Chemistry the molecular nature of matter and change with advanced topics by martin silberberg

Silberberg ~ Amateis CHEMISTRY The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change Advanced Topics 8e Period Be 91.22 72 88.91 57 38 Sr 87.62 37 Rb 85.47 (226) (223) Actinides Ra Fr 89 88 87 Lanthanides 138.9 137.3 132.9 Cr 24 6B (6) Mn 25 7B (7) Fe 26 (8) 59 Pr 140.9 91 Pa (231) 58 140.1 90 Th 232.0 Co 27 8B (9) 29 Cu 28 Ni 1B (11) (10) Zn 30 2B (12) Mo 42 (268) Db 105 180.9 Ta 73 (271) Sg 106 183.8 W 74 92.91 95.96 Nb 41 (270) Bh 107 186.2 Re 75 (98) Tc 43 (277) Hs 108 190.2 Os 76 101.1 Ru 44 60 238.0 U 92 144.2 Nd 61 (237) Np 93 (145) Pm 62 63 (244) (243) Am 95 94 Pu 152.0 Eu 150.4 Sm (247) Cm 96 157.3 Gd 64 (276) Mt 109 192.2 Ir 77 102.9 Rh 45 (247) Bk 97 158.9 Tb 65 (281) 110 Ds 195.1 Pt 78 106.4 Pd 46 (251) Cf 98 162.5 Dy 66 (280) 111 Rg 197.0 Au 79 107.9 Ag 47 P 15 14.01 N 5A (15) 31 Ga Tl 81 114.8 In 49 32 (252) Es 99 164.9 Ho 67 (285) 112 Cn S 16 16.00 O 6A (16) Cl 17 19.00 F 7A (17) Ar 18 20.18 Ne 10 4.003 He 8A (18) 33 As (257) Fm 100 167.3 Er 68 (284) 113 Nh 34 Se 35 Br Kr 36 Pb 82 118.7 Sn 50 Bi 83 121.8 Sb 51 (258) Md 101 168.9 Tm 69 (289) Fl 114 (259) No 102 173.1 Yb 70 (288) 115 Mc (262) Lr 103 175.0 Lu 71 (293) Lv 116 (209) Po 84 127.6 Te 52 (294) Ts 117 (210) At 85 126.9 I 53 (294) Og 118 (222) Rn 86 131.3 Xe 54 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80 Ge 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 Hg 80 112.4 Cd 48 Si 14 12.01 C 4A (14) MAIN–GROUP ELEMENTS 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95 Al 13 10.81 B 3A (13) 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 V 23 5B (5) Metals (main-group) Metals (transition) Metals (inner transition) Metalloids Nonmetals TRANSITION ELEMENTS INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS (265) Rf 104 178.5 Hf Zr 40 Ce (227) Ac La 56 Ba 55 Cs Y 39 44.96 47.87 Ti 22 40.08 Sc 39.10 21 4B (4) 20 24.31 22.99 Ca Mg Na K 12 11 19 3B (3) Be 9.012 Atomic mass (amu) Atomic symbol Atomic number Periodic Table of the Elements 9.012 Li 6.941 2A (2) 1.008 H 1A (1) MAIN–GROUP ELEMENTS The Elements Atomic Symbol Number Name Actinium Aluminum Americium Antimony Argon Arsenic Astatine Barium Berkelium Beryllium Bismuth Bohrium Boron Bromine Cadmium Calcium Californium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Copernicium Copper Curium Darmstadtium Dubnium Dysprosium Einsteinium Erbium Europium Fermium Flevorium Fluorine Francium Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafnium Hassium Helium Holmium Hydrogen Indium Iodine Iridium Iron Krypton Lanthanum Lawrencium Lead Lithium Livermorium Lutetium Magnesium Manganese Meitnerium Ac Al Am Sb Ar As At Ba Bk Be Bi Bh B   Br Cd Ca Cf C   Ce Cs Cl Cr Co Cn Cu Cm Ds Db Dy Es Er Eu Fm Fl F Fr Gd Ga Ge Au Hf Hs He Ho H In I Ir Fe Kr La Lr Pb Li Lv Lu Mg Mn Mt Atomic Mass*  89 (227)  13          26.98  95  (243)  51      121.8  18          39.95  33          74.92  85   (210)  56      137.3  97 (247)   4              9.012  83      209.0 107  (267)    5          10.81  35          79.90  48      112.4  20          40.08  98   (249)    6          12.01  58      140.1  55      132.9  17          35.45  24          52.00  27          58.93 112   (285)  29          63.55  96   (247) 110   (281) 105   (262)  66      162.5  99   (254)  68      167.3  63      152.0 100   (253) 114  (289)    9          19.00  87    (223)  64      157.3  31          69.72  32          72.61  79      197.0  72      178.5 108   (277)   2              4.003  67      164.9    1              1.008  49      114.8  53      126.9  77      192.2  26          55.85  36          83.80  57      138.9 103   (257)  82      207.2   3              6.941 116  (293)  71      175.0  12          24.31  25          54.94 109    (268) Atomic Symbol Number Name Mendelevium Mercury Molybdenum Moscovium Neodymium Neon Neptunium Nickel Nihonium Niobium Nitrogen Nobelium Oganesson Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Plutonium Polonium Potassium Praseodymium Promethium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Roentgenium Rubidium Ruthenium Rutherfordium Samarium Scandium Seaborgium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Technetium Tellurium Tennessine Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium Md Hg Mo Mc Nd Ne Np Ni Nh Nb N No Og Os O Pd P Pt Pu Po K   Pr Pm Pa Ra Rn Re Rh Rg Rb Ru Rf Sm Sc Sg Se Si Ag Na Sr S   Ta Tc Te Ts Tb Tl Th Tm Sn Ti W U   V   Xe Yb Y   Zn Zr *All atomic masses are given to four significant figures Values in parentheses represent the mass number of the most stable isotope Atomic Mass* 101    (256)  80      200.6  42          95.94 115  (288)  60      144.2  10          20.18  93   (244)  28          58.70 113  (284)  41          92.91   7          14.01 102   (253) 118  (294)  76      190.2    8          16.00  46      106.4  15          30.97  78      195.1  94   (242)  84   (209)  19          39.10  59      140.9  61   (145)  91   (231)  88   (226)  86   (222)  75      186.2  45      102.9 111   (272)  37          85.47  44      101.1 104   (263)  62      150.4  21          44.96 106   (266)  34          78.96  14          28.09  47      107.9  11          22.99  38          87.62  16          32.07  73      180.9  43    (98)  52      127.6 117  (294)  65      158.9  81      204.4  90      232.0  69      168.9  50      118.7  22          47.88  74      183.9  92      238.0  23          50.94  54      131.3  70      173.0  39          88.91  30          65.41  40          91.22 CHEMISTRY: THE MOLECULAR NATURE OF MATTER AND CHANGE WITH ADVANCED TOPICS, EIGHTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill Education, Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121 Copyright © 2018 by ­McGraw-Hill Education All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Previous editions © 2016, 2012, and 2009 No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or ­broadcast for distance learning Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States This book is printed on acid-free paper LWI 21 20 19 18 17 ISBN 978-1-259-74109-8 MHID 1-259-74109-5 Chief Product Officer, SVP Products & Markets: G Scott Virkler Vice President, General Manager, Products & Markets: Marty Lange Vice President, Content Design & Delivery: Betsy Whalen Managing Director: Thomas Timp Director: David Spurgeon, Ph.D Director, Product Development: Rose Koos Associate Director of Digital Content: Robin Reed Marketing Manager: Matthew Garcia Market Development Manager: Shannon O’Donnell Director of Digital Content: Shirley Hino, Ph.D Digital Product Developer: Joan Weber Director, Content Design & Delivery: Linda Avenarius Program Manager: Lora Neyens Content Project Managers: Laura Bies, Tammy Juran & Sandy Schnee Buyer: Sandy Ludovissy Design: David W Hash Content Licensing Specialists: Ann Marie Jannette & Lorraine Buczek Cover Image: â Don Farrall/Photographers Choice RF/Getty Images Compositor: Aptarađ, Inc Printer: LSC Communications All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Silberberg, Martin S (Martin Stuart), 1945- | Amateis, Patricia Title: Chemistry : the molecular nature of matter and change : with advanced   topics / Silberberg, Amateis Description: 8e [8th edition, revised] | New York, NY : McGraw-Hill Education, [2018] |   Includes index Identifiers: LCCN 2017009580| ISBN 9781259741098 (alk paper) | ISBN   1259741095 (alk paper) Subjects: LCSH: Chemistry—Textbooks Classification: LCC QD33.2 S55 2018b | DDC 540—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017009580 The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw-Hill Education, and McGraw-Hill Education does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites mheducation.com/highered To Ruth and Daniel, with all my love and gratitude MSS To Ralph, Eric, Samantha, and Lindsay: you bring me much joy PGA BRIEF CONTENTS Preface xx Acknowledgments  xxxii Keys to Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving  2 The Components of Matter  42 Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations  94 Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions  144 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory  204 Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change  256 Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure  294 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity  330 Models of Chemical Bonding  368 10 The Shapes of Molecules  404 11 Theories of Covalent Bonding  442 12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes  470 13 The Properties of Mixtures: Solutions and Colloids  532 14 Periodic Patterns in the Main-Group Elements  584 15 Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon  632 16 Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions  690 17 Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions  746 18 Acid-Base Equilibria  792 19 Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems  842 20 Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and Reaction Direction  894 21 Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work  938 22 The Elements in Nature and Industry  996 23 Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds  1036 24 Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications  1072 Appendix A  Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry A-1 Appendix B  Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances A-5 Appendix C  Equilibrium Constants for Selected Substances A-8 Appendix D  Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials A-14 Appendix E  Answers to Selected Problems A-15 Glossary G-1 Index I-1 iv DETAILED CONTENTS © Fancy Collection/SuperStock RF CHAPTER Keys to Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 1.2 The States of Matter The Properties of Matter and Its Changes The Central Theme in Chemistry The Importance of Energy in the Study of Matter Chemical Arts and the Origins of Modern Chemistry 10 Prechemical Traditions 10 The Phlogiston Fiasco and the Impact of Lavoisier 11 CHAPTER 1.3 The Scientific Approach: Developing 1.4 2.3 2.4 2.5 1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures 28 Determining Which Digits Are Significant 29 Significant Figures: Calculations and Rounding Off 30 Precision, Accuracy, and Instrument Calibration 32 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 33 PROBLEMS 37 The Components of Matter 42 2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: 2.2 a Model 12 Measurement and Chemical Problem Solving 13 General Features of SI Units 13 Some Important SI Units in Chemistry 14 Units and Conversion Factors in Calculations 18 A Systematic Approach to Solving Chemistry Problems 19 Temperature Scales 25 Extensive and Intensive Properties 27 An Atomic Overview 44 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter 46 Mass Conservation 46 Definite Composition 47 Multiple Proportions 49 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 50 Postulates of the Atomic Theory 50 How the Theory Explains the Mass Laws 50 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model 52 Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties 52 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 54 The Atomic Theory Today 55 Structure of the Atom 55 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol 56 Isotopes 57 Atomic Masses of the Elements 57 TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: MASS SPECTROMETRY 60 2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table 61 2.7 Compounds: Introduction 2.8 to Bonding 64 The Formation of Ionic Compounds 64 The Formation of Covalent Substances 66 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses 68 Binary Ionic Compounds 68 Compounds That Contain Polyatomic Ions 71 2.9 Acid Names from Anion Names 74 Binary Covalent Compounds 74 The Simplest Organic Compounds: Straight-Chain Alkanes 76 Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas 76 Representing Molecules with Formulas and Models 78 Mixtures: Classification and Separation 81 An Overview of the Components of Matter 81 TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: BASIC SEPARATION TECHNIQUES 83 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 84 PROBLEMS 86 v vi    Detailed Contents    CHAPTER Source: NASA Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations 94 3.1 The Mole 95 3.2 Defining the Mole 95 Determining Molar Mass 96 Converting Between Amount, Mass, and Number of Chemical Entities 97 The Importance of Mass Percent 102 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound 104 Empirical Formulas 