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Tap into engagement MindTap empowers you to produce your best work—consistently MindTap is designed to help you master the material Interactive videos, animations, and activities create a learning path designed by your instructor to guide you through the course and focus on what’s important MindTap delivers real-world activities and assignments that will help you in your academic life as well as your career Flashcards ReadSpeaker Progress App MyNotes & Highlights MindTap helps you stay organized and efficient by giving you the study tools to master the material Self Quizzing & Practice MindTap empowers and motivates with information that shows where you stand at all times—both individually and compared to the highest performers in class “MindTap was very useful – it was easy to follow and everything was right there.” — Student, San Jose State University “I’m definitely more engaged because of MindTap.” — Student, University of Central Florida “MindTap puts practice questions in a format that works well for me.” — Student, Franciscan University of Steubenville Tap into more info at: www.cengage.com/mindtap Source Code: 14M-AA0105 Engaged with you www.cengage.com Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE FIFTEENTH EDITION Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it ABOUT THE COVER PHOTO In 2005, nature journalist Richard Louv hypothesized that many people, especially children, have experienced nature-deficit disorder, a series of problems resulting from their spending increasingly less time in the natural world Many children and young adults spend most of their free time indoors watching TV and using smart phones, computers, and other electronic devices Evidence indicates that such isolation from nature could be contributing to stress, anxiety, depression, irritability, difficulty in dealing with change, and excessive body weight In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, about 33% of all children and 69% of all adults over age 20 are overweight or obese Also, the indoor air in U.S homes and buildings is typically to times more polluted than outdoor air, according to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency, which could be contributing to the increasing incidence of certain lung ailments Nature-deficit disorder is partly an effect of urbanization More than half of the world’s people now live in urban areas, many of which not have enough parks and recreational areas to make it easy for people to get out Cities also have higher crime rates than rural areas, and the continuous news cycle along with social networking keep people hyper-informed about crime and other threats Thus, many people are afraid to venture out Research indicates that children and adults can gain many benefits by playing and exploring outdoors, hiking, jogging, snorkeling (see cover photo), fishing, gardening, and bird-watching Such activities can foster better health, reduce stress, improve mental abilities, and stimulate imagination and creativity Experiencing nature can also provide a sense of wonder and connection to life on Earth, which keeps us alive and supports our economies Environmental scientists have identified this increasing isolation from nature as one of the five major causes of the environmental problems we face Without an understanding of our utter dependence on nature for food, shelter, clean air, clean water, and many other natural resources and services, we become more likely to degrade our environment With such an understanding, we will be more likely to reverse such degradation and to contribute positively to the environment and thus to our own well-being Jason Edwards/National Geographic Creative Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Environmental Science Fifteenth Edition G Tyler Miller Scott E Spoolman Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it This is an electronic version of the print textbook Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Environmental Science, Fifteenth Edition G Tyler Miller, Scott E Spoolman © 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning Product Director: Mary Finch ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, 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product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be e-mailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Library of Congress Control Number: 2014946046 Student Edition: ISBN-13: 978-1-305-09044-6 Copy Editor: Graphic World Inc ISBN-10: 1-305-09044-6 Illustrator: ScEYEnce Studios Loose-leaf Edition: Text and Cover Designer: Hespenheide Design ISBN-13: 978-1-305-25750-4 Cover Image: © Jason Edwards/National Geographic Creative ISBN-10: 1-305-25750-2 Compositor: Graphic World Inc Cengage Learning 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with office locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com FSC FPO printer to insert logo Printed in Canada Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2014 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it BRIEF CONTENTS Detailed Contents vi Preface for Instructors xiv Note to Students xxiii HUMANS AND SUSTAINABILITY: AN OVERVIEW Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability ECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABILITY Science, Matter, Energy, and Systems 24 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work? 40 Biodiversity and Evolution 62 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession, and Population Control 82 The Human Population and Urbanization 100 Climate and Biodiversity 128 SUSTAINING BIODIVERSITY Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services 160 Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services 184 SUSTAINING RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 10 Food Production and the Environment 214 11 Water Resources and Water Pollution 248 12 Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources 288 13 Energy Resources 312 14 Environmental Hazards and Human Health 358 15 Air Pollution, Climate Change, and Ozone Depletion 16 Solid and Hazardous