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PUBLICATION Hai-Hoa, N., Huu Nghia, N., An, L.T., Ngoc Lan, T.T., Khanh Linh, D.V Simone Böhm (2018): Using remote sensing indices for mapping and monitoring spatialtemporal changes in coastal mangrove extents in Thanh Hoa province during 2005- 2018 Jounal of Geo-spatial Information Science (Submited and accepted to be reviewed) i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research is funded by Vietnam National Foundation for Science and Technology Development (NAFOSTED) under grant number 105.08-2017.05 With the consent of Vietnam Forestry University, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development faculty, we conducted the study “Using remote sensing indices for mapping and monitoring spatial-temporal changes in coastal mangrove extents in Thanh Hoa province during 2005- 2018” With this study, I am extremely grateful for the guidance, advice and the support of many people First, I would like to thank most sincerely and deeply to my mentor – Associate Professor Dr Hai-Hoa Nguyen, who gave helpful advices and strong supports during the implementation and completion of this study Also, I would like to thanks for the encouraging words, and suggestions of the teachers of the Forest Resources and Environment Management Faculty, Vietnam Forestry University that helped me complete the study with the best quality The study could not be finished and achieved the results without the enthusiastic help, friendliness, and hospitality of the local government and residents of two districts, namely Nga Son and Hau Loc, I would like give a big thanks and extreme appreciation to them I also would like to thanks to our family and friends who always supported and, encouraged me to perform and complete the study Because of the limited study duration as well as lacking awareness and knowledgewe are looking forward to receiving the comments, evaluation and feedback of teachers and friends to raise the quality of study and improve not only the professional knowledge but also the lacking skills of us in this study I sincerely thank you! ii TABLE OF CONTENTS PUBLICATION i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES vi LIST OF TABLES vi ABBREVIATION vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 GIS and Remote sensing data 2.1.1 Concept of GIS and remote sensing 2.1.2 Landsat image 2.1.3 Sentinel Satellite Image 2.1.4 Image classification approach 2.1.4.1 Vegetation indices 2.1.4.2 Supervised classification 2.1.4.3 Unsupervised classification 2.2 Overview of coastal mangrove 10 2.2.1 In the world 10 2.2.2 In Vietnam 11 2.3 Remote sensing application to mangrove management 12 2.3.1 In the world 12 2.3.2 In Vietnam 14 CHAPTER III RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 17 3.1 Goal and objectives 17 3.1.1 Goal 17 3.1.2 Specific objectives 17 3.2 Scope of study 18 3.3 Material and methodology 18 iii 3.3.1 Material description 19 3.3.1.1 Satellite Imagery 19 3.3.1.2 Secondary data collection 19 3.3.2 Fieldwork and data collection 19 3.3.2.1 Ground truthing 20 3.3.2.2 Interviews 20 3.3.2.3 Soil organic carbon sampling 21 3.3.3 Data analysis 21 3.3.3.1 Determining organic carbon 21 3.3.4 Image processing 22 3.3.4.1 Data pre-processing 22 3.3.4.2 Images classification 23 3.3.4.3 Accuracy assessment 25 3.3.4.4 Thematic maps construction and mangroves dynamics 25 CHAPTER IV NATURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS 27 4.1 Natural characteristics 27 4.1.1 Geographical conditions 27 4.1.2 Topography, climate, hydrology and natural resources 28 4.1.2.1 Topography 28 4.1.2.1 Climate 29 4.1.2.2 Hydrology 29 4.1.2.3 Natural resources 29 4.2 Socioeconomic and cultural conditions 31 4.2.1 Economic conditions 31 4.2.2 Social and cultural conditions 32 4.3 Roles of coastal mangroves 32 CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 34 5.1 Current status and the management scheme of mangrove 34 5.1.1 Historical background of mangrove dynamics in study sites 34 iv 5.1.2 Current status of mangrove