105 Molecular Formulas 106 CHAPTER 3.3 3.4 4.3 of Water as a Solvent 145 The Polar Nature of Water 146 Ionic Compounds in Water 146 Covalent Compounds in Water 150 Expressing Concentration in Terms of Molarity 150 Amount-Mass-Number Conversions Involving Solutions 151 Preparing and Diluting Molar Solutions 152 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions 155 Precipitation Reactions 157 The Key Event: Formation of a Solid from Dissolved Ions 157 CHAPTER 4.4 4.5 5.3 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 130 PROBLEMS 135 Predicting Whether a Precipitate Will Form 157 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 162 Acid-Base Reactions 165 The Key Event: Formation of H2O from H+ and OH− 167 Proton Transfer in Acid-Base Reactions 168 Stoichiometry of Acid-Base Reactions: Acid-Base Titrations 172 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions 174 The Key Event: Movement of Electrons Between Reactants 174 Some Essential Redox Terminology 175 4.6 4.7 Using Oxidation Numbers to Monitor Electron Charge 176 Stoichiometry of Redox Reactions: Redox Titrations 179 Elements in Redox Reactions 181 Combination Redox Reactions 181 Decomposition Redox Reactions 182 Displacement Redox Reactions and Activity Series 184 Combustion Reactions 186 The Reversibility of Reactions and the Equilibrium State 188 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 190 PROBLEMS 196 Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory 204 5.1 An Overview of the Physical States 5.2 Reactions That Occur in a Sequence 120 Reactions That Involve a Limiting Reactant 122 Theoretical, Actual, and Percent Reaction Yields 127 Three Major Classes of  Chemical Reactions 144 4.1 Solution Concentration and the Role 4.2 Chemical Formulas and Molecular Structures; Isomers 110 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations 111 Calculating Quantities of Reactant and Product 116 Stoichiometrically Equivalent Molar Ratios from the Balanced Equation 116 of Matter 205 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 207 Measuring Gas Pressure: Barometers and Manometers 208 Units of Pressure 209 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations 210 The Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: Boyle’s Law 211 The Relationship Between Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law 212 The Relationship Between Volume and Amount: Avogadro’s Law 214 Gas Behavior at Standard Conditions 215 5.4 5.5 The Ideal Gas Law 216 Solving Gas Law Problems 217 Rearrangements of the Ideal Gas Law 222 The Density of a Gas 222 The Molar Mass of a Gas 224 The Partial Pressure of Each Gas in a Mixture of Gases 225 The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry 228 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior 231 How the Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Gas Laws 231 Effusion and Diffusion 236 The Chaotic World of Gases: Mean Free Path and Collision Frequency 238 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCE: HOW THE GAS LAWS APPLY TO EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 239 5.6 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior 241 Effects of Extreme Conditions on Gas Behavior 241 The van der Waals Equation: Adjusting the Ideal Gas Law 243 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 244 PROBLEMS 247     vii CHAPTER © Maya Kruchankova/Shutterstock.com Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change 256 6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion 257 Defining the System and Its Surroundings 258 Energy Change (ΔE): Energy Transfer to or from a System 258 Heat and Work: Two Forms of Energy Transfer 258 The Law of Energy Conservation 261 Units of Energy 261 State Functions and the Path Independence of the Energy Change 262 Calculating Pressure-Volume Work (PV Work) 263 CHAPTER 6.2 Enthalpy: Changes at Constant 6.3 6.4 Reaction (ΔH°rxn) 277 Formation Equations and Their Standard Enthalpy Changes 277 Determining ΔH°rxn from ΔH°f  Values for Reactants and Products 279 CHEMICAL CONNECTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: THE FUTURE OF ENERGY USE 281 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 285 PROBLEMS 288 Quantum Numbers of an Atomic Orbital 319 Quantum Numbers and Energy Levels 321 Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 323 The Special Case of Energy Levels in the Hydrogen Atom 325 SPECTROMETRY IN CHEMICAL ANALYSIS 308 7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter 7.4 and Energy 310 The Wave Nature of Electrons and the Particle Nature of Photons 310 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle 313 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom 314 The Schrödinger Equation, the Atomic Orbital, and the Probable Location of the Electron 314 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 326 PROBLEMS 329 Electron Configuration and Chemical Periodicity 330 8.1 Characteristics of Many-Electron 8.2 of Any Reaction 275 6.6 Standard Enthalpies of TOOLS OF THE LABORATORY: The Wave Nature of Light 296 The Particle Nature of Light 299 Atomic Spectra 302 Line Spectra and the Rydberg Equation 302 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 303 The Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom 305 CHAPTER 6.5 Hess’s Law: Finding ΔH Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure 294 7.1 The Nature of Light 295 7.2 Pressure 265 The Meaning of Enthalpy 265 Comparing ΔE and ΔH 265 Exothermic and Endothermic Processes 266 Calorimetry: Measuring the Heat of a Chemical or Physical Change 268 Specific Heat Capacity 268 The Two Major Types of Calorimetry 269 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations 273 Atoms 332 The Electron-Spin Quantum Number 332 The Exclusion Principle 333 Electrostatic Effects and Energy-Level Splitting 333 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table 335 Building Up Period 335 Building Up Period 336 Building Up Period 338 8.3 Building Up Period 4: The First Transition Series 339 General Principles of Electron Configurations 340 Intervening Series: Transition and Inner Transition Elements 342 Similar Electron Configurations Within Groups 342 Trends in Three Atomic Properties 345 Trends in Atomic Size 345 8.4 Trends in Ionization Energy 348 Trends in Electron Affinity 351 Atomic Properties and Chemical Reactivity 353 Trends in Metallic Behavior 353 Properties of Monatomic Ions 355 CHAPTER REVIEW GUIDE 361 PROBLEMS 363 Index    I-19 as SI base unit, 14t standard molar volume, 215, 215f Molina, Mario J., 735 Molybdenum, 343, 1044, 1044t Monatomic elements, molar mass of, 97 Monatomic ions defined, 65, G-11 metals that form more than one monatomic ion, 70, 71t names and formulas, 68–69, 69f, 69t properties of, 355–360 Monochromatic light, 296 Monodentate ligands, 1047, 1048t Monomers, 514, G-11 Mononucleotides, 543, 675, G-11 Mono- (prefix), 73t Monoprotic acids, 796, 797t Monosaccharides, 671, 671f, G-11 Moon rocks, radioisotopic dating of, 1088 MOs See Molecular orbitals Moscovium, 1092 Moseley, Henry G J., 331 Motor oil, viscosity of, 491 Motor vehicles See Automobiles MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 649–650, 650f mRNA (messenger RNA), 677–678, 677f Mulliken, Robert S., 392n Multiple proportions, law of, 49–51 Multiplication, significant figures and, 30 Mylar, 670 Myosin, arrangement of filaments, 511f N NAA (neutron activation analysis), 1099 NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), 982 Naming See Nomenclature Nanocomposites, 519 Nanomachines, 520, 520f Nanometers (nm), 296 Nano- (prefix), 14t Nanostructuring, 519–520 Nanotechnology, 519–520, G-11 Nanotubes, 520, 600–601, 600f Naproxen, 644, 644mn Natta, Giulio, 668 Natural gas, 281 Natural law, 12, G-11 Negative reaction order, 701 Negatron emission, 1077 Nematic phase, 510, 510f Neon boiling point of, 537t diatomic molecules of, 460f, 461 electron configuration, 337, 338f ionization energy, 351t line spectra of, 302, 303f mass/charge ratio of, 60, 60f molar mass of, 97 mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t properties of, 589t, 622–624 solubility in water, 537t Neon signs, 53 Neopentane constitutional isomers of, 642, 642t formula and model, 642t molecular shape of, 487, 487f Neoprene, 518t Nernst, Walther Hermann, 962 Nernst equation, 962–963, G-11 Nerve cells, concentration cells in, 967 Net ionic equations for acid-base reactions, 167–171, 170t, 171f for aqueous ionic reactions, 156f, 157, 158–159, 158f defined, 157, G-11 Network covalent solids, 383, 383f, 386, 501t, 503–504, 504t, G-11 Neutralization, 793, 794, 852, G-11 Neutralization reactions See Acid-base reactions Neutrino, 1076n, 1077 Neutron activation analysis (NAA), 1099 Neutron-capture processes, 1111 Neutrons defined, G-11 discovery of, 55, 1090 mass of, 56t nuclide and, 1074 properties of, 56t Neutron star, 1110f, 1111 Neutron-to-proton (N/Z) ratio, 1079, 1079f Nickel abundance of, 1001t appearance of, 1039f displacement of hydrogen from acid by, 185, 185f electron configuration, 339, 340t, 343, 1039t oxidation state, 1042, 1042t Nickel-cadmium (nicad) batteries, 970 Nickel(II) hydroxide, 873 Nickel(II) nitrate hexahydrate, 152, 1043t Nickel–metal hydride (Ni-MH) batteries, 970, 970f Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), 982 Nihonium, 1092 Nile River, 569, 569f Niobium, 1044 Nitrate ions formula for, 72t molecular shape of, 419 properties of, 609, 609f resonance structure of, 412–413 Nitrates, 609–610 Nitric acid acid rain and, 875 fixation and, 1005 number of ions in solution, 166 production from ammonia, 280 properties of, 609–610, 609f Nitric oxide boiling point of, 537t hydrogen and, 700 molecular orbitals of, 462f, 463 mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t oxygen and, 703–704, 703t, 725–728, 729f ozone and, 692, 693, 693f, 699, 700 properties of, 608–609, 608t redox reactions involving, 182 solubility in water, 537t Nitride ions, 69t Nitrides, 611 Nitrification, 571 Nitriles, 655t, 666, G-11 -nitrile (suffix), 655t Nitrite ions, 72t, 609f, 610 Nitrogen abundance of, 1000, 1001t bond type, 598t chemistry of, 607–610 critical temperature of, 480 diatomic molecules of, 460f, 461 electron configuration, 337, 338f fixation of, 605, 779, 1004f, 1005 ionization energy, 351t irradiation of, 1109 Lewis structure for, 409 Lewis symbol for, 371 liquid, 506 mean free path of, 238 melting point of, 598t mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t pollutants, 876 properties of, 353, 589t, 604–607 sources of, 1001 standard enthalpies of formation, 278t triple bond in, 380 Nitrogen cycle, 1004–1005, 1004f Nitrogen dioxide atmospheric concentration of, 609 carbon monoxide and, 705–706, 724–725 equilibrium with dinitrogen tetroxide, 748–751, 748f, 750t, 751f, 759–760 fluorine and, 725, 728, 729f formation of, 115–116, 609 formula and model, 80t Lewis structure of, 414 mass-number conversion of, 100–101 mass of oxygen in, 104 mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t structures and properties of, 608t, 609 Nitrogen family elements acid-base behavior of, 354–355, 354f comparison with oxygen family, 612, 614–615 halides, 605, 607 heat of fusion of, 598t oxides, 606–607 oxoacids, 605 properties of, 604–611 reactivity of, 605, 606–607 tendency to lose or gain electrons, 353–354, 353f Nitrogen fixation, 605, 779, 1004f, 1005 Nitrogen gas, 537t, 551 Nitrogen monoxide See Nitric oxide Nitrogen oxides, 608–609, 608t, 875, 908f, 909 Nitrogen trifluoride, 406–407 Nitrous acid, 609f, 610, 797t, 801t, 823, A-10 Nitrous oxide, 276–277, 608, 608t NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy, 649–650, G-11 Noble gases atomic radius of, 348f as atomic solids, 502 electron affinity of, 352 electron configuration, 343 electron configuration of, 355–356, 355f ion formation and, 65–66, 66f ionization energy of, 349f, 352 in periodic table, 63 properties of, 622–624 reactivity of, 624 sources of, 1001 Nodes, 314, 324, G-11 Nomenclature acids, 74 alkanes, 76, 76t, 639, 639–640t, 646–647 alkenes, 644, 646–647 aromatic hydrocarbons, 647–648 binary covalent compounds, 74–76 binary ionic compounds, 68–71 coordination compounds, 1050–1051, 1050t hydrates, 72, 73t ionic compounds, 68–73 metals forming more than one ion, 70, 71t numerical roots, 639, 639–640t organic compounds, 76, 76t, 639, 639–640t oxoanions, 72, 72f Roman numerals for metal ions, 70, 71t transuranium elements, 1092, 1092t Nonane, 76t, 641f Nona- (prefix), 73t Nonbonding MOs, 462, G-11 Nonelectrolytes colligative properties of, 557, 557f, 558–566 defined, 150, G-11 