20 19 Francium (223) Fr 87 Cesium 132.9055 Cs 55 Rubidium 85.4678 Rb 37 Potassium 39.0983 57 89 Radium (226) Actinium (227) Ac 88 Ra Lanthanum 138.9055 Barium 137.327 La 56 Ba Yttrium 88.9058 Strontium 87.62 H Li Be Na Mg K Ca Sc Rb Sr Y Cs Ba La Fr Ra Ac Ti Zr Hf Rf Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Pa U Np Pu AmCm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr He B C N O F Ne Al Si P S Cl Ar V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg — — — — — — 6B (6) 7B (7) Thorium 232.0381 Th 90 Cerium 140.116 58 Ce Dubnium (268) 105 Db Tantalum 180.9479 73 Ta Niobium 92.9064 41 Nb Vanadium 50.9415 V 23 43 Tc Manganese 54.9380 25 Mn 8B (8) 92 91 61 Pm Hassium (277) 108 Hs Osmium 190.23 76 Os Ruthenium 101.07 44 Ru Iron 55.845 26 Fe Protactinium 231.0359 Pa Uranium 238.0289 U 8B (9) 8B (10) 1B (11) 2B (12) 47 111 Rg 110 Ds Gold 196.9666 79 Au Silver 107.8682 Platinum 195.084 78 Pt Palladium 106.42 Ag 46 Pd Copper 63.546 29 Cu Nickel 58.6934 28 Ni Plutonium (244) 94 Pu Samarium 150.36 62 Sm 96 Americium (243) Curium (247) Cm 95 Am Gadolinium 157.25 64 Gd Europium 151.964 63 Eu Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium (281) (280) (276) 109 Mt Iridium 192.217 77 Ir Rhodium 102.9055 45 Rh Cobalt 58.9332 27 Co Berkelium (247) 97 Bk Terbium 158.9254 65 Tb — (285) 112 — Mercury 200.59 80 Hg Cadmium 112.411 48 Cd Zinc 65.38 30 Zn Californium (251) 98 Cf Dysprosium 162.500 66 Dy — (284) 113 — Thallium 204.3833 81 Tl Indium 114.818 49 In Gallium 69.723 31 Ga Aluminum 26.9815 Einsteinium (252) 99 Es Holmium 164.9303 67 Ho — (287) 114 — Lead 207.2 82 Pb Tin 118.710 50 Sn Germanium 72.64 32 Ge Silicon 28.0855 Fermium (257) 100 Fm Erbium 167.259 68 Er — (288) 115 — Bismuth 208.9804 83 Bi Antimony 121.760 51 Sb Arsenic 74.9216 33 As Phosphorus 30.9738 P 15 Nitrogen 14.0067 N 5A (15) Mendelevium (258) 101 Md Thulium 168.9342 69 Tm — (293) 116 — Polonium (209) 84 Po Tellurium 127.60 52 Te Selenium 78.96 34 Se Sulfur 32.065 S 16 Oxygen 15.9994 O 6A (16) 36 Nobelium (259) 102 No Ytterbium 173.054 70 Yb Astatine (210) 85 At Iodine 126.9045 I 53 Bromine 79.904 Lr Lawrencium (262) 103 Lutetium 174.9668 71 Lu — (294) 118 — Radon (222) 86 Rn Xenon 131.293 54 Xe Krypton 83.798 Kr 35 Br Argon 39.948 18 Ar Neon 20.1797 10 Ne Helium 4.0026 He 8A (18) Chlorine 35.453 17 Cl Fluorine 18.9984 F 7A (17) Elements for which the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has officially sanctioned the discovery and approved a name are indicated by their chemical symbols in this table Elements that have been reported in the literature but not yet officially sanctioned and named are indicated by atomic number The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC Neptunium (237) 93 Np Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium 140.9076 144.242 (145) Nd 60 Bohrium (272) 107 Bh Rhenium 186.207 75 Re Pr 59 Seaborgium (271) 106 Sg Tungsten 183.84 74 W Molybdenum Technetium 95.96 (98) 42 Mo Chromium 51.9961 24 Cr This icon appears throughout the book to help locate elements of interest in the periodic table The halogen group is shown here Actinides Lanthanides Rutherfordium (267) Rf 104 Hafnium 178.49 72 Hf Zirconium 91.224 Zr 40 Y 39 38 Sr Titanium 47.867 22 Ti Scandium 44.9559 21 Sc Calcium 40.078 Ca Magnesium 24.3050 K 5B (5) 14 Si 13 Al 12 Mg Carbon 12.0107 Boron 10.811 C 4A (14) Beryllium 9.0122 B Be 4B (4) Nonmetals, noble gases Metalloids 3A (13) 3B (3) An element Transition metals Main group metals 2A (2) Sodium 22.9898 Na 11 Lithium 6.941 Li 1A (1) Numbers in parentheses are mass numbers of radioactive isotopes H Hydrogen 1.0079 Atomic number Symbol Name Atomic weight 7 3:40 PM Group number, IUPAC system Au Gold 196.9665 79 1/28/10 Group number, U.S system Period number KEY PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS FES.qxd Page FES.qxd 1/28/10 3:40 PM Page Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements 2009, IUPAC Name Actinium2 Aluminum Americium2 Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine2 Barium Berkelium2 Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium2 Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium2 Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copper Curium2 Darmstadtium2 Dubnium2 Dysprosium Einsteinium2 Erbium Europium Fermium2 Fluorine Francium2 Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium2 Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium2 Lead Lithium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium2 Mendelevium2 Mercury Symbol Atomic Number Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B Br Cd Ca Cf C Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lu Mg Mn Mt Md Hg 89 13 95 51 18 33 85 56 97 83 107 35 48 20 98 58 55 17 24 27 29 96 110 105 66 99 68 63 100 87 64 31 32 79 72 108 67 49 53 77 26 36 57 103 82 71 12 25 109 101 80 Based on Relative Atomic Mass of C ϭ 12, where 12 in its nuclear and electronic ground state.1 Atomic Weight (227) 26.981 5386(8) (243) 121.760(1) 39.948(1) 74.921 60(2) (210) 137.327(7) (247) 9.012 182(3) 208.980 40(1) (272) 10.811(7) 79.904(1) 112.411(8) 40.078(4) (251) 12.0107(8) 140.116(1) 132.905 4519(2) 35.453(2) 51.9961(6) 58.933 195(5) 63.546(3) (247) (281) (268) 162.500(1) (252) 167.259(3) 151.964(1) (257) 18.998 4032(5) (223) 157.25(3) 69.723(1) 72.64(1) 196.966 569(4) 178.49(2) (277) 4.002 602(2) 164.930 32(2) 1.00794(7) 114.818(3) 126.904 47(3) 192.217(3) 55.845(2) 83.798(2) 138.905 47(7) (262) 207.2(1) [6.941(2)]† 174.9668(1) 24.3050(6) 54.938 045(5) (276) (258) 200.59(2) Name Molybdenum Neodymium Neon Neptunium2 Nickel Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium2 Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium2 Polonium2 Potassium Praseodymium Promethium2 Protactinium2 Radium2 Radon2 Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium2 Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium2 Samarium Scandium Seaborgium2 Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium2 Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium2 Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium2 Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium —2,3,4 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 —2,3 Symbol Mo Nd Ne Np Ni Nb N No Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S Ta Tc Te Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U V Xe Yb Y Zn Zr 12 C is a neutral atom Atomic Number 42 60 10 93 28 41 102 76 46 15 78 94 84 19 59 61 91 88 86 75 45 111 37 44 104 62 21 106 34 14 47 11 38 16 73 43 52 65 81 90 69 50 22 74 92 23 54 70 39 30 40 112 113 114 115 116 118 Atomic Weight 95.96(2) 144.242(3) 20.1797(6) (237) 58.6934(4) 92.906 38(2) 14.0067(2) (259) 190.23(3) 15.9994(3) 106.42(1) 30.973 762(2) 195.084(9) (244) (209) 39.0983(1) 140.907 65(2) (145) 231.035 88(2) (226) (222) 186.207(1) 102.905 50(2) (280) 85.4678(3) 101.07(2) (267) 150.36(2) 44.955 912(6) (271) 78.96(3) 28.0855(3) 107.8682(2) 22.989 769 28(2) 87.62(1) 32.065(5) 180.947 88(2) (98) 127.60(3) 158.925 35(2) 204.3833(2) 232.038 06(2) 168.934 21(2) 118.710(7) 47.867(1) 183.84(1) 238.028 91(3) 50.9415(1) 131.293(6) 173.054(5) 88.905 85(2) 65.38(2) 91.224(2) (285) (284) (287) (288) (293) (294) The atomic weights of many elements vary depending on the origin and treatment of the sample This is particularly true for Li; commercially available lithium-containing materials have Li atomic weights in the range of 6.939 and 6.996 Uncertainties are given in parentheses following the last significant figure to which they are attributed Elements with no stable nuclide; the value given in parentheses is the atomic mass number of the isotope of longest known half-life However, three such elements (Th, Pa, and U) have a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, and the atomic weight is tabulated for these Not yet named The name copernicium was proposed for element 112 in July 2009, but at that time this name had not been officially accepted by IUPAC Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page i FOURTH EDITION Chemistry THE MOLECULAR SCIENCE John W Moore University of Wisconsin–Madison Conrad L Stanitski Franklin and Marshall College Peter C Jurs Pennsylvania State University Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party may be suppressed Edition review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the over all learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove the contents from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate format, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page ii Chemistry: The Molecular Science, Fourth Edition John W Moore, Conrad L Stanitski, Peter C Jurs Publisher: Mary Finch Executive Editor: Lisa M Lockwood Acquisitions Editor: Kilean Kennedy Senior Developmental Editor: Peter McGahey Assistant Editors: Ashley Summers, Liz Woods Editorial Assistant: Laura Bowen © 2011, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as 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Stephen Battisti, Cindy Stein, and David Hart in the Center for Educational Software Development at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and Cow Town Productions Cover Designer: John Walker Cover Image: All Images © John W Moore and James H