forests 28 5.1.3 Management scheme in mangrove forests 30 5.2 Thematic maps using Image Classification 32 5.3 Quantification of coastal mangrove extents and drivers of changes 35 5.4 Soil organic carbon estimation 39 5.4.1 Soil organic carbon mapping 39 5.4.2 Evaluate accuracy of carbon stock map in Nguyen Binh: 40 5.4.3 Carbon price 42 5.5 Solutions for sustainable management 43 5.5.1 Shortcomings of mangrove management 43 5.5.2 Solutions for sustainable mangrove management 44 CHAPTER VI GENERAL CONCLUSION AND FURTHER STUDY 47 6.1 General conclusions 47 6.2 Limitation 48 6.3 Futher research 49 REFERENCES 50 APPENDIX 50 v LIST OF FIGURES Fig.3.1: Flow chart of constructing status maps and coastal mangrove extent 18 Fig.3.2: Plots for soil sample 21 Fig.5.1: Spatial distribution of coastal mangroves in study areas in 2018 28 Fig.5.2: Mangrove extents by different classification methods in April 2018 33 Fig.5.3: Mangroves cover changes over period 2015-2018 37 Fig.5.4: Soil organic carbon by IDW 40 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Sentinel Radiometric and spatial resolutions .7 Table 3.1: Remote sensing image collected in study 19 Table 3.2: Equations of vegetation indices used for estimating mangrove cover 24 Table 5.1: Past and present mangrove projects in Thanh Hoa province 27 Table 5.2: Accuracy assessment of map using different classification methods .29 Table 5.3: Structure characteristics of coastal mangrove forests 30 Table 5.4: Accuracy assessment of map using different classification methods 34 Table 5.5: Mangroves cover changes over period 2005-2018 36 Table 5.6: Soil organic carbon 40 Table 5.7: Accuracy assessment of map using IDW 41 Table 5.8: Absorbed and commercial value of carbon in study areas .43 vi ABBREVIATION CARE Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CMMB Community- Based Mangrove Management Board DRC Danish Red Cross ERTS Earth Resource Technology Satellite GIS Geographic Information System IDW Inverse distance weighted JRC Japanese Red Cross LULC Land Use/Land Cover MMS Multimission Modular Spacecraft MSI Multi-Spectral Instrument PFES Payment for forest environment services REDD+ Reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and foster conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks RS Remote sensing SLC Scan Line Corrector SWIR Shortwave Infrared TM Thematic Mapper VIs Vegetation Indices VNIR Visible and Near-Infrared VNRC Viet Nam Red Cross vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The coastal mangrove forests are one of the most productive ecosystems on this planet (Ramdani et al., 2018) that provide a wide range of ecological and economic products and services, and also support a variety of others coastal and marine ecosystems (Van Ieperen, 2012, Salem and Mercer, 2012, Viswanathan et al., 2011) Over the past five decades, discussions of mangrove ecosystems and management have focused on: the ability to fix, store and mineralize carbon; their nursery functions; shoreline protection, and their land-building capacity (Peneva-Reed, 2014, Lee et al., 2014, Viswanathan et al., 2011, Naciones et al., 2004, Field et al., 1998) Mangroves can be disturbed by natural events, such as typhoons and floods However, nearly all of the mangroves have experienced significant losses in recent decades under the economic and population pressure to meet the major demand for aquaculture and fishing In addition, it is estimated a world population growth with a peak of 9.22 billion in 2075 (Naciones et al., 2004), which leads to increasing pressures from human activities including over-harvesting, aquaculture, and coastal development interventions (Viswanathan et al., 2011) Besides, despite existing rules, regulations and policies, the management, and protection of mangrove resources are still poor and lack linkage among sectored, and studies have not brought specific solutions and practices It is estimated that about one-fifth of all mangroves have been lost since 1980 and nowadays, many remaining mangrove forests are considered