non-conductivity of, 557, 557f nonvolatile solutions, 558–563 volatile solutions, 564 Nonmetal hydrides, acid strength of, 816, 816f Nonmetals comparison with metals, 370–371 covalent bonding in, 181, 370, 370f covalent radius for, 345, 345f defined, G-11 electron affinity of, 352 electronegativity of, 390, 394 examples of, 63f as insulators, 506 ionic bonding in, 181, 370, 370f ionization energy of, 352 Lewis electron-dot symbols for, 371 oxides of, 355 oxoacids, esters, and amides of, 666, 666f in periodic table, 62, 62f properties of, 62, 353 Non- (numerical root), 639t Nonpolar covalent bonds, 392, 392f, G-11 Nonrechargeable batteries, 968–969 Nonstandard half-cell potentials, 977–978 Nonvolatile nonelectrolyte solutions, 558–563 Northern lights, 53, 53mn n-type semiconductors, 508–509, 508f Nuclear atom model, 52–55 Nuclear binding energy, 1102–1104, 1104f, G-11 Nuclear charge, effect on sublevel energy, 333, 333f Nuclear energy, 284 See also Nuclear fission; Nuclear fusion Nuclear energy reactors, 1106–1109, 1107f Nuclear equations, 1078 I-20   Index Nuclear fission atomic bomb, 1106, 1106f, 1106n binding energy per nucleon and, 1104, 1104f chain reactions and, 1105–1106, 1106f defined, 1101, G-6 energy from, 284 nuclear energy reactors, 1106–1109, 1107f process of, 1105–1109 Nuclear fuel, 237 Nuclear fusion binding energy per nucleon and, 1104, 1104f defined, 1101, G-7 energy from, 284 promise of, 1109 Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, 649–650, G-11 Nuclear reactions, 1072–1110 atomic bomb, 1106, 1106f, 1106n balancing, 1078 chain reactions and, 1105–1106, 1106f comparison with chemical reactions, 1074, 1074t effects on matter, 1093–1095 fission (See Nuclear fission) fusion (See Nuclear fusion) mass difference in, 1102 nuclear binding energy in, 1102–1104, 1104f nuclear energy reactors, 1106–1109, 1107f nuclear stability, 1079–1082, 1079f, 1080t radioactive decay and (See Radioactive decay) transuranium elements and, 1092, 1092t, 1105 Nuclear stability, 1079–1082, 1079f, 1080t Nuclear transmutation, 1090–1092, 1092t, G-11 Nuclear waste disposal, 1108–1109 Nucleic acids, 542–543, 674–680, G-11 See also DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid); RNA (ribonucleic acid) Nucleons binding energy per, 1102–1104, 1104f defined, 1074, G-11 energy levels of, 1080 Nucleoside triphosphates, 675, 675f, 679, 679f Nucleotides, 674–675, 679, 680 Nucleus components of, 55–56, 56f, 56t, 1074 defined, 55, G-11 discovery of, 54–55, 54f notation for, 1074 size of, 55, 55mn, 1074mn strong force and, 1080 Nuclide defined, 1074, G-11 notation for, 1074 parent and daughter, 1075 predicting mode of decay, 1081–1082 stability of, 1079–1082, 1079f, 1080t Number, amount-mass-number conversions, 151–152, 151f, 162f Nutrient turnover in lakes, 492 Nylons, 669–670, 670f Nylon-66, 80t, 669–670, 670f O -oate (suffix), 655t, 663 Observations, 12, 13f, G-11 Occurrence of elements, 1000–1001, 1002f, 1008t, G-11 Oceans, 1000, 1003, 1003f Octadecanoic acid, 662f Octahedral arrangement of complex ions, 1047, 1047t defined, 422, G-11 hybrid orbitals and, 448, 449f, 449t VSEPR theory and, 418f, 422–424f Octahedral complexes in coordination compounds, 1053, 1053f in crystal field theory, 1057–1058 hemoglobin, 1063 valence bond theory and, 1055, 1055f Octane boiling point of, 641f combustion of, 114–115, 263, 263f, 919–920 formula and model, 76t in hexane, 548, 548f intermolecular forces, 534f solubility of, 150 Octa- (prefix), 73t Octet rule defined, 372, G-11 exceptions to, 413–417 for Lewis structures, 405–409 Oct- (numerical root), 639t Odd-electron atoms, 414 Odor molecular shape and, 431, 431f of organic compounds, 664, 664mn Oganesson, 1092 -oic acid (suffix), 655t, 662, 664 Oil, solubility of, 535 Olfaction, 431, 431f -ol (suffix), 654, 655t -one (suffix), 655t, 660 o- (ortho), 648 Open-end manometers, 208, 209f Optical isomers, 642–644, 1053–1054, 1053f, G-11 Optically active substances, 643, 643f, G-11 Orbital diagrams, 335–337, 336f, 338f, 338t, 340t, G-11 Orbital overlap features of, 443–444, 443f molecular rotation and, 455, 455f in single and multiple bonds, 451–454 Ores, 1001–1002, 1002mn, 1008–1009, G-11 Organic chemistry, 63, 633 Organic compounds, 632–681 See also Organic molecules; Organic reactions alcohols, 654, 654f, 655t, 656 aldehydes, 655t, 660–661, 660f alkanes (See Alkanes) alkenes, 644–646, 645t, 646f, 655t, 659–660 alkynes, 646, 655t, 666 amides, 655t, 662, 664–665, 664f amines, 655t, 657–658, 657f aromatic compounds, 647–648, 648f, 659–660, 660f carbon and, 602, 602f carbonyl group, 660–661 carboxylic acids, 655t, 662–663, 662f chemical diversity of, 634–635, 635f combustion analysis of, 108–109, 108f defined, 633, G-11 esters, 655t, 662, 663–664, 663f, 664mn haloalkanes, 655t, 656–657, 657f hydrocarbons (See Hydrocarbons) ketones, 655t, 660–661, 660f naming, 639, 639–640t, 646–648 nitriles, 655t, 666 odor of, 664, 664mn organic synthesis, 661 organometallic compounds, 661 vital force of, 633 Organic molecules See also Organic compounds bond properties of, 634 chemical diversity of, 634–635, 635f electron configuration, 634 functional groups of (See Functional groups) heteroatoms, 635, 635f molecular stability of, 634 reactivity of, 635 structural complexity of, 634 Organic reactions addition reactions, 651, 660, 668 alkyl group, 651 elimination reactions, 651–652 predicting sequence of, 661–662 redox process in, 653–654 substitution reactions, 652, 660 types of, 651–653 Organic synthesis, 661 Organisms, reaction sequences in, 121 Organometallic compounds, 661, G-11 Orientation probability factor, 719 Orthosilicate grouping, 603 Osmium, 1042 Osmosis defined, 562, G-11 reverse, 571, 571f Osmotic pressure, 562, 562f, 567, 567f, 571, G-11 Ostwald process, 609, 1005 -ous (suffix), 70, 74 Outer electrons, 342, 350, G-11 Outgassing, 999, 1000 Overall (net) equation, 120–121, 121f, G-11 Overvoltage, 978, G-12 Oxalate ions, 179, 179f Oxalates, A-13 Oxalic acid, 814t, A-10 Oxidation See also Redox reactions with active metal, 1011 of alcohols, 656 of carbon, 924 defined, 175, 939–940, 940f, G-12 in early Earth atmosphere, 1000 of glucose, 915 half-reactions, 944 as increase in oxidation number, 177 of organic molecules, 653–654 Oxidation half-cells, 944, 946 Oxidation number defined, 176, G-12 determining, 177 electronegativity and, 392, 412 formal charge vs., 412 identifying redox reactions and oxidizing and reducing agents, 177–178 of main-group elements, 354, 354f rules for assigning, 176, 176t Oxidation-reduction reactions See Redox reactions Oxidation state See also Oxidation number alkali metals and, 591 alkaline earth metals and, 594 of boron family elements, 596, 597 carbon family elements and, 599, 601 color and, 1059, 1059f coordination compound and, 1050 of halogens, 618, 620–622 nitrogen family elements, 605, 606–607 noble gases, 623 of oxygen family elements, 613–615 of transition elements, 1042, 1042–1043t Oxide acidity, 1042–1043 Oxide ions, 69t Oxides acid-base behavior of, 354–355, 354f alkali metals, 591 alkaline earth metal, 593, 594 boron family elements, 596, 597 carbon, 603 carbonates converted to, 1010 combination reactions and, 182 halogen, 621–622 nitrogen, 608–609, 608t nitrogen family elements, 606–607 phosphorus, 610, 610f properties of, 615 sources of elements, 1001, 1002f sulfur, 615 Oxide superconductors, 506, 512, 513 Oxidizing agents in combination reactions, 181 defined, 176, 940, G-12 halogens, 617–619, 619f, 621–622 identifying, 177–178 loss or gain of electrons and, 354 in metal displacement reactions, 184 in redox titration, 179 relative strengths of, 953–957 Oxoacids acid strength of, 816–817, 817f bonds in, 659 formation of, 605 halogen, 621–622, 622t inorganic, 666 names, 74 nitrogen, 609–610, 609f nitrogen family elements, 605 phosphorus, 610–611 strength of, 797 sulfur, 615–616 Oxoanions defined, G-12 halogen, 621–622 naming, 72, 72f nitrogen, 609–610, 609f phosphorus, 610–611 of transition elements, 1042f Oxygen abundance of, 998t, 999, 1000–1001, 1001t allotropes of, 612 Index    I-21 atmospheric, 1000, 1000f boiling point of, 537t chemistry of, 615 in combustion reactions, 186 critical temperature of, 480 density of, 24t diatomic molecules of, 44, 460f, 461 diffusion from lungs to blood, 238 dissolution in water, 908 electron configuration, 337, 338f formation of carbon dioxide and water from, 8mn ionization energy, 351t Lavoisier’s naming of, 11 molar mass of, 97 mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t nitric oxide and, 703–704, 703t, 725–728, 729f oxidation number for, 176t paramagnetic properties of diatomic oxygen, 460f, 461 properties of, 589t, 612–615 solubility in water, 537, 537t, 550 standard enthalpies of formation, 278t standard state of, 278 thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate, 183 uptake by muscle at high altitude, 226–227 Oxygen family elements allotropes of, 612, 614 comparison with nitrogen family, 612, 614–615 in periodic table, 63 properties of, 612–616 reactivity of, 613 Oxyhemoglobin, 1063, 1063f Ozone breakdown of, 723, 735, 735f decomposition of, 612 depletion of, 735, 735f as disinfectant, 570 ethylene and, 694–696 formal charge and, 411, 412 formation of, 240 hybrid orbitals and, 446 Lewis structures of, 409–410 molecular orbitals of, 463, 463f mole fraction of air at sea level, 239t nitric oxide and, 692, 693, 693f, 699, 700 nitrogen fixation and, 1005 resonance structures of, 410–412 stratospheric, 239f, 240, 612, 735 P Packing efficiency of unit cells, 496–498, 497f, G-12 Pairing energy, 1060 Palladium, 343, 538 Paracelsus, 11 Paramagnetism defined, 357, 358f, G-12 homonuclear diatomic molecules and, 460–461, 460f predicting, 358–359 of transition elements, 1037, 1044 Partial bonding, 410, 411 Partial ionic character, 392, 393f, G-12 Partial pressure Dalton’s law of, 225–227, 231, 233, 233f, 239 defined, G-12 of gas in mixture of gas, 225–227 Particle accelerators, 1091–1092, G-12 Particle-in-a-box model, 315–317, 315f Particle nature of light, 299–301, 300f Particle nature of photons, 312 Particles dispersal of energy, 897–898 freedom of motion, 897–898 uncertainty principle and, 313 wave behavior compared to behavior of, 299, 299f wave-particle duality, 312, 312f Particle volume, gas pressure and, 243, 243f Parts by mass, 553t, 554, 555 Parts by volume, 553t, 554, 555 Parts per billion, 554 Parts per million, 554 Pascal (Pa), 209, 209t, G-12 Path independence of energy change, 262–263, 263f Pauli, Wolfgang, 333 Pauli exclusion principle, 333, 443 Pauling, Linus, 390, 444 Pauling electronegativity scale, 390, 391f p-block, 460–461, 460f, 595 PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls), 602, 602f, 657, 657f PEM (proton exchange membrane), 971, 971f Penetration, 334, 334f, 339, G-12 Pentane boiling point of, 641f, 642t constitutional isomers of, 642, 642t formula and model, 76t, 642t molecular shape of, 487, 487f properties of, 641, 641f Pentanol, 536t Pentanone, 660 Penta- (prefix), 72, 73t Pent- (numerical root), 639t Peptide bonds, 539, 539f, 540, 664, 673 Percent by mass (mass percent, mass %), 47–48, 48f, G-12 Percent ionic character, 393, 393f Percent yield (% yield), 128–129, G-12 Perchlorate ions, 72t Perchlorates, 106, 621–622 Perhalates, 621–622, 622t Perhalic acid, 622t Period elements, 335–336, 338f, 341f Period elements electron configuration of, 336, 336f, 338f, 341f homonuclear diatomic molecules, 458–462 properties of, 587–590 Period elements, 338, 338t, 341t Period elements, 339–340, 340t, 341f Periodic law, 331, G-12 Periodic table of the elements See also specific elements and groups atomic number organization of, 61, 331 atomic properties and, 345–352 chemical reactivity and, 338, 343f comparison of metals and nonmetals, 370–371 defined, G-12 electron configuration and, 335–345, 335f, 341f, 356–357 filling order, 341–342, 341f groups, 342, 343 history and development of, 61, 331 inner transition elements, 61, 62f, 1038, 1038f lattice energy and, 375–376, 375f molar mass and, 96–97, 97n organization of, 61–63, 62f Pauling electronegativity scale and, 391f Period 1, 335–336, 338f, 341f Period 2, 336, 336f, 338f, 341f, 587–590 Period 3, 338, 338t, 341t Period 4, 339–340, 340t, 341f period number, 342 quantum-mechanical model and, 335–345 transition elements, 339–340, 340t, 341f, 342–343, 1038, 1038f Periodic trends acid strength, 816, 816f in atomic size, 345–346f, 345–347, 348f, 352f covalent and van der Waals radii, 482, 482f in electron affinity, 351–352, 352f entropy and, 909 gradation of bonding across periods, 394 in heat of hydration, 545, 545t in ionic