, the noun has the suffix man He's English. /He's an Englishman. Englishmen are reserved.