degraded (Van Ieperen, 2012) Although the annual global rate of mangrove forest loss declined from just over 1% in the 1980s to 0.66% between 2000 and 2005, it is nevertheless still 3-5 times higher than the average rate of loss of all forest (Duke et al., 2014) The Vietnam War (1962-1971) resulted in the destruction of nearly 40% of mangrove forests in Southern Vietnam (Hong and San, 1993) Thanh Hoa province is located in the North Central region of Vietnam with 102 km of the coastline that has total wetlands and coastal mangrove forests about 1195.53 in 2018 included 967.53 of mangroves Thanh Hoa province is also considered to have a high potential for planning, restoration, and development of mangroves, thus promoting local people‟s livelihoods However, due to the shortage of investigation and studies in the mangrove sites, there are still a few comprehensive documents and information about mangroves in this study site In the last three decades, spatial technology has evolved dramatically to include a suite of sensors operating at a wide range of imaging scales with potential interest (Rogan and Chen, 2004) and this technology is widely applied not only in people „s lives today but also in the scientific research The remote sensing and Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies are a powerful tool that enables to capture, store, analyze and manage referenced data of the different objects in the Earth surface spatially (Zaman, No date) Particularly, remote sensing (RS) data is the primary source and a powerful application in investigating the change in forests (Singh, 1989, Lu et al., 2004) It has been identified as an effective tool to study, which otherwise makes it difficult to reach and difficult to penetrate mangroves along coastal areas (Green et al., 1998, Dat et al., 2000, Wang et al., 2003) In a few studies, a GIS and remote sensing data have been used for wetland cover mapping in Vietnam (Dat et al., 2000) This study is to quantify the extents of mangrove forest in the whole coastline of Thanh Hoa province for four different years (2005, 2010, 2015 and 2018) to understand mangrove dynamics over the last 13 years using freely available multi-temporal Landsat, Sentinel imageries and Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) maps by using Supervised classification, Unsupervised classification, NDVI, SAVI, MSAVI, IPVI, DVI, GNDV, BNDV, OSAVI, TVI, and EVI (Table 03) Therefore, by using Landsat and Sentinel imageries between 2005 and 2018, this study tends to quantify the change in mangroves extends based on the method, which has the highest accuracy and reliable for the study site The study then identifies drivers of changes in mangrove extents and suggests feasible solutions for enhancing mangrove management activities 41.Lee, S Y., Primavera, J H., Dahdouh‐Guebas, F., McKee, K., Bosire, J O., Cannicci, S., Marchand, C (2014) Ecological role and services of tropical mangrove ecosystems: a reassessment Global Ecology and Biogeography, 23(7), 726-743 42.Li, P., Jiang, L., & Feng, Z (2013) Cross-comparison of vegetation indices derived from Landsat-7 enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) and Landsat-8 operational land imager (OLI) sensors Remote Sensing, 6(1), 310-329 43.Liu, H., Ren, H., Hui, D., Wang, W., Liao, B., & Cao, Q (2014) Carbon stocks and potential carbon storage in the mangrove forests of China Journal of Environmental Management, 133, 86-93 44.Lu, D., Mausel, P., Brondizio, E., & Moran, E (2004) Change detection techniques International Journal of Remote Sensing, 25(12), 2365-2401 45.Lugo, A E., & Medina, E (2014) Mangrove forests Pages 343-352 in Encyclopedia of Natural Resources-Land Vol New York: Taylor and Francis 46.Muhsoni, F F., Sambah34, A., Mahmudi, M., & Wiadnya, D (2018) Comparison of different vegetation indices for assessing mangrove density using sentinel - imagery International Journal, 14(45), 42-51 47.Naciones, U., Social, A., & Naciones, U (2004) World population to 2300 (Vol 236): United Nations Publications 