size, 359–360, 360f in ionization energies, 348–350, 349f, 351t, 352f in lattice energy, 375–376, 375f in metallic behavior, 353–354f, 353–355 Period elements, 587–590 Periods, 61, G-12 See also Periodic trends Permalloy, 1013t Permanganate ions, 72t, 179, 179f, 942–943 Permittivity of the vacuum, 318 Peroxide ions, 72t Per- (prefix), 72, 72f, 74 Perspective drawings, 420 Pesticides, 611 PET (positron-emission tomography), 1078, 1100, 1100f Petroleum, 281, 567, 567f pH acid-base equilibria and, 800–803, 800f, 802f buffer capacity and change in, 849, 849f calculation of, 801–803, 856, 860–861 of common aqueous solutions, 800f defined, 800, G-12 determination from base-dissociation constant, 818–820 measurement of, 803, 803f, 966–967, 967f monitoring with acid-base indicators, 860–862 pH meters, 803, 803f, 967, 967f relation with pOH and pKw, 801, 801t scale, 800, 800f solubility and, 869–870 Phase, defined, 469, G-12 Phase changes boiling, 479 condensation, 471, 474, 476–477, 476f critical point in, 480, 480f defined, 470, G-12 deposition, 471, 471f diagrams of, 480–481, 480f entropy change and, 547, 898–899, 902–904, 903t, 906–907, 907f equilibrium nature of, 476–479 freedom of particle motion and dispersal of particle energy in, 897–898 freezing, 474 heat involved in, 473–476 kinetic-molecular view of, 470, 470t, 473–474 liquid-gas equilibria in, 476–478, 476f melting, 471, 479 quantitative aspects of, 472–481 solid-gas equilibria, 479 solid-liquid equilibria, 479 standard molar entropy and, 906–907, 907f sublimation, 471, 479, 479f temperature and, 470–471, 474 triple point in, 480, 480f, 481 types of, 470–472 vaporization, 471, 471–472f, 476–478, 476f vapor pressure and, 476–478f, 477–479 Phase diagrams of boiling and freezing points of solvent and solution, 559, 560f carbon, 481, 600f carbon dioxide, 480, 480f defined, 480, G-12 water, 480–481, 480f Phenol, 801t, A-10 Phenolphthalein, 173, 860–862 Phenol red, 861f Phenylacetic acid, 809–810, 809mn, A-10 Phenylalanine, 672f Phenylketonuria, 809 Pheromones, 554 Phlogiston theory, 11 pH meters, 803, 803f, 967, 967f Phosgene, 224, 766–768 Phosphate fertilizers, 1007–1008 Phosphate ions, 72t, 611 Phosphates element cycling, 1005–1008, 1006f polyphosphates, 611, 611f solubility-product constant for, A-13 sources of elements, 1002f uses of, 611 Phosphite ions, 610 Phosphodiester bonds, 675, 676f Phospholipids, 542, 542f Phosphor, 1083 Phosphoric acid, 607, 610–611, 813, 814t, A-10 Phosphorous acid, 610, A-10 Phosphorus abundance of, 1001t allotropes of, 606, 606f bond type, 598t chemistry of, 610–611 as doped semiconductor, 508, 508f electron configuration, 338t, 339 industrial uses of, 1007–1008, 1007f melting point of, 598t produced from calcium phosphate, 1010 properties of, 353, 354, 604–607 radioisotope of, 1090 sulfides and nitrides, 611 Phosphorus cycle, 1005–1008, 1006f Phosphorus decoxide, 354, 354f Phosphorus pentachloride, 414–415, 422, 448, 448f Phosphorus trichloride, 181 Photochemical smog, 609, 609mn Photoelectric effect, 301, 301f, 1083, G-12 Photoelectrochemical approach, 283 Photomultiplier tubes, 1083 I-22   Index Photons defined, 301, G-12 emission of, 304, 304f energy of, 304 particle nature of, 312 ping-pong analogy for, 301mn Photon theory of light, 301 Photosynthesis, 261, 1000, 1003, 1098 Photovoltaic cells, 284, G-12 Photovoltaic thermal (PVT) hybrid cells, 284 pH paper, 803, 803f pH scale, 800, 800f Physical changes comparison with chemical changes, 5, 5f, 6, 7–8 defined, 5, G-12 on Io (Jupiter’s moon), reversal of, temperature and, 6–7 Physical properties of alkali metals, 591 alkaline earth metals, 593, 594 bonding, impact on, 598, 600–601 of carbon family elements, 598–601 defined, 5, G-12 of halogens, 617, 617f, 618 of nitrogen family elements, 605–606 of noble gases, 622–624 of oxygen family elements, 612–614 of Period elements, 587–590 of transition elements, 1040–1041f, 1040–1042 Physical states characteristics of, 4, 4f, 205–207, 206f kinetic-molecular view of, 470, 470t reaction rate and, 693 Pi bond, 452–454, 453f, 455, 455f, 644, G-12 Picometers (pm), 296 Pico- (prefix), 14t Pig iron, 1017 Pi MOs, 458–460, G-12 Piperidine, A-11 Pipets, 15, 16f Piston-cylinder assembly, 214–215, 221–222, 774 Pitchblende, 48–49, 1075 Planck, Max, 300 Planck’s constant, 300, G-12 Plasma, fusion of, 1109, 1109f Plastics, 517, 619, G-12 Platinum density of, 1042 as electrode, 947 electron configuration, 343 sources of, 1001 Pleated sheet structure, 673f, 674 Plum-pudding model of atoms, 54 Plutonium, 1093 p-n junction, 508–509, 508f pOH, 801–802, 802f Polar arrow, 146, 392 Polar bonds, 146 Polar covalent bonds, 390, 390f, 392, 393f, G-12 Polarimeter, 643, 643f, G-12 Polarity, 539–540 See also Molecular polarity Polarizability, 486, G-12 Polar molecules defined, G-12 dipole-dipole forces and, 483, 483f water as, 146 Pollution air (See Air pollution) phosphates and, 1008 thermal, 550, 551f, 1108–1109 Polonium decay of, 1078 discovery of, 1075 properties of, 612–615 radioactive poison from, 1094 Polyamides, 669–670, 670f Polyatomic ions compounds containing, 71–73 defined, 67, G-12 hydrates, 72, 73t Lewis structures for, 406, 407 oxoanions, 72, 72f Polyatomic molecules, 463, 463f Polybutadiene, 518t Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 602, 602f, 657, 657f Polychloroprene, 518t Polychromatic light, 296 Polydentate ligands, 1047, 1048t Poly(dimethyl siloxane), 518t, 604 Polyesters, 670 Polyethylene, 514–516, 514t, 515f, 518, 668, 669t Polyisoprene, 518t Polymer glass, 517 Polymeric viscosity improvers, 491 Polymers addition polymers, 668, 668f, 668t biopolymers, 514 branches of, 517–518 chain dimensions, 514–516 condensation polymers, 669–670, 670f copolymers, 518, 669 crosslinks, 518 crystallinity of, 516, 516f defined, 514, G-12 degree of polymerization, 514, 514t dendrimers, 518 dissolved, 516–517 elastomers, 518, 518t homopolymers, 518 inorganic, 670 liquid crystal and, 511 molar mass of, 514, 514t monomers, 514 naming, 668 nucleic acids, 542–543, 674–680 plasticity of, 517 proteins (See Proteins) pure, 517 radius of gyration, 515–516, 515n random coil, 515, 515f silicone, 604 synthetic, 668–670 thermoplastic, 518 thermoset, 518, 518mn viscosity of, 516–517, 517f Polyphosphates, 611, 611f Polyphosphazene, 611, 670 Poly- (prefix), 668 Polypropylenes, 668, 669t Polyprotic acids acid-base titration curves for, 862–863, 863f acid-dissociation constant for, 813, 814t amino acids as, 863 calculating equilibrium concentrations for, 814–815 defined, 813, G-12 Polysaccharides, 671–672, 671mn, G-12 Polystyrene, 223–224, 668, 669t Polysulfanes, 650 Poly(vinylchloride) (PVC), 619, 668, 669t p orbitals defined, G-12 molecular orbitals from, 458–459f, 458–460 orbital overlap and, 443f, 444 quantum mechanics and, 324, 324f, 326t Porphin, 1063 Positron emission, 1076t, 1077, 1094, G-12 Positron-emission tomography (PET), 1078, 1100, 1100f Positrons, 1077, 1094, G-12 Potassium abundance of, 1000, 1001t distribution of, 1000 effective nuclear charge of, 334, 334t electron configuration, 339, 340t, 344, 356 industrial production of, 1014 properties of, 590–592, 592mn radioactive, 1096 reaction with chlorine gas, 230, 230mn reactivity, 343f soaps, 541 uses of, 1015 Potassium bromide, 148, 159, 979, 979mn Potassium carbonate, 169 Potassium chlorate, 183, 917–918 Potassium chloride, 181, 182f Potassium dichromate, 653, 656 Potassium ethoxide, 656 Potassium ferricyanide, 1043t Potassium hydrogen sulfite, 826 Potassium hydroxide, 171 Potassium ions, 69t, 967 Potassium nitrate, 158 Potassium sulfate, 148–149 Potassium sulfide, 97 Potassium superoxide, 1015, 1015mn Potential energy bonding and, 369, 379, 381 in chemical reactions, 386 conversion to kinetic energy, 9–10, 9f, 257 defined, 8, G-12 intermolecular forces as, 469 Pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi), 209t p- (para), 648 Prechemical traditions, 10–11, 10f Precipitates complex ions and solubility of, 879–881 defined, 157, G-12 predicting formation of, 871–873, 871mn Precipitation, selective, 874–875 Precipitation reactions, 157–164 in aqueous ionic reactions, 157–161, 158f defined, 157, G-12 key events in, 157 metathesis reactions, 159 molecular depictions in, 160–161 predicting, 159–160, 159t reversibility of, 190 stoichiometry of, 162–164 Precipitator, Cottrell, 569 Precision, 32–33, 33f, G-12 Prefixes acids, 74 alkanes, 76 coordination compounds, 1050 decimal, 14, 14n, 14t hydrates, 72, 73t numerical, 72, 73t organic compound, 639, 639–640t oxoanions, 72, 72f for units of mass, 17, 17n Pressure Amontons’s law and, 213 amount and, 218–219 atmospheric, 207–208f, 207–209, 209t, 239, 239f Boyle’s law and, 211–212, 211f, 217–218, 223, 902 critical, 480 defined, 207, G-12 effect of change on equilibrium, 773–775, 774f, 777t equilibrium constant based on, 756–757 extreme, 241–243, 242f gases and, 206, 207–210, 218, 239, 241–243, 242f origin of, 231, 232 pressure-volume work, 263–264, 264f solubility and, 551–552, 551f temperature and, 213–214, 218 units of, 209–210, 209t volume and, 206, 211–212, 211f, 217–218 Pressure-volume work (PV work), 263–264, 264f, G-12 Primary batteries, 968–969 Primary structure of proteins, 673, 673f Principal energy level, 335 Principal quantum number, 319, 320t, 332t, G-12 Prisms, 298, 302 Probability contour, 319, 319f, 323–325f, G-12 Probability density, 314–315, 314f, 317, 317f, 323, 323f Problem solving conversion factors in, 18–23 dilution problems, 153–154 equilibrium and, 760–769, 770f gas laws and, 217–222 systematic approach to, 19–20 weak-acid equilibria and, 808–815 Product-favored reactions, 931, 932f Products calculating amount of, 116–130 calculating amounts in limiting-reactant problems, 125–127 defined, 112, G-12 determining heat of reaction from heat of formation for, 279–280, 279f expressing reaction rate in terms of concentration of, 696–698, 696f gaseous, 227–228, 227f gas variables to find amounts of, 229–230 in precipitation reactions, 162–163 Index    I-23 Proline, 672f Propane boiling point of, 484f, 641f combustion of, 117, 117t, 911–912 dipole moment of, 484f formula and model, 76t, 640 Propanoic acid acid-dissociation constant of, 797t, A-10 determining concentration and pH, 810–811 titration of, 855–859, 855f Propanol, 536t, 653 Propanone, 653, 655t, 660f, 661 Properties chemical (See Chemical properties) defined, 5, G-12 of matter, 5–7, 7t physical (See Physical properties) Prop- (numerical root), 639t Propylamine, A-11 Propylenediamine, A-12 Proteins See also Amino acids defined, 539, 672, G-12 fibrous, 674, 674f globular, 674 intermolecular forces and shape of, 540–541, 540f mass spectrometry studies of, 60 polarity of amino acid side chains, 539–540 structure of, 539–540f, 539–541, 672–673f, 672–674 synthesis of, 677–678, 677f Protein synthesis, 677–678, 677f Protium, 1024, 1024t Proton acceptors, 803, G-12 Proton donors, 803, G-12 Proton exchange membrane (PEM), 971, 971f Protons atomic number and, 56 charge of, 55, 56f, 56t defined, 55, G-12 discovery of, 55 in Large Hadron Collider, 1091–1092 in linear accelerator, 1091, 1091f mass of, 56t nuclide and, 1074 properties of, 56t solvated, 165 transfer in acid-base reactions, 168–171, 169f Proton transfer, in Brønsted-Lowry acid-base definition, 803–808 p-scale, 800, 801 Pseudo–first-order reactions, 709, G-12 Pseudo-noble gas configuration, 355–356, G-12 p-type semiconductors, 508–509, 508f Purines, 675 PVC, 619, 668, 669t PVT (photovoltaic thermal) hybrid cells, 284 PV work (pressure-volume work), 263–264, 264f, G-12 Pyridine, 819t, 820, A-12 Pyrimidines, 675 Pyrite, 1016t Pyrometallurgy, 1008 Pyrrhotite, 1016t Pyruvic acid, A-10 Q Quadratic formula, 765, A-3 Quantitative theories of chemistry, 12 Quantized energy of particles, 316, 318 Quantum, 300, G-13 Quantum dots, 284, 519, 519f Quantum mechanics atomic orbital, 314–326 defined, 314, G-13 electron cloud depictions and, 318, 323, 323–325f electron density diagram and, 318, 319f energy levels in hydrogen atoms and, 325, 325f level (shell), 321 molecular orbital model and, 455 nodes and, 324 orbital overlap and, 443 particle-in-a-box model and, 315–317, 315f periodic table and, 335–345 probability contour and, 319, 319f, 323–325f radial probability distribution plot and, 319, 319f, 319mn Schrödinger equation and, 314–315, 317–318 sublevel (subshell), 321–322 wave function and, 314, 314f, 317, 317f Quantum numbers angular momentum, 320, 320t, 332t of atomic orbital, 319–321, 320t baseball, 333mn correlation with orbital diagrams, 337 defined, G-13 electron orbit and, 304 of electrons, 332, 332t identifying incorrect numbers, 