Maynard, University of Wisconsin–Madison Compositor: Graphic World Inc Library of Congress Control Number: 2009939226 ISBN-13: 9781439049303 ISBN-10: 1-4390-4930-0 Brooks/Cole 20 Davis Drive Belmont, CA 94002 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd To learn more about Brooks/Cole, visit www.cengage.com/brookscole Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.CengageBrain.com Printed in the United States of America 14 13 12 11 10 Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page iii To All Students of Chemistry We intend that this book will help you to discover that chemistry is relevant to your lives and careers, full of beautiful ideas and phenomena, and of great benefit to society May your study of this fascinating subject be exciting, successful, and fun! We thank our wives—Betty (JWM), Barbara (CLS), and Elaine (PCJ)—for their patience, support, understanding, and love It does not harm to the mystery to know a little more about it Richard Feynman Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page iv © Dr Donal R Neu About the Authors John Moore, Conrad Stanitski, and Peter Jurs John W Moore received an A.B magna cum laude from Franklin and Marshall College and a Ph.D from Northwestern University He held a National Science Foundation (NSF) postdoctoral fellowship at the University of Copenhagen and taught at Indiana University and Eastern Michigan University before joining the faculty of the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1989 At the University of Wisconsin, Dr Moore is W T Lippincott Professor of Chemistry and Director of the Institute for Chemical Education He was Editor of the Journal of Chemical Education (JCE) from 1996 to 2009 Among his many awards are the American Chemical Society (ACS) George C Pimentel Award in Chemical Education and the James Flack Norris Award for Excellence in Teaching Chemistry He is a Fellow of the ACS and of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) In 2003 he won the Benjamin Smith Reynolds Award at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in recognition of his excellence in teaching chemistry to engineering students Dr Moore has recently received the third in a series of major grants from the NSF to support development of online chemistry learning materials for the NSF-sponsored National Science Distributed Learning (NSDL) initiative Conrad L Stanitski is Distinguished Emeritus Professor of Chemistry at the University of Central Arkansas and is currently Visiting Professor at Franklin and Marshall College He received his B.S in Science Education from Bloomsburg State College, M.A in Chemical Education from the University of Northern Iowa, and Ph.D in Inorganic Chemistry from the University of Connecticut He has co-authored chemistry textbooks for science majors, allied health science students, nonscience majors, and high school chemistry students Dr Stanitski has won many teaching awards, including the CMA CATALYST National Award for Excellence in Chemistry Teaching, the Gustav Ohaus–National Science Teachers Association Award for Creative Innovations in College Science Teaching, the Thomas R Branch Award for Teaching Excellence and the Samuel Nelson Gray Distinguished Professor Award from Randolph-Macon College, and the 2002 Western Connecticut ACS Section Visiting Scientist Award He was Chair of the American Chemical Society Division of Chemical Education (2001) and has been an elected Councilor for that division He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) An instrumental and vocal performer, he also enjoys jogging, tennis, rowing, and reading Peter C Jurs is Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at the Pennsylvania State University Dr Jurs earned his B.S in Chemistry from Stanford University and his Ph.D in Chemistry from the University of Washington He then joined the faculty of Pennsylvania State University, where he has been Professor of Chemistry since 1978 Jurs’s research interests have focused on the application of computational methods to chemical and biological problems, including the development of models linking molecular structure to chemical or biological properties (drug design) For this work he was awarded the ACS Award for Computers in Chemistry in 1990 Dr Jurs has been Assistant Head for Undergraduate Education at Penn State, and he works with the Chemical Education Interest Group to enhance and improve the undergraduate program In 1995 he was awarded the C I Noll Award for Outstanding Undergraduate Teaching Dr Jurs serves as an elected Councilor for the American Chemical Society Computer