48.NEA (2003) Strategies for Wetland Management in Vietnam 49.Nguyen, H T., Yoneda, R., Ninomiya, I., Harada, K., Van Dao, T., Sy, T M., & Phan, H N (2004) The effects of stand-age and inundation on carbon accumulation in mangrove plantation soil in Namdinh, Northern Vietnam Tropics, 14(1), 21-37 50.Parsa, V A., & Salehi, E (2016) Spatio-temporal analysis and simulation pattern of land use/cover changes, case study: Naghadeh, Iran Journal of Urban Management, 5(2), 43-51 51.Pavlopoulos, A (1998) Evaluation and comparison of spatiotemporal data models 52.Peneva-Reed, E (2014) Understanding land-cover change dynamics of a mangrove ecosystem at the village level in Krabi Province, Thailand, using Landsat data GIScience & remote sensing, 51(4), 403-426 53.Peuquet, D J (2001) Making space for time: Issues in space-time data representation GeoInformatica, 5(1), 11-32 54.Pham, T D., Yoshino, K., Le, N N., & Bui, D T (2018) Estimating aboveground biomass of a mangrove plantation on the Northern coast of Vietnam using machine learning techniques with an 53 integration of ALOS-2 PALSAR-2 and Sentinel-2A data International Journal of Remote Sensing, 1-28 55.Phuc, T X., Nghi, T H., & Zagt, R (2013) Forest land allocation in Viet Nam: implementation processes and results Preservation, 2(15), 1,931,000 56.Phuong, D M., Hoa, L T K., & Hoang, L D (2014) Application remote sensing to map vegetation land-cover in Nghe An province 57.Primavera, J H (2000) Development and conservation of Philippine mangroves: institutional issues Ecological Economics, 35(1), 91106 58.Quang, N V., & Noriko, S (2008) Forest allocation policy and level of forest dependency of economic household groups: A case study in northern central Vietnam Small-scale Forestry, 7(1), 49-66 59.Ramdani, F., Rahman, S., & Giri, C (2018) Principal polar spectral indices for mapping mangroves forest in South East Asia: study case Indonesia International Journal of Digital Earth, 1-15 60.Renolen, A (1995) Temporal Maps and Temporal Geographical Information Systems (Review of Research) 61.Richards, J A., & Richards, J (1999) Remote sensing digital image analysis (Vol 3): Springer 62.Rogan, J., & Chen, D (2004) Remote sensing technology for mapping and monitoring land-cover and land-use change Progress in planning, 61(4), 301-325 63.Saleh, M (2007) Mangrove vegetation on Abu Minqar island of the Red Sea International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(23), 51915194 64.Salem, M E., & Mercer, D E (2012) The economic value of mangroves: a meta-analysis Sustainability, 4(3), 359-383 65.Sellis, T (1999) Research issues in spatio-temporal database systems Paper presented at the International Symposium on Spatial Databases 66.Shravan, K Y., Shubhangi, R., & Shyam, S R (2013) Remote sensing technology and applications International Journal of Advancements in Research & Techno, 2(10), 25-30 67.Singh, A (1989) Review article digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed data International Journal of Remote Sensing, 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Remote sensing of Environment, 75(2), 230-244 54 69.Svatonova, H (2016) Analysis of visual interpretation of satellite data The International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, 41, 675 70.Tuan, L., Yukihiro, M., Dao, Q., Tho, N., & Dao, P (2003) Environmental management in mangrove areas Environmental Informatics Archives, 1, 38-52 71.Tuan, L D., Oanh, K., Thanh, C., & Quy, N (2002) Can Gio mangrove biosphere reserve Oxfam America 72.Van Ieperen, W (2012) Plant morphological and developmental responses to light quality in a horticultural context Paper presented at the VII International Symposium on Light in Horticultural Systems 956 73.Van Lavieren, H., Spalding, M., Alongi, D M., Kainuma, M., Clüsener-Godt, M., & Adeel, Z (2012) Securing the future of mangroveS: United Nations University, Institute for Water, Environment and Health 74.Vien, T D (2008) Forestland Management Policies in Vietnam: An Overview The Centre for Agricultural Research and Ecological Studies (CARES), Hanoi University of Agriculture (HUA): Hanoi, Vietnam 75.Viswanathan, P., Pathak, K D., & Mehta, I (2011) Socio-Economic and Ecological Benefits of Mangrove Plantation: A Study of Community Based Mangrove Restoration Activities in Gujarat 76.Wang, D., & Cheng, B (2010) An unsupervised classification method of remote sensing images based on ant colony optimization algorithm Paper presented at the International Conference on Advanced Data Mining and Applications 77.Wang, F.