322 magnetic, 320, 320t, 332t in particle-in-a-box model, 316 principal, 319, 320t, 332t in quantum theory, 300 spin, 332–333, 332f, 332t Quantum staircase, 304, 304f Quantum theory, 299–300, 312f Quartz covalent bonding in, 383, 383f crystal structure of, 493f, 504, 504f, 604, 604f Quaternary structure of proteins, 673f, 674 R Racemic mixtures, 643 Radial probability distribution plot defined, G-13 d orbital and, 325f order of filling and, 339 p orbital and, 324f quantum mechanics and, 319, 319f, 319mn s orbital and, 323f, 324 sublevel energy and, 334, 334f Radiant energy, 295–297 Radiation applications of, 1100–1101 background, 1095–1096 background radiation, 1096 blackbody, 299–300, 300f, 300n cosmic, 1088, 1095 counters for detection of, 1083–1084, 1084f effects on matter, 1093–1095 electromagnetic, 295–297 free radical formation and, 1095 infrared, 296, 297f intensity of, 296 ionizing (See Ionizing radiation) penetrating power of, 1094–1095, 1094f risk from, 1096–1097, 1097f, 1097t sources of, 1095–1096, 1096t ultraviolet (See Ultraviolet radiation) units of radiation dose, 1093–1094 Radiation-absorbed dose (rad), 1094, G-13 Radiation therapy, 1100 Radioactive decay decay series, 1082, 1082f as first-order process, 712 half-life of, 1086, 1086f, 1086t kinetics of, 1083–1090 nuclear equations for, 1078 nuclear stability and, 1079–1082, 1079f, 1080t predicting mode of, 1081–1082 radioisotopic dating, 1087–1089, 1089f rate of, 1084–1087, 1086f, 1086t types of, 1075–1078, 1076t Radioactive emissions alpha particles (See Alpha particles) behavior in electric field, 1075, 1075f beta particles (See Beta particles) detection of, 1083–1084, 1084f gamma rays (See Gamma rays) ionization of, 1093–1097 penetrating power of, 1094–1095, 1094f positron emission, 1076n, 1076t, 1077, 1094 Radioactive tracers, 1098–1100, 1099t, 1100f Radioactivity See also Nuclear reactions of actinides, 1045 defined, 1073, G-13 detection and measurement of, 1083–1084, 1084f discovery of, 1075 Radiocarbon dating, 1087–1089, 1088n, 1089f Radioisotope heater unit (RHU), 1101 Radioisotopes applications of, 1098–1101 artificial, 1090 dating, 1087–1089, 1089f defined, 1087, G-13 ionizing radiation and, 1100–1101 tracers, 1098–1100, 1099t, 1100f Radioisotopic dating, 1087–1089, 1089f, G-13 Radium discovery of, 1075 in paint, 1094 properties of, 593–594 radioactive decay, 1077 Rutherford’s experiment and, 54 Radius atomic (See Atomic radius) covalent, 345, 345f, 381f, 482, 482f of gyration, 515–516, 515n, G-13 ionic (See Ionic radius) van der Waals, 482, 482f Radon, 622–624, 1095–1096, 1096f, 1096t Rad (radiation-absorbed dose), 1094, G-13 Rainbows, 298, 298mn Random coil, 515, 515f, G-13 Random error, 32–33, 33f, G-13 Raoult’s law, 558–559, 564, G-13 Rare earth elements See Lanthanides Rate constant defined, 698, G-13 determining, 704–706 temperature and, 716, 716f units, 704, 704t Rate-determining step, 724–725, 724mn, G-13 Rate law (rate equation) collision theory and, 716–719, 718t defined, 698, G-13 for elementary reactions, 723t integrated, 708–715, 711f rate constant and, 698, 704–706 reaction mechanisms and, 725–728, 729f reaction order and, 698–707 steady-state approximation and, 727–728, 733 Rate-limiting step, 724–725 Rate of reaction See Reaction rate Reactant-favored reactions, 931–932, 932f Reactants calculating amount of, 116–130 calculating amounts in limiting-reactant problems, 125–127 concentration determination after a given time, 708–709 defined, 111–112, G-13 determining heat of reaction from heat of formation for, 279–280, 279f expressing reaction rate in terms of concentration of, 696–698, 696f gas variables to find amounts of, 229–230 limiting, 122–127, 123f in precipitation reactions, 162–163 Reaction direction in acid-base reactions, 805–808 equilibrium state and, 753, 757–760, 758f, 768–769 Reaction energy diagrams, 720–722, 721f, 728, 729–730f, G-13 Reaction intermediate, 724, G-13 Reaction mechanisms defined, 722, G-13 elementary reactions and, 722–724, 723t molecularity and, 722–724, 723t rate-determining step of, 724–725 rate law and, 725–728, 729f Reaction order changing reactant concentrations for determining, 702–703t, 702–704 defined, 699, G-13 first-order reactions, 699, 700, 700f, 704t, 708, 710, 711f, 715t fractional, 701 integrated rate law in determination of, 710–711, 711f molecular scene problems for determining, 706–707 negative, 701 rate constant and, 704, 704t rate data for determining, 705–706 rate law and, 698–707 rate laws for determining, 701–702 second-order reactions, 699, 700, 700f, 704t, 708–711, 711f, 715t terminology, 699–700 third-order reactions, 704, 704t zero-order reactions, 700, 700f, 704t, 709, 711, 711f, 715t I-24   Index Reaction quotient from balanced equation, 751, 752–753 based on concentrations, 751 changing value of, 750–751, 750t, 751f defined, 750, G-13 for equation multiplied by a common factor, 754 equilibrium constant and, 750–755, 926–927, 926t law of mass action and, 750 for overall reaction, 754–755 reaction direction and, 753, 757–760, 758f for reaction involving pure liquids or solids, 752 as unitless number, 751 variations in form, 752–755, 755t writing, 751–755, 755t Reaction rate, 691–698 average, 695 catalysis and, 729–734 collision energy and, 693, 693f, 717–718, 717f, 718t concentration and, 692, 696–698, 696f conductometric methods for measuring, 699 defined, 691, 692f, G-13 expressing, 694–698 initial, 696, 699 instantaneous, 695–696 manometric methods of determining, 699 measurement of, 699 molecular structure and, 719, 719f physical state and, 693 range of, 691, 692f spectrometric methods of determining, 699 surface area and, 693, 693f temperature and, 693, 716, 716f, 718t terminology, 698–699 Reactions See Chemical reactions; Nuclear reactions; Organic reactions Reaction tables, 122–123, 761–762 Reactivity See also Chemical reactions alkali metals, 230, 343f, 591, 592, 592mn alkaline earth metals, 594 carbon family elements, 599 halogens, 230, 343f, 617–619 nitrogen family elements, 605, 606–607 noble gases, 624 organic molecules, 635 oxygen family elements, 613 Reactor core, 1106–1107, 1107f, G-13 Real gases extreme conditions and, 241–243, 242f interparticle attractions and, 241–243, 242f particle volume and, 243, 243f van der Waals equation and constant, 243–244, 243t Receptors, biological, 431 Receptor sites, 431, 431f Rechargeable batteries, 969–970 Rectifiers, 508 Recycling, 1021, 1021mn Red blood cells, 863, 863f Redox behavior of main-group elements, 354 Redox couple, 982 Redox reactions, 174–188 in acidic solutions, 941–942 activity series of metals and, 958–959 balancing, 940–943 in basic solutions, 942 combination reactions, 181–182, 182f combustion reactions, 186–187 decomposition reactions, 182–183, 183f defined, 174, G-12 displacement reactions, 184–185f, 184–186 electrochemical, 1011, 1022 electrolytic cells in, 944, 944f elements in, 181–188 half-reaction method for balancing, 940–943 identifying, 177–178, 187–188 key events in, 174–175, 175f in metallurgy, 1010–1011, 1012f movement of electrons between reactants in, 174–175, 175f organic reactions and, 653–654 oxidation in, 175, 177 oxidation numbers to monitor electron change, 176–179, 176t oxidizing agents in (See Oxidizing agents) redox titrations, 179–180, 179f reducing agents in (See Reducing agents) reduction in, 175, 177 spontaneous, 945–949, 945f, 954–957 stoichiometry of, 179–180 terminology, 175–176, 179f, 939–940, 940f voltaic cells and, 945–949, 945f voltaic cells in, 944, 944f writing spontaneous reactions by combining halfreactions, 955–957 Redox titrations, 179–180, 179f Red phosphorus, 606, 606f Reducing agents alkali metals, 591, 592 alkaline earth agents, 593, 594 defined, 176, 940, G-13 identifying, 177–178, 180 loss or gain of electrons and, 354 metals as, 181, 184 relative strengths of, 953–957 Reduction See also Redox reactions in converting compounds to elements, 1010–1011 as decrease in oxidation number, 177 defined, 175, 940, 940f, G-13 half-reactions, 944 of organic molecules, 653–654, 665 Reduction half-cells, 944, 946 Reference electrodes, 967, 967f Refining elements, 1012, 1012f Refining petroleum, 567, 567f Refraction, 298, 298f, G-13 Relativity, theory of, 310 Relief maps See Electron density relief maps Rem (roentgen equivalent for man), 1094, G-13 Renewable energy, 281 Replication of DNA, 678, 678f Reproducibility, 12, 32 Resonance arrow, 410 Resonance hybrids of benzene, 647, 648f characteristics of, 410mn defined, 410, G-13 formal charges and, 411–412 Resonance structures choosing more important form, 411–412 defined, 410, G-13 formal charge and, 411–412 need for, 409–410 writing, 412–413 Respiration, 187, 215, 215f, 914, 914f, 1003 Restricted rotation, 455, 455f Retinal, 645–646, 646f Reverse osmosis, 571, 571f, G-13 Reversible processes, 900–901, 901f, G-13 R group of amino acids, 672, 672f, 673, 674 as general alkyl group, 651 Rhenium, 1042 Rhodopsin, 645 RHU (radioisotope heater unit), 1101 Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 675, 677–678, 677f Ribose, 110t, 675 Ribosomes, 677–678, 677f RNA (ribonucleic acid), 675, 677–678, 677f Roasting, in metallurgy, 1010, 1018, G-13 Rocket fuel, 125–127 Roentgen equivalent for man (rem), 1094, G-13 Roentgenium, 1092 Rohrer, Heinrich, 500 Roman numerals, in compound names, 70, 71t Root-mean-square speed, 235–236, 235n, G-13 Roots, in organic compound naming, 639, 639–640t Rosenberg, Barnett, 1053 Rounding off, 31, 32, G-13 Rowland, F Sherwood, 735 r-process, 1111 Rubber, as amorphous solid, 504 Rubidium, 590–592, 1011 Runners, change in position with time, 694mn Rusting of iron, 972–974 Rutherford, Ernest, 54–55, 303, 1075, 1090 Rutherfordium, 1092 Rutherford’s α-scattering experiment, 54–55, 54f Rydberg, Johannes, 302 Rydberg equation, 302–303 S Sacrificial anodes, for prevention of corrosion, 974, 974f Salt bridges, 947, G-13 Saltlike hydrides, 586 Salt link, 540f, 541 Salts acid-base properties of salt solutions, 823–826 acidic solutions from, 823–824, 825t of amphiprotic anions, 825 basic solutions from, 824, 825t corrosion and, 973, 973f defined, 167, G-13 dissolution and entropy change, 908, 908f dissolution and entropy change in, 897 electrolysis of, 976–977 formation of, 167 mixed molten, 976–977 neutral solutions from, 823, 825t pure, 976 solubility of, 535 of weakly acidic cations and weakly basic anions, 824–825 Saltwater, 45 Samarium, 1045 Sanger chain-termination method of DNA sequencing, 679–680, 679f Saponification, 664 Saturated calomel electrodes, 967, 967f Saturated hydrocarbons, 639, G-13 Saturated solutions, 549, 549f, G-13 s block bonding, 458, 458f Scale deposits, 570 Scandium appearance of, 1038f electron configuration, 339, 340t, 356–357, 1039, 1039t oxidation state, 1042t Scandium oxide, 1043f Scanning electron microscope (SEM), 311–312 Scanning tunneling microscopy, 500–501, 501f, G-13 SCF (supercritical fluid), 480 Schrödinger, Erwin, 314 Schrödinger equation, 314–315, 317–318, 332, G-13 Scientific (exponential) notation, 14, 14t, A-2–A-3 Scientific method, 12–13, 13f, G-13 Scintillation cocktail, 1084, 1084f Scintillation counter, 1083–1084, G-13 Screening See Shielding Scrubbers, 281, 876 Scuba divers, decompression sickness in, 551, 551mn Seaborgium, 343, 1092 Seawater, desalination of, 571 Secondary batteries, 969–970 Secondary structure of proteins, 673f, 674 Second ionization energy, 348, 351t Second law of thermodynamics, 905, 914, G-14 Second-order reactions comparison with zero- and first-order reactions, 715t defined, 699 half-life of, 715 integrated rate law and, 708–711, 711f, 715t rate constant for, 704t rate law and, 699, 700, 700f rate vs reactant concentration in, 700f reactant concentration vs time in, 700f Second (s), 14t, 18, G-14 Seesaw shape, in VSEPR theory, 422, 422f, 424f, G-14 Selective precipitation, 874–875, G-14 Selenium allotropes of, 612, 614 electron configuration, 340t properties of, 612–615 Self-assembly, 519 Semiconductors band theory and, 506, 506f defined, 506, G-14 doped, 507–509, 508f n-type, 508–509, 508f p-n junction, 508–509, 508f p-type, 508–509, 508f Semicrystallinity of polymers, 516 Semimetals See Metalloids Index    I-25 Semipermeable membranes, 562, 571, G-14 SEM (scanning electron microscope), 311–312 Sense of smell (olfaction), 431, 431f Separation techniques, 83, 83f Sequestration of carbon dioxide, 283 Serine, 540, 654f, 672f Sertraline, 129, 129f Shape See Molecular shape Shared electron pairs, 380 Shells, 321 Shielding, 333–334, 334f, 339, 347, G-14 Short tandem repeat (STR) analysis, 680, 680f Shroud of Turin, radiocarbon dating