Waste 428 SUSTAINING HUMAN SOCIETIES 17 Environmental Economics, Politics, and Worldviews 386 452 Supplements S1 Glossary G1 Michael Nichols/National Geographic Creative Index I1 v Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it contents Dudarev Mikhail/Shutterstock.com JENS SCHLUETER/AFP/Getty Images Preface for Instructors Note to Students xiv xxiii 2 Science, Matter, Energy, HUMANS AND SUSTAINABILITY: AN OVERVIEW and Systems 24 Key Questions24 CORE CASE STUDY How Do Scientists Learn about Nature? Experimenting with a Forest 1 Environmental Problems, Their Causes, and Sustainability ECOLOGY AND SUSTAINABILITY Key Questions2 CORE CASE STUDY The Greening of American Campuses4 1.1 What Are Some Principles of Sustainability?5 1.2 How Are Our Ecological Footprints Affecting the Earth?10 1.3 Why Do We Have Environmental Problems?13 individuals matter Juan Martinez—Working to Reconnect People with Nature17 1.4 What Is an Environmentally Sustainable Society? 20 Tying It All Together 21 Chapter Review 21 Critical Thinking 22 Doing Environmental Science 23 Global Environment Watch Exercise 23 Ecological Footprint Analysis 23 26 2.1 What Do Scientists Do?27 individuals matter Jane Goodall: Chimpanzee Researcher and Protector 28 2.2 What Is Matter and What Happens When It Undergoes Change?29 2.3 What Is Energy and What Happens When It Undergoes Change?33 2.4 What Are Systems and How Do They Respond to Change?36 Tying It All Together37 Chapter Review38 Critical Thinking38 Doing Environmental Science39 Global Environment Watch Exercise39 Data Analysis39 Ecosystems: What Are They and How Do They Work? 40 Key Questions 40 CORE CASE STUDY Tropical Rain Forests Are Disappearing 42 3.1 How Does the Earth’s Life-Support System Work? 43 3.2 What Are the Major Components of an Ecosystem? 44 SCIENCE FOCUS Many of the World’s Most Important Organisms Are Invisible to Us 46 3.3 What Happens to Energy in an Ecosystem? 48 3.4 What Happens to Matter in an Ecosystem? 50 SCIENCE FOCUS Water’s Unique Properties individuals matter Thomas E Lovejoy—Forest Researcher and Biodiversity Educator 3.5 How Do Scientists Study Ecosystems? 51 57 57 SCIENCE FOCUS Testing Planetary Boundaries: From Holocene to Anthropocene58 Tying It All Together59 Chapter Review60 Critical Thinking60 vi Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Darlyne A Murawski/National Geographic Creative Robert King/Shutterstock.com Doing Environmental Science61 SCIENCE F OCUS Geological Processes Affect Biodiversity76 Doing Environmental Science98 Global Environment Watch Exercise61 Tying It All Together78 Global Environment Watch Exercise99 Data Analysis61 Chapter Review79 Data Analysis99 Critical Thinking79 4 Biodiversity and Evolution Doing Environmental Science80 62 Key Questions 62 CORE CASE STUDY Why Are Amphibians Vanishing?64 4.1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important?65 SCIENCE F O CUS Insects Play a Vital Role in Our World66 individuals matter Edward O Wilson: A Champion of Biodiversity67 4.2 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems?68 CASE STUDY The American Alligator—A Keystone Species That Almost Went Extinct69 SCIENCE F O CUS Scientists Are Searching for the Causes of Amphibian Declines70 Global Environment Watch Exercise80 Data Analysis81 Species Interactions, Ecological Succession, and Population Control 82 Key Questions82 CORE CASE STUDY The Southern Sea Otter: A Species in Recovery84 6 The Human Population and Urbanization 100 Key Questions100 CORE CASE STUDY Portland, Oregon: On a Quest for Urban Sustainability102 6.1 How Many People Can the Earth Support?103 SCIENCE F OCU S How Long Can the Human Population Keep Growing?104 5.1 How Do Species Interact?85 6.2 What Factors Influence the Size of the Human Population?104 SCIENCE FOCUS Threats to Kelp Forests86 CASE STUDY The U.S Population— Third Largest and Growing105 5.2 How Do Communities and Ecosystems Respond to Changing Environmental Conditions?89 6.3 How Does a Population’s Age Structure Affect Its Growth or Decline?108 5.3 What Limits the Growth of Populations?91 CASE STUDY The American Baby Boom109 SCIENCE FOCUS Why Do California’s Southern Sea Otters Face An Uncertain Future?95 6.4 What Are Some Ways to Slow Human Population Growth?110 4.3 How Does the Earth’s Life Change Over Time?72 Tying It All Together97 CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth in India112 4.4 What Factors Affect Biodiversity?74 Critical Thinking98 Why Should We Protect Sharks?71 CASE STUDY Chapter Review97 CASE STUDY Slowing Population Growth in China113 Table of Contents vii Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Mountains play important ecological roles FIGURE 7.16 Mountains, such as this one near Aspen, Colorado, provide vital ecosystem services Charles Kogod/National Geographic Stock Conservationist, mountain explorer, and Emerging ational Geographic Explorer Gregg Treinish is trying to N change this situation He founded Adventurers and Scientists for Conservation (ASC) This nonprofit organization connects outdoor adventurers who volunteer to collect data during their travels with researchers who are focused on identifying the effects of climate change on mountain ecosystems, as well as the conservation needs for threatened wildlife species, diminishing habitats, and rapidly changing ecosystems Treinish, who was also National Geographic Adventurer of the Year in 2008–09, leads his own research expeditions to many of the world’s rugged mountain regions Humans Have Disturbed Much of the Earth’s Land According to the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and later updates of such research, about 60% of the world’s major terrestrial ecosystems are being degraded or used unsustainably, as the human ecological footprint gets bigger and spreads across the globe (see Figure 1.10, p 12) Figure 7.17 summarizes some of the most harmful human impacts on the world’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains (Concept 7.2B) How long can we keep eating away at these terrestrial forms of natural capital without threatening our econo- Concept 7.2 145 