-M., Huang, J.-F., Tang, Y.-L., & Wang, X.-Z (2007) New vegetation index and its application in estimating leaf area index of rice Rice Science, 14(3), 195-203 78.Wang, Y., Bonynge, G., Nugranad, J., Traber, M., Ngusaru, A., Tobey, J., Makota, V (2003) Remote sensing of mangrove change along the Tanzania coast Marine Geodesy, 26(1-2), 35-48 79.Xue, J., & Su, B (2017) Significant remote sensing vegetation indices: A review of developments and applications Journal of Sensors, 2017 80.Yuan, M (1996) Temporal GIS and spatio-temporal modeling Paper presented at the Proceedings of Third International Conference Workshop on Integrating GIS and Environment Modeling, Santa Fe, NM 81.Zaman, M (No date) GIS and Remote Sensing Applications in Natural Resources Management in Bangladesh 55 APPENDIX Appendix Coastal mangroves management survey I General information: Interviewer: Name: Interviewer: Name: Age: Job: Address: II Gender: Contents: Part 1: Assessment and awareness of local people about coastal mangroves Are there any projects applied in locality? What are they? Which was government or foreign organization proposes and fund that project? Who were involved in plantation mangroves in this project? How long did the project take to complete? Since then, Has the coastal mangrove protection managed closely? How does mangrove influence to local people? + If it is good, why? + If it is bad, why? In your opinion, what is lacking in the current mangroves conservation effort? (a) Public awareness programme (b) Community participatory approach (c) Political will (d) Scientific research (e) Law and legislation 56 (f) Coordination between relevant agencies Which you think is the most effective way to conserve mangroves? (a) Better law and legislation (b) Effective enforcement (c) Public awareness programme (d) Community participatory approach (e) Capacity building of the relevant agencies (f) Gazette mangroves as protected areas Which of the following will you choose to participate in to conserve our mangrove forests? (a) Mangrove seedlings planting (b) Donation for mangrove conservation (c) Ecological mangrove restoration (d) Mangroves clean up (e) Participate in mangrove awareness campaign Part 2: Policies of government and locality about coastal mangrove management before and during the period 2003-2014 History and contents of coastal mangroves management policies: Time.period Policies Before 2010 2010 - present 57 Name of Organization: Do Projects/supports bring any effectiveness? Yes No Do the local administration held activities which enhance awareness of local people about coastal mangroves management policies, annually? Yes No Appendix 2: GPS point ID 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Y 106.02463 106.02379 106.01529 106.02034 106.02074 106.01246 106.00746 105.94164 105.94569 105.94661 105.94792 105.95073 105.94948 105.9503 105.95165 105.97261 105.98113 106.00193 106.00783 106.02418 106.0104 106.00599 106.01491 106.01754 106.02438 106.02438 106.01177 106.00795 106.00578 106.0227 106.02389 106.02004 X 19.96163 19.95535 19.95378 19.9546 19.95918 19.95149 19.9558 19.88907 19.88926 19.88845 19.88993 19.89063 19.89398 19.90369 19.91244 19.93689 19.94116 19.94858 19.94734 19.95612 19.95172 19.95551 19.95636 19.95878 19.96078 19.96619 19.95869 19.95934 19.96108 19.96775 19.97463 19.97 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove 58 ID 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 Y 19.98323 19.98171 19.94981 19.94114 19.93919 19.94338 19.94316 19.94587 19.93993 19.94006 