of, 1088, 1088mn Sickle cell anemia, 863, 863f Side chains, amino acid, 539–540, 539f, 673 Side reactions, 128, 128f, G-14 Siderite, 1016t Side-to-side overlap, 452–454 Sievert (Sv), 1094, G-14 Sigma (σ) bond, 452, 452–453f, 453, 455, G-14 Sigma (σ) MOs, 456, 456f, G-14 Significant figures, 28–32 in arithmetic operations, 30–31 calculator use and, 30, 31 defined, 28, G-14 determining number of, 28–30, 29f exact numbers and, 31 measuring devices and, 31, 31f rounding off, 31, 32 Silanes, 604, 650 Silicate phase, 999, 999f Silicates in ceramics, 512 chemistry of, 603–604 defined, G-14 as network covalent solids, 504 sources of elements, 1001, 1002f Silicic acid, 604 Silicon atomic mass of, 58 bond type, 598t catenation of, 650 chemistry of, 603–604 diagonal relationship with boron, 604 electron configuration, 338t, 339 isotopes of, 57 melting point of, 598t properties of, 354, 598–601 refining, 567 in semiconductors, 507–508, 508f zone refining of, 1012, 1012f Silicon carbide, 128–129, 512, 513, 513f Silicon dioxide, 355, 504, 504f, 597 Silicone polymers, 604 Silicones, 603, 604, 611, 670, G-14 Silicon nitride, 512, 513 Silk fibroin, 674, 674f Silver amount-mass conversion of, 98 in batteries, 968–969, 969f in concentration cells, 966, 967, 967f in displacement reactions, 185, 185f, 961 electron configuration, 357 isotopes of, 58–59 standard enthalpies of formation, 278t in voltaic cells, 948–949 Silver bromide, 159, 880–881 Silver carbonate, 872–873 Silver chloride, 147, 534, 870 Silver chromate, 155–156, 156f Silver ions, 69t Silver nitrate, 155–156, 156f Silver sulfide, 865, 866t Simple cubic unit cell, 494, 495f, 496, 497f, G-14 Simultaneous equilibrium, 874–875 Single bonds in alkanes, 639–640 bond energy of, 382, 382t bond length of, 382, 382t bond order and, 380 defined, G-14 functional groups with, 654, 656–659, 662–666 Lewis structures for molecules with, 406–408 orbital overlap in, 451–454 strength of, 453–454 Single-displacement reactions, 184 SI units base (fundamental), 13, 14t charge, 950 current, 980 decimal prefixes, 14, 14t defined, 13, G-14 density, 23–25, 24t derived, 13–14 energy, 261–262 English equivalents, 14, 15t exponential notation, 14, 14t, A-2–A-3 features of, 13–14 length, 14–15t, 15, 17f mass, 14–15t, 17, 17f, 17n temperature, 25–27, 26f, 27t time, 14t, 18 volume, 15, 15t, 16–17f Skou, Jens, C., 967 Slag, 1017, G-14 Slightly soluble ionic compounds, 864–875 common ion effect on solubility, 868–869, 868f ion-product expression and, 864–865 molar solubility of, 866–867, 868t pH effect on solubility, 869–870 precipitates and, 871–875, 871mn solubility-product constant and, 864–868, 866t, 868t, A-13 Smectic phase, 510f, 511 Smell, sense of, 431, 431f Smelting, 1010, 1011, 1018, G-14 Smog, 224, 414, 609, 609mn SNG (synthetic natural gas), 281, G-15 Snowflakes, 492, 492f Soaps defined, 541, G-14 dual polarity of, 541, 541f emulsion formation, 569 saponification and, 664 Soddy, Frederick, 1075 Sodium abundance of, 1000, 1000t electron configuration, 338t, 339, 355 industrial production of, 1014, 1015f ionization energy, 351t light from vaporization of, 295 mineral sources of, 1008t properties of, 44, 45t, 353, 590–592 reactivity, 343f soaps, 541 standard enthalpies of formation, 278t standard state of, 278 uses of, 1015 Sodium acetate, 549f, 824 Sodium atoms, emission and absorption spectra of, 308, 308f Sodium borate, 597 Sodium bromide, 373f Sodium carbonate, 793t Sodium chloride crystal structure of, 502, 502f as de-icer, 567 diluting solutions of, 153–154 dissolving, 546, 546f electrolysis of, 980–981 electron density distribution, 394f formation of, 65, 65f in hexane, 548, 548f isotonic, 567 properties of, 44, 45t, 394 solubility of, 147, 534 uses of, 567 Sodium chromate, 155–156, 156f, 868, 868f, 1043f Sodium diphosphate, 611 Sodium fluoride, 570 Sodium formate, 851 Sodium hydrogen carbonate, 171, 793t Sodium hydrogen phosphate, 151, 611 Sodium hydroxide dissolving, 546, 546f, 550, 823 in precipitation reactions, 163 reaction with acetic acid, 170, 170t in titrations, 853f, 855–858 uses of, 793t Sodium hypochlorite, 619 Sodium iodide, 158 Sodium ions, 69t, 535f, 567, 570–571, 571f, 967 Sodium nitrate, 156, 156f Sodium perchlorate, 106, 622 Sodium phosphate, 793t Sodium stearate, 541 Sodium sulfate, 284 Sodium thiosulfate, 880 Soil formation, 492 Solar cells, 509 Solar energy, 284 Solar system, age of, 1088 Solder, 1013t Solid foams, 568t, 569 Solid-gas equilibria, 479 Solid-liquid equilibria, 479 Solids advanced materials, 507–520 amorphous, 493, 504, 504f ceramics, 512–513, 512t, 513f comparison with physical states of liquids and gases, 205–207, 206f crystalline (See Crystalline solids) defined, 4, G-14 density of, 24, 24t electronic materials, 507–509, 508f entropy change with dissolution, 908, 908f entropy of, 547 kinetic-molecular view of, 470 liquid crystals, 509–511 molecular orbital band theory and, 504–506 nanotechnology and, 519–520 particle arrangement in, 4, 4f phase changes of, 479, 479f polymeric materials, 514–518, 514t, 515–517f, 518t properties of, 470, 470t semiconductors, 507–509, 508f solubility and temperature, 550, 550f structural features of, 493 Solid-solid solutions, 538, 538f Sols, 568t, 569 Solubility of alcohols, 535–536, 536f, 536t boiling point and, 537, 537t common ion effect on, 868–869, 868f comparing with Ksp values, 868 complex ions, effect on, 879–881 defined, 83, 534, G-14 dual polarity and, 535–537 equilibria of slightly soluble ionic compounds, 864–875 as equilibrium process, 549–552 gas-gas solutions and, 537–538 gas-liquid solutions and, 537 gas-solid solutions and, 538 of ionic compounds, 146–149, 146f, 159t like-dissolves-like rule and, 534, 535, 536f, 544 pH and, 869–870 of precipitates, 871–875, 871mn pressure and, 551–552, 551f of proteins, 541 solid-solid solutions and, 538, 538f temperature and, 549–550, 550f Solubility-product constant, 864–868, 866t, 868t, A-13, G-14 Solubility rules for ionic compounds in water, 159t Solutes defined, 145, 534, G-14 entropy change and, 908, 908f molar mass determination from colligative properties, 563 parts of solute by parts of solution, 554–555 vapor pressure and, 558–559, 558f Solution process, 544–549 See also Solubility; Solutions enthalpy change in, 544, 545–546f, 548–549, 548f entropy change in, 547–549 heat of hydration and, 545–546, 545t heat of solution and, 544, 545–546f, 545–547 I-26   Index Solutions See also Solubility; Solutes; Solution process; Solvents acidic solutions, balancing redox reactions in, 941–942 amount-mass-number conversions for, 151–152, 151f aqueous (See Aqueous solutions) basic solutions, balancing redox reactions in, 942 boiling point elevation and, 559–560, 560f, 560t colligative properties of, 557–567 concentration of, 552–557 covalent, 150 defined, 533 diluting, 152–154, 153f electrolyte, 557, 557f, 564–566, 565f formation from gases, 207 freezing point depression and, 560–561, 560t, 566–567 gas-gas, 537–538 gas-liquid, 537 gas-solid, 538 heat of, 544, 545–546f, 545–547 ideal, 558 intermolecular forces in, 534–535 ionic, 146–149 mixtures (See Mixtures) molarity of, 150 molecular polarity and, 535–537 nonelectrolyte, 557, 557f, 558–566 osmotic pressure and, 562, 562f, 567, 567f, 571 particle size and, 568 preparing, 152–154, 152f salt solutions, acid-base properties of, 823–824, 825t saturated, 549, 549f solid-solid, 538, 538f solute molar mass from colligative properties, 563 solution process, 544–549 supersaturated, 549, 549f tonicity of, 567 unsaturated, 549 vapor pressure lowering and, 558–559, 558f water purification and, 570–571 Solvation defined, 545, G-14 of ions, 147, 157, 165, 165f of protons, 165 Solvents defined, 145, 534, G-14 hexane as, 535, 536, 536t, 548, 548f water as, 145–155, 491, 535–536, 536f, 536t, 908, 908f s orbitals, 323–324, 323f, 326t, 444, G-13 Sources of elements, 1000–1001, 1002f, 1008, 1008t Sour taste from acids, 793 Space-filling models, 79, 80t, 639, 640f Specific heat capacity, 268, 268t, 270, 491, G-14 Specific rotation of optical isomers, 643 Spectator ions, 156, 159, 160, 167, G-14 Spectra absorption, 308–309 atomic, 302–307 emission, 308, 308f line, 302–305 Spectrochemical series, 1059, 1059f, G-14 Spectrometers, 308, 308f Spectrometry, 308–309, 699, G-14 Spectroscopy, infrared, 384–385, 385f Speed of light, 296, G-14 sp hybridization, 444–446, 445f, 449t sp2 hybridization, 446, 446f, 449t sp3 hybridization, 447, 447f, 449t sp3d hybridization, 447–448, 448f, 449t sp3d2 hybridization, 448, 449f, 449t sp hybrid orbitals, 444–446, 445f, G-14 sp2 hybrid orbitals, 446, 446f, 449t, G-14 sp3 hybrid orbitals, 447, 447f, 449t, G-14 sp3d hybrid orbitals, 447–448, 448f, 449t, G-14 sp3d2 hybrid orbitals, 448, 449f, 449t, G-14 Spin quantum number, 332–333, 332f, 332t, G-14 Spontaneous change defined, 895, 931–932, G-14 determining, 913–914 enthalpy change and, 896–897 exothermic and endothermic reactions, 896–897, 897f, 915–916, 915f free energy change and, 916–917 predicting, 895–910 redox reactions and, 945–949, 945f, 954–957 second law of thermodynamics and, 905 temperature and, 920–924, 921t, 924f in voltaic cells, 945–949, 945f, 954–957 s-process, 1111 Square brackets [ ], 694, 751 Square planar complexes in crystal field splitting, 1062, 1062f hemoglobin, 1063 in valence bond theory, 1055, 1056f Square planar shape, 423, 423–424f, 448, 1047, 1047t, G-14 Square pyramidal shape, 423, 423–424f, 448, G-14 S-shaped response model of radiation risk, 1097 Stalactites, 871 Stalagmites, 871 Standard atmosphere (atm), 209, 209t, G-14 Standard cell potential, 950–953, 950f, 959–966, G-14 Standard electrode potential, 950–956, 952f, 954t, A-14, G-14 Standard enthalpy of formation, 277–280, 278t, 279f, G-14 Standard enthalpy of reaction, 277–280, G-14 Standard entropy of reaction, 910–912, G-14 Standard free energy change, 917–919, 927–928, 928t, G-14 Standard free energy of formation, 918–919, G-14 Standard heat of reaction See Standard enthalpy of reaction Standard hydrogen electrode, 951–952, 952f, G-14 Standard molar entropy, 905–910, G-14 Standard molar volume, 215, 215f, G-14 Standard reference half-cell, 951–952, 952f, G-14 Standard states, 277, 277n, G-15 Standard temperature and pressure (STP), 215, G-15 Starch, 671–672 Stars, element synthesis in, 1110–1111, 1110f State functions, 262–263, 263mn, 266, G-15 States of matter balanced equations and, 113–114 changes in, 5–7, 5f, 7mn defined, 4, G-15 entropy and, 547 kinetic-molecular view of, 470, 470t physical, 4, 4f, 205–207, 206f Stationary phase of chromatography, 83, 83f Stationary states, 304, G-15 Steady-state approximation, 727–728, 733, G-15 Steam-carbon reactions, 281 Steam-reforming process of hydrogen production, 283, 1023 Stearic acid, 662f Steel alloy composition, 1012, 1013t defined, 1016, G-15 metallurgy, 1016–1017 specific heat capacity of, 268t Stellar nucleosynthesis, 1110, G-15 Stereoisomers, 642–643, 1052–1054f, G-15 Stereoselective catalysts, 668 Sterling silver, 1013t Stoichiometry of acid-base reactions, 172–174 balancing (stoichiometric) coefficient, 112–113 defined, 95, G-15 of electrolysis, 980–981, 980f equivalent molar ratios from balanced equations, 116–120 ideal gas law and, 228–230, 229f of precipitation reactions, 162–164 of redox reactions, 179–180 of thermochemical equations, 273–274 STP (standard temperature and pressure), 215, G-15 Straight-chain alkanes, 76, 76t Strassmann, F., 1105 Stratosphere, 239f, 240 Strong acids See also Acid strength calculating pH for, 801–803 categorization of, 165, 165t, 797 concentration of buffer components in, 845, 845f, 848, 848f direction of reactions involving, 806V dissociation extent, 795, 795f leveling effect on, 827 reactions involving, 170–171, 170t strong acid–strong base titration curves, 853–855, 853f structural features of, 166–167 in water, 794–798 weak base–strong acid titration curves, 859–860, 859f Strong bases calculating pH for, 801–803 categorization of, 165, 165t, 797 concentration of buffer components in, 845–846, 845f, 848, 848f leveling effect on, 827 reactions involving, 170–171, 170t strong acid–strong base titration curves, 853–855, 853f structural features of, 166–167 in water, 794–798 weak acid–strong base titration curves, 855–859, 855f Strong electrolyte solutions, 557, 557f, 564–566, 565f Strong-field ligands, 1058, 1058f, 1060, 1060–1061f, G-15 Strong force, 1080, G-15 Strontium flame tests with, 308f line spectra of, 303f properties of, 593–594 radioisotopes of, 1086–1087 Strontium ions, 69t STR (short tandem repeat) analysis, 680, 680f Structural formulas defined, 79, 105, G-15 isomers and, 