Division, and he was recently selected as a Fellow of the ACS iv Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page v Contents Overview 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 The Nature of Chemistry Atoms and Elements 40 Chemical Compounds 75 Quantities of Reactants and Products 120 Chemical Reactions 161 Energy and Chemical Reactions 211 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 271 Covalent Bonding 327 Molecular Structures 375 Gases and the Atmosphere 424 Liquids, Solids, and Materials 478 Fuels, Organic Chemicals, and Polymers 533 Chemical Kinetics: Rates of Reactions 592 Chemical Equilibrium 655 The Chemistry of Solutes and Solutions 707 Acids and Bases 753 Additional Aqueous Equilibria 804 Thermodynamics: Directionality of Chemical Reactions 849 Electrochemistry and Its Applications 901 Nuclear Chemistry 957 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements 995 Chemistry of Selected Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds 1037 Appendices A–J A.1 Appendix K: Answers to Problem-Solving Practice Problems A.44 Appendix L: Answers to Exercises A.62 Appendix M: Answers to Selected Questions for Review and Thought A.81 Glossary G.1 Index I.1 v Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part 49303_FM_i-xxxviii.qxd 2/4/10 12:17 PM Page vi Detailed Contents The Nature of Chemistry 2.6 Isotopes and Atomic Weight 56 2.7 Amounts of Substances: The Mole 59 1.1 Why Care About Chemistry? 2.8 Molar Mass and Problem Solving 61 1.2 Molecular Medicine 2.9 The Periodic Table 62 1.3 How Science Is Done PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST 1.4 Identifying Matter: Physical Properties TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY 1.5 Chemical Changes and Chemical Properties 11 Ernest Rutherford 45 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy 46 CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS The Kilogram Redefined 50 Mass Spectrometer 56 1.6 Classifying Matter: Substances and Mixtures 13 TOOLS OF CHEMISTRY 1.7 Classifying Matter: Elements and Compounds 15 PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Dmitri Mendeleev 62 CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Periodic Table Stamp 66 1.8 Nanoscale Theories and Models 17 CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Preparing a Pure Sample of an Element 67 ESTIMATION 1.9 The Atomic Theory 21 1.10 The Chemical Elements 23 1.11 Communicating Chemistry: Symbolism 27 The Size of Avogadro’s Number 60 Chemical Compounds 75 3.1 Molecular Compounds 76 1.12 Modern Chemical Sciences 29 PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Susan Band Horwitz 3.2 Naming Binary Inorganic Compounds 79 CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Atomic Scale Electric Switches 21 3.3 Hydrocarbons 80 ESTIMATION How Tiny Are Atoms and Molecules? 23 3.4 Alkanes and Their Isomers 83 Sir Harold Kroto 26 3.5 Ions and Ionic Compounds 85 PORTRAIT OF A SCIENTIST Atoms and Elements 3.6 Naming Ions and Ionic Compounds 91 40 3.7 Ionic Compounds: Bonding and Properties 94 2.1 Atomic Structure and Subatomic Particles 41 3.8 Moles of Compounds 98 3.9 Percent Composition 103 2.2 The Nuclear Atom 43 2.3 The Sizes of Atoms and the Units Used to Represent Them 45 2.4 Uncertainty and Significant Figures 50 2.5 Atomic Numbers and Mass Numbers 53 3.10 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas 104 3.11 The Biological Periodic Table 107 ESTIMATION Number of Alkane Isomers 85 CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS ESTIMATION CHEMISTRY YOU CAN DO Pumping Iron: How Strong Is Your Breakfast Cereal? 109 CHEMISTRY IN THE NEWS Removing Arsenic from Drinking Water 109 IBM Almaden Labs Airport Runway Deicer Shortage 93 Is Each Snowflake Unique? 99 Quantities of Reactants and Products 120 4.1 Chemical Equations 121 4.2 Patterns of Chemical Reactions 122 vi Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning, Inc All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part ... situations in chemistry, to other sciences and engineering, and to other disciplines, • Knowledge of the many practical applications of chemistry in other sciences, in engineering, and in other fields,... Exercises, and End-of-Chapter Questions are all designed to stimulate active thinking and participation by students as they read the text and to help them hone their understanding of concepts The grand... • An understanding of the most important concepts and models used by chemists and scientists in chemistry- related fields, • The ability to apply the facts, concepts, and models of chemistry appropriately