19.93573 19.93327 19.93308 19.93406 19.93055 19.91413 19.91693 19.90923 19.90592 19.90176 19.90576 19.89982 19.89368 19.89569 19.89826 19.89805 19.89072 19.89155 19.9492 19.9483 19.9469 19.94492 X 106.02233 106.02402 106.02297 106.02381 106.01803 106.0111 106.01872 106.01481 106.01281 105.99902 105.99851 105.99325 105.98551 105.98731 105.97842 105.95306 105.95855 105.95256 105.95465 105.95731 105.95952 105.95122 105.95517 105.95854 105.95681 105.96142 105.95567 105.95498 106.01808 106.01991 106.01911 106.01147 LULC Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water ID 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 Y 105.95167 105.94071 105.94616 105.946 105.9433 105.94706 105.94846 105.94834 105.94822 105.95004 105.95045 105.95018 105.95021 105.95109 106.01864 106.02452 106.01696 106.01715 106.01747 106.01758 106.0174 106.01729 106.01218 106.00885 106.00152 106.00204 105.99942 106.00729 106.01191 106.00418 106.00442 106.00589 106.01523 106.00823 106.00104 105.99959 106.00095 106.00079 105.99448 105.99525 105.99195 105.99006 105.99338 105.98115 105.98748 X 19.91434 19.88915 19.88911 19.88942 19.88873 19.88924 19.89201 19.89312 19.89427 19.89716 19.90249 19.90255 19.9069 19.91089 19.97054 19.96466 19.959 19.95817 19.9567 19.95634 19.95566 19.95521 19.95819 19.95687 19.95985 19.95869 19.94961 19.95932 19.96057 19.95191 19.96725 19.96055 19.95818 19.94816 19.95803 19.95452 19.95104 19.94453 19.94414 19.95066 19.94744 19.94661 19.94235 19.9411 19.94141 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove 59 ID 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 Y 19.94452 19.93286 19.93946 19.93163 19.93424 19.93424 19.92018 19.92189 19.89421 19.8952 19.89693 106.0251 106.0224 106.0118 106.0179 106.0027 106.0027 105.9976 105.9936 105.9935 105.9883 105.9778 105.9834 105.9747 105.9746 105.9678 105.9702 105.9625 105.9676 105.9562 105.9603 105.9603 105.9555 105.9621 105.9529 105.9587 105.9525 105.9569 105.9937 106.019 106.0244 106.0243 105.9463 105.9444 106.0145 X 106.02384 105.99613 105.98686 105.98109 105.97148 105.97148 105.95906 105.95991 105.95098 105.9505 105.95417 19.95358 19.957937 19.953968 19.945432 19.942793 19.947395 19.943315 19.943308 19.938356 19.942014 19.939137 19.936355 19.93198 19.936464 19.931471 19.929278 19.92853 19.928316 19.922511 19.923924 19.926764 19.917207 19.919395 19.916303 19.91587 19.910482 19.912366 19.94978 19.95935 19.96477 19.9725 19.889278 19.88934 19.958815 LULC Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others ID 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 Y 105.97691 105.97147 105.96978 105.95071 105.95045 105.95065 105.95043 105.94994 105.94878 105.95104 105.9505 105.94623 105.94812 105.94855 106.00113 106.00127 106.00146 105.99881 105.99873 105.99845 105.99152 105.99127 105.99152 105.94384 105.94407 105.94364 105.94378 105.94853 105.94885 105.94883 105.94875 105.94896 105.95054 105.99974 105.9964 105.99837 106.00266 106.00396 106.00802 106.00789 106.00645 106.00639 106.00648 106.00677 106.00718 X 19.93892 19.93568 19.93499 19.90852 19.90583 19.90125 19.89838 19.89617 19.89095 19.89135 19.89344 19.8888 19.8896 19.89464 19.95682 19.95676 19.95681 19.95069 19.95098 19.95099 19.94437 19.94411 19.94377 19.88929 19.88929 19.88928 19.88909 19.89412 19.89416 19.89398 19.8943 19.89418 19.91094 19.95659 19.97219 19.97153 19.9694 19.96813 19.95615 19.9554 19.95484 19.95466 19.95509 19.95502 19.95621 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove 60 ID 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 Y 106.0062 105.9972 105.9483 105.9629 106.0179 106.0189 105.9517 105.958 105.9527 105.9598 105.9586 105.9533 105.9505 105.9505 105.9507 105.9554 105.952 105.9522 105.9575 105.9553 105.9547 105.9508 105.9579 106.0041 106.0214 106.0259 106.0142 105.9418 105.9444 105.9467 105.9466 105.9497 105.9497 105.9496 105.9508 105.9524 105.9545 105.9584 105.9655 106.007 105.9691 105.9697 106.007 106.0195 106.0211 X 19.959251 19.950989 19.89663 19.92909 19.951 19.95318 19.91374 19.900927 19.898422 19.896997 19.908144 19.904372 19.900442 