110–111 Structural isomers See Constitutional isomers Styrofoam, 569 Subcritical mass, 1106 Sublevel energy aufbau principle and, 335 crossover of, 357, 357f defined, G-15 electron repulsion and, 333–334 nuclear charge and, 333, 333f orbital shape and, 334 penetration and, 334, 334t, 339 shielding and, 333–334, 334f, 339 Sublevels defined, 321 order of filling, 335f, 339–342, 341f, 342mn, 456–457 quantum numbers and energy level in, 321–322 splitting levels into, 334–335 Sublimation defined, 471, G-15 heat of, 472, 472f of iodine, 479, 479f Submicroscopic properties, 44 Substances defined, 4, 44, G-15 mixtures distinguished from, 45 standard state of, 277 Substituents, 647 Substitutional alloys, 538, 538f Substitution reactions, 652, 660, G-15 Substrates, 732–734, 733f, 734f, G-15 Subtraction, significant figures and, 30–31 Succinic acid, A-10 Sucrose, 671, 671f Suction pumps, 208 Suffixes acids, 74 alkanes, 76 binary ionic compounds, 68 metal ions, 70 organic compound, 639, 639–640t oxoanions, 72, 72f Sugars See also Carbohydrates dehydration by sulfuric acid, 616, 616f properties of, 670–672, 671f Sulfanilamide, 666f Sulfate ions, 72t, 415, 616 Sulfates, A-13 Sulfide ions, 69t Sulfide phase, 999, 999f Sulfides, 611, 616, 1001, 1002f, 1010, A-13 Sulfite ions, 72t, 616 Sulfites, reaction with acids, 169–170 Sulfonamides, 666, 666f Sulfur abundance of, 1000, 1001t acid-base behavior of, 355 allotropes of, 612, 650 catenation of, 650 chemistry of, 615–616 in coal, 281 electron configuration, 338t, 339 Index    I-27 on Io (Jupiter’s moon), oxidation to sulfur trioxide, 275–276 pollutants, 876 production of, 1025–1026, 1026f properties of, 354, 612–615 sources of, 1001 standard enthalpies of formation, 278t standard state of, 278 Sulfur dioxide acid rain and, 875, 876 from coal burning, 281 formation of, 615 Lewis structure of, 416 molar mass of, 97 mole fraction in air at sea level, 239t oxidation of, 753, 922–923, 930–931 release during roasting, 1010 roasting copper and, 118, 119 Sulfur hexafluoride hybrid orbitals and, 448, 449f Lewis structure of, 415 molecular shape of, 423 Sulfuric acid acid-dissociation constant for, A-10 in acid rain, 616, 616mn, 875, 876 chemical manufacturing, 1025–1028 formation of, 616 Lewis structure of, 415 manufacture of, 730–731 production of, 922–923, 930–931 properties of, 616 uses of, 616, 1027–1028, 1027f Sulfurous acid acid-dissociation constant for, 814t, A-10 acid rain and, 875 Lewis acid and, 829 properties of, 615–616 titration of, 862, 863f Sulfur tetrafluoride, 415, 422, 449–450 Sulfur trioxide, 275–276, 416, 615, 753 Superconducting oxides, 506, 512, 513 Superconductivity, 506, G-15 Supercooled liquids, 504 Supercritical fluid (SCF), 480 Supernova, 1110f, 1111 Supersaturated solutions, 549, 549f, G-15 Surface area, reaction rate and, 693, 693f Surface tension, 489, 489f, 489mn, 489t, 492, G-15 Surfactants, 489 Surroundings defined, 258, G-15 entropy change in, 912–914 Suspensions, 568, G-15 Sweating, 471, 471f Sylvite, 1014 Synchrotron, 1091 Synthesis gas (syngas), 281, 603 Synthetic macromolecules, 668–670 Synthetic natural gas (SNG), 281, G-15 System defined, 258, G-15 determining energy change in, 262, 896, 910–912 energy flow to and from, 258–260 Systematic error, 32–33, 33f, G-15 System energy, 258–260, 306mn T Table salt, density of, 24t Talc, 604 Tanaka, Koichi, 60 Tantalum, 1044 TCDD (tetrachlorodibenzodioxin), 554 Technetium, 344, 1099, 1100f Technological tradition, history of, 11 Tellurium, 612–615 Temperature See also Endothermic processes; Exothermic processes absolute scale, 213 Amontons’s law and, 213 atmospheric, 239–240, 239f, 282–283 Celsius scale, 25–27, 26f, 27t changes in matter and, 6–7 Charles’s law and, 212–213, 212f collision energy and, 717–718, 717f, 718t converting units of, 26–27 critical, 480 defined, 25, G-15 effect of change on equilibrium, 775–777, 777t entropy change due to change in, 904–906, 907f entropy of surroundings and, 912–913 examples of, 25f Fahrenheit scale, 25–27, 26f, 27t gases and, 206, 212–213, 212f, 218, 239–240, 239f glass transition, 517 heat vs., 25 as intensive property, 27–28 Kelvin scale, 25–27, 26f, 27t kinetic energy and, 234–235, 240, 470 molecular speed and, 232, 232f, 477–478, 477f phase changes and, 470–471, 474 pressure and, 213–214, 218 reaction rate and, 693, 716, 716f, 718t reaction spontaneity, effect on, 920–924, 921t, 924f SI units, 14t, 25–27, 26f, 27t solubility and, 549–550, 550f standard molar entropy and, 906, 907f vapor pressure and, 477–478 vapor pressure of water and, 227, 227t viscosity and, 490, 490t volume and, 212–213, 212f, 218, 219–220 Temperature inversion, 240 TEM (transmission electron microscope), 311 Tennessine, 1092 Tera- (prefix), 14t Termolecular reactions, 723, 723t Tertiary structure of proteins, 673f, 674 Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD), 554 Tetrafluoroborate ions, 406–407 Tetrahedral arrangement of complex ions, 1047, 1047t defined, 420, G-15 hybrid orbitals and, 447, 449t VESPR theory and, 418f, 420–421, 420f, 424f Tetrahedral complexes carbonic anhydrase, 1064, 1064t in crystal field splitting, 1061, 1062f in valence bond theory, 1056, 1056f Tetramethylsilane, 649 Tetraphosphorus decoxide, 354, 354f, 610 Tetraphosphorus hexoxide, 610 Tetra- (prefix), 73t Tevatron, 1091 t2g orbitals, 1058, G-15 Thalidomide, 644 Thallium bond type, 598t electron configuration, 356 melting point of, 598t properties of, 595–598 radioactive poison from, 1094 Theoretical yield, 128, G-15 Theory, in the scientific method, 13, 13f Thermal conductivity, 397, 505 Thermal decomposition, 183 Thermal energy, 258 Thermal pollution, 550, 551f, 1108–1109 Thermals, 240 Thermite, 119, 120 Thermite reaction, 1011, 1011f Thermochemical equation, 273–274, G-15 Thermochemical equivalence, 274 Thermochemical solution cycle, 544 Thermochemistry, 256–285 calorimetry, 268–273 defined, 257, G-15 energy forms and interconversion, 257–264 enthalpy, 265–267 future use of energy and, 281–285 Hess’s law of heat summation in, 275–277 standard heats of reaction in, 277–280 stoichiometry of thermochemical equations, 273–274 Thermodynamics, 894–932 of carbon reduction, 1010–1011 defined, 257, G-15 first law of, 261, 896, 914 kitchen appliances and, 259mn living things and, 914 predicting spontaneous change and, 895–910 second law of, 905, 914 standard values for common substances, A-5–A-7 third law of, 905–906 Thermometers, 25, 29f, 511, G-15 Thermoplastic elastomers, 518 Thermoplastic polymers, 518 Thermoset polymers, 518, 518mn Thermosphere, 239f, 240 Thermotropic phases, 510 Thiosulfate ion, 613 Third law of thermodynamics, 905–906, G-15 Third-order reactions, 704, 704t Thomson, J J., 53, 54 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 213 Thorium, 1045, 1078, 1095 Three-Mile Island nuclear facility, 1108 Threonine, 672f, 781, 781f Threshold frequency, 301 Thymine, 675 Thymol blue, 861f Tie-line, in redox equations, 177 Time, 14t, 18 Tin allotropes of, 601 bond type, 598t in electrolytic cells, 974, 975f electron configuration, 356 melting point of, 598t mineral sources of, 1008t properties of, 598–601, 601f solder, 1013t tin(II) and tin(IV), 71t Tin(II) chloride, 419 Tin(IV) oxide, 1010 Tire pressure, 213 Titanium appearance of, 1038f electron configuration, 340t, 356–358, 1039, 1039t oxidation state, 1042t Titanium(IV) oxide, 1043f Titration See also Acid-base titration curves acid-base, 172–174, 173f defined, 172, G-15 end point and, 861 equivalence point in, 853f, 854–857, 855f, 859f, 863f redox, 179–180, 179f TNT (trinitrotoluene), 648, 1106 Tobacco mosaic virus, 511f Tokamak design, 1109, 1109f Toluene, 564, 648, 829 Tonicity, 567 Torr, 209, 209t, G-15 Torricelli, Evangelista, 208 Total ionic equations for acid-base reactions, 167–171, 170t, 171f for aqueous ionic reactions, 156, 156f, 158f, 159 defined, 156, G-15 Trace elements, 1063–1064, 1064t Tracers, radioactive, 1098–1100, 1099t, 1100f, G-15 Traffic flow, rate-determining step for, 724mn Transcription, 677, 677f, G-15 Transfer RNA (tRNA), 677f, 678 trans isomers See cis-trans isomers Transistors, 508 Transition elements appearance of, 1038–1039f atomic size of, 346f, 347 behavior within groups, 1044, 1044t chemical properties of, 1042–1043f, 1042–1044 color of, 1043, 1043f complexes (See Coordination compounds) coordination compounds, 1046–1054 defined, 339, 1037, G-15 as dietary trace elements, 1063–1064, 1064t electron configuration, 339–340, 340t, 341f, 342–343, 1038–1040, 1039t influence on Boron family properties, 595 inner (See Inner transition elements) lanthanide contraction and, 1041 metallic behavior of, 1042–1043 metallic hydrides and, 586 oxidation state of, 1042, 1042–1043t in periodic table, 339–340, 340t, 341f, 342–343, 1038, 1038f physical and atomic properties, 1040–1041f, 1040–1042 properties of, 1037–1044 reducing strength, 1043, 1043t I-28   Index Transition metal ions, 356–358, 358f Transition states, 719–722, G-15 Transition state theory, 719–722, G-15 Translation, 677–678, 677f, G-15 Transmission electron microscope (TEM), 311 Transuranium elements, 1092, 1092t, 1105, G-15 Trees, absorption of water by, 567 Trends, 12 See also Periodic trends Trial and error, 12 Triatomic molecules, vibration of, 384, 384f Triethylamine, A-12 Triglycerides, 663, 664 Trigonal bipyramidal arrangement defined, 421, G-15 hybrid orbitals and, 447, 449t VSEPR theory and, 418f, 421–422, 422f, 424f Trigonal planar arrangement of alkenes, 644 defined, 419, G-15 of hybrid orbitals, 446, 449t VSEPR theory and, 418–419f, 419–420, 424f Trigonal pyramidal shape, 420–421, 420f, 424f, 447, 657, G-15 Triiodide ions, 422 Trimethylamine, 657, A-12 Trinitrotoluene (TNT), 648, 1106 Triple bonds in alkynes, 646 bond energy of, 382, 382t bond order and, 380 defined, G-15 functional groups with, 666 molecular shape of, 453 pi bond and, 453, 453f rotation and, 455 sigma bond and, 453, 453f strength of, 453–454 Triple point, 480, 480f, 481, G-15 Tri- (prefix), 73t Tristearin, 663f Tritium, 1024, 1024t, 1109 tRNA (transfer RNA), 677f, 678 Troposphere, 239, 239f Trouton’s Rule, 902–903, G-16 Tryptophan, 672f T shape, in VSEPR theory, 422, 422f, 424f, G-15 Tungsten density of, 1042 electron configuration, 343 properties of, 1044, 1044t purification of, 1011 Twisted nematic phase, 510, 510f Tyndall effect, 569, 569f, G-16 Tyrosine, 672f U Ultraviolet (UV) radiation absorption by stratospheric ozone, 240 defined, G-16 on electromagnetic spectrum, 296, 297f ozone as absorber of, 409, 735 in water purification, 570 Uncertainty in measurement, 28–33, G-16 Uncertainty principle, 313, 314, G-16 Unimolecular reactions, 723, 723t, G-16 Union Carbide plant, release of poisonous gas from, 224 Unit cells, 493–499 body-centered cubic, 494, 495f, 496–497, 497f defined, 494, G-16 edge length, 499, 499f face-centered cubic, 494, 495f, 497–498 hexagonal, 497–498, 497f packing efficiency, 496–498, 497f simple cubic, 494, 495f, 496, 497f Units, in conversions and calculations, 18–19, 23 Universal gas constant, 216, G-16 Universe, origins of, 1110 Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 644, G-16 Unsaturated solutions, 549, G-16 Unshared electron pairs, 380, G-16 Uracil, 675 Uranium in atomic bomb, 1106f calculating mass in pitchblende, 48–49 decay series, 1082, 1082f enrichment, 237 fission of, 1105, 1105–1106f isotopes, 237 in nuclear energy reactors, 1107–1108, 1107f oxidation state, 1045 pitchblende, 1075 radioactivity of, 712, 1075, 1093 sources of, 1095 Urea, 1005 Urease, 732–733 UV radiation See Ultraviolet radiation V Vacancies and crystal defects, 507 Valence bands, 505, 505–506f, 506, G-16 Valence bond (VB) theory, 443–451 central themes of, 443–444 complex ions and, 1055–1056 defined, 443, G-16 hybrid orbitals and, 444–451, 449t molecular rotation and, 455, 455f orbital overlap and, 443–444, 443f, 451–455 single and multiple bonds in, 451–454 Valence electrons defined, 342, G-16 ionization energies and, 350 in metallic bonding, 396 octet rule and, 405, 406 Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory, 417–427 bent shape in, 419, 419–420f, 421, 424f, 447 defined, 417, G-16 electron-group arrangements, 418, 418f hydrides and, 451 limitations of, 443 linear arrangement, 418–419f, 419, 422, 422f, 424f molecules with multiple central atoms, 426–427, 427f octahedral arrangement, 418f, 422–424f seesaw shape in, 422, 422f, 424f square planar shape, 423, 423–424f square pyramidal shape, 423, 423–424f tetrahedral arrangement, 418f, 420–421, 420f, 424f trigonal bipyramidal arrangement, 418f, 421–422, 422f, 424f trigonal planar arrangement, 418–419f, 419–420, 424f trigonal pyramidal shape, 420–421, 420f, 424f T shape in, 422, 422f, 424f using to determine molecular shape, 423, 425–426 Valence shell expansion, 414–416 Valence-state electronegativity, 1042–1043 Valine, 672f, 863 Vanadium abundance of, 1000, 1001t appearance of, 1038f as dietary trace element, 1064t electron configuration, 339, 340t, 1039t oxidation state, 1042, 1042t Vanadium carbide, 1013, 1013f Vanadyl sulfate dihydrate, 1043f van der Waals, Johannes, 243 van der Waals constants, 243, 243t, G-16 van der Waals equation, 243–244, G-16 van der Waals forces See Intermolecular forces van der Waals radius, 482, 482f, G-16 van’t Hoff, Jacobus, 564 van’t Hoff equation, 776–777 van’t Hoff factor, 564, 565f Vaporization defined, 471, G-16 as endothermic and spontaneous process, 897 heat of, 471, 471–472f, 491–492 liquid-gas equilibria and, 476–478, 476f molar enthalpy/entropy of, 902, 903t sweating and, 471, 471f Vapor pressure boiling point and, 479 defined, 477, G-16 equilibrium, 476f, 477 solute effect on vapor pressure of solution, 558–559, 558f temperature and intermolecular forces impacting, 477–478 of water, 227, 227t Vapor pressure lowering, 558–559, 558f, G-16 Variables, 12, G-16 VB theory See Valence bond theory Vehicles See Automobiles Vibration, infrared spectroscopy and, 384, 384–385f Vibrational motion, entropy and, 909, 909f Villard, Paul, 1075 Vinegar, 171, 793 Vinyl chloride, 619 Viscosity defined, 490, G-16 factors affecting, 490, 490t intermolecular forces and, 489t, 490 of liquid crystal phase, 509–510 of polymers, 516–517, 517f Vision, chemistry of, 645–646, 646f Vitalism, 633 Vitamin B12, 829 Vitamin C, 108–109, 814–815 Vitamin E, 414 Volatile liquids, finding molar mass of, 224–225 Volatile nonelectrolyte solutions, 564 Volatility, defined, 83, G-16 Voltage, 950, 950t See also Cell potential Voltaic cells See also Batteries action of, 949, 949mn activity series of metals and, 958–959 cell potential of, 950–959 comparison with electrolytic cells, 944, 944f, 974–975, 976t construction and operation of, 946–947 corrosion of iron and, 972–974 defined, 944, G-16 dental fillings and, 959, 959f diagramming, 948–949 electrodes and, 944, 944mn notation for, 948–949 relative strengths of oxidizing and reducing agents and, 953–957 spontaneous redox reactions and, 945–949, 945f, 954–957 standard cell potential of, 950–953, 950f, 959–966 standard electrode potential, 950–956, 952f, 954t standard hydrogen electrode and, 951–952, 952f Voltmeters, 950n Volt (V), 950, G-16 Volume amount and, 214–215, 214f, 218–219, 223 Avogadro’s law and, 214–215, 214f, 223 Boyle’s law and, 211–212, 211f, 217–218, 223, 902 Charles’s law and, 212–213, 212f converting units of, 21–22 defined, 15, G-16 effect of change on equilibrium, 773–775, 774f, 777t English equivalents, 15t examples of, 17f as extensive property, 27, 27f gases and, 206, 211–212, 211f, 217–218 laboratory glassware for working with, 15, 16f pressure and, 206, 211–212, 211f, 217–218 SI units, 15, 15t, 16f standard molar, 215, 215f temperature and, 212–213, 212f, 218, 219–220 Volume percent, 554, G-16 Volumetric glassware, 15, 16f VSEPR theory See Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory V shape, in VSEPR theory, 419, 419–420f, 421, 424f, 447 W Waage, Peter, 750 Wastewater, 571, G-16 Water acid-base reactions and formation of, 167 acids and bases in, 747, 794–798 alkali metal reactions with, 592, 592mn amphiprotic nature of, 804 aqueous ionic reactions, 155–157, 156f autoionization of, 798–803, 799f, 827 behavior of salts in, 823–824, 825t bent shape of, 146, 146f, 447, 447f boiling point elevation constant, 560t boiling point of, 26, 26f, 27t capillarity of, 489–490, 490f, 492 chemical changes in, 5, 5f collecting gas over, 227–228, 227f cooling curve for, 473f covalent bonds in, 67 Index    I-29 covalent compounds in, 150 density of, 24t, 492 dipole moment, 428 dissociation of, 167 Earth’s temperature and, 268 electrolysis of, 183, 283, 977–978, 977f, 1023 formation from methane and oxygen, 8mn freezing point depression constant, 560t freezing point of, 26, 26f, 27t gas solubility in, 550 hard, 570–571 heat of fusion, 471, 471f heat of vaporization, 471, 471f heat of vaporization of, 491–492 in hydrates, 72 hydrogen bonds in, 491, 491f hydrogen displacement from, 184, 184f intermolecular forces, 534f ionic compounds in, 146–149, 146f, 159t ion-product constant for, 799–803, 799f ion-radical, 1095 meniscus shape in glass, 489–490, 490f molecular mass of, 76 molecular shape of, 421, 428 phase changes of, 471, 473–474, 473f phase diagram for, 480–481, 480f physical changes in, 5, 5f, 6–7 polar nature of, 146, 146f, 428 solvent properties of, 145–155, 491, 535–536, 536f, 536t, 908, 908f specific heat capacity of, 268, 268t, 491 supercritical, 480 surface tension of, 489, 489t, 492 thermal properties of, 491–492 triple point of, 481 uniqueness of, 491–492, 493f vapor pressure of, 227, 227t viscosity of, 489–490t Water gas, 281, 1023 Water-gas shift reactions, 281, 1023 Water purification, 570–571 Water softening, 570–571, 571f, G-16 Water striders, 489mn Water treatment plants, 570, 570f Water vapor, 6, 472 Wave behavior, comparison of particle behavior to, 299, 299f Wave function, 314, 314f, 317, 317f, G-16 Wavelength de Broglie, 311, 311t defined, G-16 in electromagnetic radiation, 296, 296–297f, 297–298 of electron transition, 307 interconverting frequency and, 297–298, 301–302 line spectra and, 302–303, 306 Wave motion in restricted systems, 310, 310f Wave nature of electrons, 310–312, 310f Wave nature of light, 296–298 Wave-particle duality, 312, 312f, G-16 Waxes, 538 Weak-acid equilibria problem solving, 808–815 concentration and, 809–813 general approach for, 808 notation system for, 809 polyprotic acids in, 813–815, 814t Weak acids See also Acid strength acid-dissociation constant values for, 796, 796t anions as weak bases, 820–821 categorization of, 165, 165t, 797 direction of reactions involving, 806 dissociation of, 189, 795–796, 795f reactions involving, 170–171, 170t relation to weak bases, 818–822 structural features of, 166–167 weak-acid equilibria, 808–815 weak acid–strong base titration curves, 855–859, 855f Weak bases anions of weak acids as, 820–821 categorization of, 165, 165t, 797 dissociation of, 189 reactions involving, 170–171, 170t relation to weak acids, 818–822 structural features of, 166–167 weak base–strong acid titration curves, 859–860, 859f Weak-field ligands, 1058, 1058f, 1060, 1060–1061f, G-16 Weathering, 1006 Weight, 17, G-16 Welding, 507 Whiskers of silicon carbide, 513 White phosphorus, 606, 606f Wöhler, Friedrich, 633 Wood cellulose in, 671 as fuel, 281 specific heat capacity of, 268t Work defined, 259, G-16 done on (or by) a system, 259–260, 260f energy transfer as, 259–260, 260f free energy and electrical work, 959–967 free energy change and, 919–920 pressure-volume work, 263–264, 264f sign conventions, 261t units of, 261 Wulfenite, 493f X Xanthophylls, 1057 Xenon intermolecular forces, 534f mole fraction of air at sea level, 239t properties of, 622–624 Xenon tetrafluoride, 423, 624, 624f X-ray diffraction analysis, 500, 500f, G-16 X-ray photons, 1077 X-rays diffraction, 311, 311f, 500, 500f opacity of barium sulfate suspension, 869, 869mn radiation dose from, 1096, 1096t wavelength of, 296, 297f Xylenes, 648 Y Yield actual, 128 green chemistry perspective on, 129–130 in multistep syntheses, 129, 129f percent, 128–129 side reactions and, 128, 128f theoretical, 128 -yl (suffix), 639, 640t -yne (suffix), 646, 655t Z Zeolites, 1023 Zero, absolute, 26 Zero-order reactions comparison with first- and second-order reactions, 715t defined, 700 half-life of, 715 integrated rate law and, 709, 711, 711f, 715t rate constant for, 704t rate law and, 700, 700f rate vs reactant concentration in, 700f reactant concentration vs time in, 700f Zewail, Ahmed H., 719 Ziegler, Karl, 668 Ziegler-Natta catalysts, 668 Zinc abundance of, 1000, 1001t alloys, 1013, 1013f, 1013t appearance of, 1039f in batteries, 968, 968f as dietary trace element, 1064t electron configuration, 340, 340t, 358, 1039, 1039t enzyme function and, 1064 in galvanizing process, 974 mineral sources of, 1008t oxidation state, 1042, 1042t reaction with a strong and a weak acid, 796, 796f redox reactions involving, 940f in voltaic cells, 945–946f, 945–949, 952–953, 952f, 962–964, 964f Zinc blende, 503, 503f Zinc chloride, 151–152 Zinc formate, 826 Zinc hydroxide, 882 Zinc iodate, 866t Zinc ions, 69t Zinc oxide, 512, 1010 Zinc sulfate heptahydrate, 1043f Zircon, 603, 603f Zirconia, 513 Zirconium, 1044, 1078 Zone refining, 599, 1012, 1012f, G-16 Zwitterion, 863 Data Tables Fundamental Physical Constants (six significant figures) NA amu e F me mn mp h c g R Avogadro’s number atomic mass unit charge of the electron (or proton) Faraday constant mass of the electron mass of the neutron mass of the proton Planck’s constant speed of light in a vacuum standard acceleration of gravity universal gas constant = 6.02214×1023/mol = 1.66054×10−27 kg = 1.60218×10−19 C = 9.64853×104 C/mol = 9.10939×10−31 kg = 1.67493×10−27 kg = 1.67262×10−27 kg = 6.62607×10−34 J⋅s = 2.99792×108 m/s = 9.80665 m/s2 = 8.31447 J/(mol⋅K) = 8.20578×10−2 (atm⋅L)/(mol⋅K) SI Unit Prefixes p pico10−12 n nano10−9 μ micro10−6 m milli10−3 c centi10−2 d deci10−1 k kilo103 M mega106 G giga109 Conversions and Relationships Length Volume dm3 = 10−3 m3 = liter (L) = 1.057 quarts (qt) cm3 = mL m3 = 35.3 ft3 km = 1000 m = 0.62 mile (mi) inch (in) = 2.54 cm 1m = 1.094 yards (yd) ˚ pm = 10−12 m = 0.01 A kg Pressure SI unit: cubic meter, m3 SI unit: meter, m SI unit: pascal, Pa = N/m2 = kg/m⋅s2 atm = 1.01325×105 Pa = 760 torr bar = 1×105 Pa Pa Mass Energy Math relationships SI unit: kilogram, kg SI unit: joule, J π = 3.1416 volume of sphere = 43 πr3 volume of cylinder = πr2h = 10 g = 2.205 lb metric ton (t) = 103 kg 2 = kg⋅m /s = coulomb⋅volt (1 C⋅V) cal = 4.184 J eV = 1.602×10−19 J 1J Temperature SI unit: kelvin, K 0K = −273.15°C mp of H2O = 0°C (273.15 K) bp of H2O = 100°C (373.15 K) T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15 T (°C) = [T (°F) − 32] 59 T (°F) = 95T (°C) + 32 Useful Data and Information Atomic and Molecular Properties Atomic radii Bond energies Bond lengths Ground-state electron configurations Electronegativity values Ionic radii First ionization energies Molecular shapes Figure 8.13, p 346 Table 9.2, p 381 Table 9.2, p 381 Figure 8.9, p 341 Figure 9.21, p 391 Figure 8.29, p 360 Figure 8.16, p 349 Figure 10.10, p 424 Equilibrium Constants and Thermodynamic Data Ka of hydrated metal ions Ka of selected acids Strengths of conjugate acid-base pairs Kb of amine bases Kf of complex ions Ksp of slightly soluble ionic compounds Standard electrode potentials, E °half-cell Standard free energies of formation, ΔG °f Standard heats of formation, ΔH f° Standard molar entropies, S° Appendix C, p A-12 Appendix C, pp A-8 to A-10 Figure 18.8, p 806 Appendix C, p A-11 Table 19.4, p 878, and Appendix C, p A-12 Appendix C, p A-13 Appendix D, p A-14 Appendix B, pp A-5 to A-7 Appendix B, pp A-5 to A-7 Appendix B, pp A-5 to A-7 Names and Formulas Ligands Metal ions in complex anions Metals with more than one monatomic ion Monatomic ions Organic functional groups Polyatomic ions Table 23.7, p 1050 Table 23.8, p 1050 Table 2.4, p 71 Table 2.3, p 69 Table 15.5, p 655 Table 2.5, p 72 Properties of the Elements Group 1A(1): Alkali metals Group 2A(2): Alkaline earth metals Group 3A(13): Boron family Group 4A(14): Carbon family Group 5A(15): Nitrogen family Group 6A(16): Oxygen family Group 7A(17): Halogens Group 8A(18): Noble gases Period transition metals, atomic properties Period transition metals, oxidation states p 591 p 594 p 596 p 599 p 605 p 613 p 618 p 623 Figure 23.3, p 1040 Table 23.2, p 1042 Miscellaneous Rules for assigning an oxidation number SI-English equivalent quantities Solubility rules for ionic compounds in water Vapor pressure of water Table 4.4, p 176 Table 1.4, p 15 Table 4.1, p 159 Table 5.2, p 227 ... SETTING THE STANDARD FOR A CHEMISTRY TEXT The eighth edition of Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter and Change maintains its standard-setting position among general chemistry textbooks by evolving... concepts Chemistry is the scientific study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes Matter is the “stuff” of the universe: air,... Studying Chemistry: Definitions, Units, and Problem Solving 1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions 1.2 The States of Matter The Properties of Matter and Its Changes The Central Theme in Chemistry The Importance