19.902211 19.903262 19.894768 19.892476 19.889329 19.904947 19.901694 19.908442 19.906302 19.920758 19.93637 19.941484 19.949261 19.94271 19.88961 19.88962 19.888532 19.889321 19.897285 19.898746 19.903086 19.911191 19.916827 19.921203 19.926502 19.932297 19.957534 19.93484 19.93599 19.95746 19.9654 19.97436 LULC Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others ID 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 Y 106.00902 106.00894 106.00924 106.00893 106.01658 106.01655 106.01659 106.01645 106.0241 106.02131 106.01744 106.01344 106.00631 106.00919 106.02459 106.02423 106.02435 106.02026 106.02072 106.02066 106.02099 106.02096 106.02096 106.01325 106.01326 106.01341 106.0134 106.01312 105.99986 105.99567 105.98418 105.99056 105.98161 105.98052 105.98073 105.98217 105.98333 105.98323 105.98367 105.98333 105.98706 105.99093 105.99161 105.99267 105.9929 X 19.95846 19.95823 19.95835 19.95871 19.95823 19.95848 19.95805 19.95813 19.96285 19.96009 19.9581 19.95635 19.95369 19.95871 19.96289 19.96289 19.96259 19.9607 19.96017 19.95999 19.95979 19.95994 19.95994 19.95656 19.95656 19.95671 19.95644 19.957 19.95141 19.94556 19.94155 19.94352 19.9393 19.94124 19.9413 19.94316 19.94214 19.94156 19.94194 19.94202 19.94512 19.94758 19.94655 19.94511 19.94526 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove 61 ID 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 Y 105.9601 105.9649 105.9792 105.9829 105.9871 105.9968 105.999 106.0131 105.9927 105.9961 106.0081 105.9803 105.9812 105.9826 105.9911 105.9482 105.9994 106.0047 106.007 106 105.9485 105.9505 105.9506 105.9515 105.9763 105.9792 105.992 105.9899 105.9874 105.9901 105.995 105.9981 105.9989 106.0012 106.0007 106.0019 106.0036 106.0034 106.0236 106.0223 106.0224 106.0228 106.0221 106.0233 106.0224 X 19.927955 19.931726 19.940803 19.943367 19.945243 19.952011 19.954676 19.961937 19.950093 19.951554 19.956714 19.941008 19.939823 19.939195 19.947126 19.89239 19.971274 19.967498 19.955654 19.956767 19.890185 19.890398 19.898082 19.904665 19.938116 19.939775 19.942881 19.941891 19.943597 19.947631 19.941216 19.950676 19.952384 19.959951 19.958547 19.95627 19.961603 19.966067 19.975274 19.962499 19.976657 19.979452 19.98127 19.970417 19.967272 LULC Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others ID 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 Y 106.00117 105.99961 105.99863 105.94282 105.94827 105.94925 105.94824 105.94805 105.94847 105.946 105.941 105.941 105.944 105.946 105.949 105.95 105.951 105.951 105.951 105.951 105.949 105.95 105.951 105.951 105.951 105.951 105.95 105.951 105.952 105.972 105.973 105.975 105.975 105.977 105.979 105.98 105.981 105.982 105.982 105.984 105.982 105.986 105.985 105.991 105.994 X 19.95994 19.95639 19.95078 19.88894 19.88919 19.89445 19.88936 19.88925 19.88943 19.8883 19.8888 19.8895 19.8896 19.8894 19.8889 19.8893 19.892 19.8936 19.8946 19.8955 19.8966 19.8943 19.8967 19.8976 19.8992 19.9016 19.9032 19.9097 19.9143 19.9346 19.9368 19.937 19.9386 19.9374 19.9378 19.9385 19.9406 19.9394 19.9424 19.94 19.943 19.9404 19.9438 19.9411 19.9405 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove 62 ID 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 Y 106.0127 106.0184 106.0179 106.0146 106.0227 106.0106 106.0063 106.0233 106.0242 106.0103 106.0136 106.0078 106.0124 106.0225 106.0006 106.0041 106.0059 106.0003 106.0185 106.0152 106.0122 106.0117 106.0222 106.0245 106.0233 106.0227 106.019 106.0154 106.0114 106.0045 105.9923 105.9914 105.9908 105.9908 105.9904 105.9857 105.9884 105.9786 105.973 105.9617 105.9577 105.9553 105.9545 105.956 105.9625 X 19.958571 19.961316 19.962673 19.961333 19.964826 19.957218 19.962027 19.955509 19.957217 19.948163 19.949415 19.943449 19.945876 19.951715 19.943074 19.939693 19.937928 19.938476 19.939314 19.939699 19.937636 19.939382 19.945769 19.943966 19.949374 19.948007 19.947105 19.937106 19.943829 19.941536 19.935977 19.930495 19.930665 19.930665 19.931605 19.931491 19.933048 19.928564 19.928953 19.921087 19.919098 19.919678 19.91758 19.914224 19.905517 LULC Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others ID 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 Y 105.996 106 106.007 106.011 106.016 106.02 106.025 106.023 106.01465 106.02271 106.02035 106.01516 106.01323 106.02194 106.01911 106.01708 106.0223 106.02231 106.02332 106.02308 106.02218 106.02229 106.02071 106.02082 106.01981 106.02178 106.02088 106.01379 105.99709 105.99795 106.00277 106.00416 106.00567 106.00432 106.00582 106.00307 106.00322 106.00278 106.02487 106.02499 106.02681 106.00871 105.9893 105.98794 105.98274 X 19.9408 19.9425 19.9452 19.9491 19.9521 19.9559 19.9563 19.9542 19.962 19.96982 19.97086 19.96092 19.95927 19.96402 19.96342 19.96341 19.96481 19.97461 19.97061 19.96846 19.96928 19.97158 19.97293 19.97365 19.97202 19.97214 19.96538 19.96124 19.97118 19.97028 19.9688 19.96764 19.96421 19.96312 19.95968 19.95904 19.95207 19.94793 19.96468 19.96145 19.94962 19.93773 19.93638 19.93236 19.93124 LULC Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Mangrove Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water 63 ID 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 Y 105.9607 105.9626 105.9605 105.9557 105.943 105.941 105.945 105.945 105.946 105.947 105.949 105.949 105.95 105.951 105.951 105.948 105.95 105.948 105.95 105.951 105.951 105.951 105.97 105.972 105.974 105.975 105.976 105.978 105.981 105.982 105.982 105.984 105.986 105.988 105.999 105.999 106.001 105.999 106.001 106 105.999 106.002 106.004 106.005 106.006 X 19.909701 19.902808 19.900015 19.890902 19.889099 19.888701 19.8883 19.888599 19.889299 19.889401 19.888599 19.889799 19.890699 19.8897 19.892901 19.893 19.8958 19.8951 19.896601 19.8995 19.904499 19.9098 19.935 19.936199 19.935499 19.937901 19.9387 19.9396 19.938801 19.940399 19.9415 19.941099 19.9443 19.9447 19.9424 19.9464 19.949301 19.9524 19.952299 19.951099 19.953501 19.958901 19.963699 19.959499 19.9601 LULC Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others ID 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 Y 105.97536 105.97203 105.96449 105.95802 105.96135 105.94034 105.94385 105.95057 105.95904 105.96401 105.95484 106.00607 106.02552 106.00341 106.00315 105.96958 105.95985 105.96401 105.96901 106.02418 19.961881 19.960644 19.962191 19.946679 19.977615 19.979585 19.98116 19.976068 19.978153 X 19.92748 19.9289 19.9256 19.92292 19.90271 19.88927 19.88796 19.88843 19.91026 19.92097 19.91841 19.94457 19.9569 19.9561 19.93902 19.92683 19.91531 19.91768 19.92415 19.9744 106.0172 106.0069 106.0061 106.0216 106.0232 106.0224 106.0231 106.023 106.0224 LULC Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water Water 64 ID 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 Y 106.006 106.007 106.008 106.005 106.007 106.008 106.01 106.009 106.012 106.016 106.012 106.017 106.017 106.017 106.019 106.023 106.024 106.024 106.025 106.013 106.016 106.017 106.02 106.021 106.024 106.023 106.022 106.02 106.023 106.022 X 19.957501 19.953699 19.955 19.9503 19.950501 19.947201 19.950501 19.9522 19.952101 19.953899 19.9564 19.957199 19.9601 19.956801 19.959999 19.958799 19.956699 19.9618 19.963499 19.9613 19.960699 19.9632 19.962799 19.966101 19.968201 19.969999 19.9725 19.9718 19.976601 19.979401 LULC Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Others Appendix 3: Soil organic carbon analysis 65 Appendix 4: Soil sampling 66 Appendix 5: Field survey 67 ... we conducted the study ? ?Using remote sensing indices for mapping and monitoring spatial-temporal changes in coastal mangrove extents in Thanh Hoa province during 2005- 2018? ?? With this study, I... borders Son La, Hoa Binh and Ninh Binh provinces in the north, Nghe An province in the south, and Hua Phan province in the west, and the Gulf of Tonkin in the west Thanh Hoa is located in the area... preventing Vietnam from catching up with the world and there are few researches in Thanh Hoa province Using remote sensing data to monitor spatial-temporal changes in extents of coastal mangroves in
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