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Natural Capital Degradation Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems Grasslands Large desert cities Conversion to cropland Destruction of soil and underground habitat by off-road vehicles Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning grassland Depletion of groundwater Overgrazing by livestock Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction Oil production and off-road vehicles in arctic tundra Forests Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development Mountains Agriculture Timber and mineral extraction Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs Damage from off-road vehicles Air pollution blowing in from urban areas and power plants Pollution of forest streams Soil damage from off-road vehicles © Cengage Learning Deserts FIGURE 7.17 Human activities have had major impacts on the world’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains, as summarized here Question: For each of these biomes, which two of the impacts listed you think are the most harmful? Left: somchaij/Shutterstock.com Left center: Orientaly/Shutterstock.com Right center: Eppic | Dreamstime.com Right: Vasik Olga/Shutterstock.com mies and the long-term survival of our own and many other species? No one knows But there are increasing signs that we need to come to grips with this vital issue 7.3 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF MARINE AQUATIC SYSTEMS AND HOW ARE HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THEM? CONCEPT 7.3 Oceans dominate the planet and provide vital ecosystem and economic services that are being disrupted by human activities Water Covers Most of the Planet When viewed from outer space, the earth appears as a mostly blue planet with about 71% of its surface covered with ocean water Although the global ocean is a single and continuous body of saltwater, geographers divide it into five large areas—the Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, and Southern Oceans—separated by the continents Together, the oceans hold almost 98% of the earth’s water Each of us is connected to, and utterly dependent on, the earth’s global ocean through the water cycle (see Figure 3.13, p 52) The aquatic equivalents of biomes are called aquatic life zones—saltwater and freshwater portions of the biosphere that can support life The distribution of many aquatic organisms is determined largely by the water’s salinity—the amounts of various salts such as sodium chloride dissolved in a given volume of water As a result, aquatic life zones are classified into two major types: saltwater or marine life zones (oceans and their bays, estuaries, coastal wetlands, shorelines, coral reefs, and mangrove forests) and freshwater life zones (lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands) In most aquatic systems, the key factors determining the types and numbers of organisms found at various depths are water temperature, dissolved oxygen content, avail- 146 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Oceans Provide Vital Ecosystem and Economic Services Oceans provide enormously valuable ecosystem and economic services (Figure 7.18) that help to keep us and other species alive and that support our economies They are also enormous reservoirs of biodiversity Marine life is found in three major life zones: the coastal zone, the open sea, and the ocean bottom (Figure 7.19) The coastal zone is the warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the high-tide mark on land to the gently sloping, shallow edge of the continental shelf (the submerged part of the continents) It makes up less than 10% of the world’s ocean area, but it contains 90% of all marine species and is the site of most large commercial marine fisheries This zone’s aquatic systems include estuaries, coastal marshes, mangrove forests, and coral reefs An estuary is where a river meets the sea (Figure 7.20) It is a partially enclosed body of water where seawater mixes with the river’s freshwater, as well as nutrients and pollutants in runoff from the land Estuaries are associated with coastal wetlands— coastal land areas covered with water all or part of the year These wetlands, which are some of the earth’s most productive ecosystems (see Figure 3.12, p 50) include coastal marshes (Figure 7.21) and mangrove forests (Figure 7.22) Sea-grass beds (Figure 7.23), another component of coastal marine biodiversity, are underwater ecosystems in shallow coastal waters that host as many as 60 species of grasses and other plants, located along most continental coastlines These coastal aquatic systems provide important ecosystem and economic services They help to maintain water quality in tropical coastal zones by filtering toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, and sediments, and by absorbing other pollutants They provide food, habitats, and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species They also reduce storm damage and coastal erosion by absorbing waves and storing excess water produced by storms and tsunamis CASE STUDY Revisiting Coral Reefs—Amazing Centers of Biodiversity As we noted in the Core Case Study, coral reefs (see chapter-opening photo) are some of the world’s oldest and most diverse and productive ecosystems These centers of aquatic biodiversity are the marine equivalents of tropical rain forests, with complex interactions among their diverse Natural Capital Marine Ecosystems E c o s y s te m S e rv ic e s E conomic S ervices Oxygen supplied through photosynthesis Food Water purification Climate moderation CO2 absorption Nutrient cycling Reduced storm damage (mangroves, barrier islands, coastal wetlands) Biodiversity: species and habitats Energy from waves and tides Pharmaceuticals Harbors and transportation routes Recreation and tourism Employment Minerals © Cengage Learning ability of food, and availability of light and nutrients required for photosynthesis, such as carbon (as dissolved CO2 gas), nitrogen (as NO3−), and phosphorus (mostly as PO43−) FIGURE 7.18 Marine systems provide a number of important eco- system and economic services (Concept 7.3) Questions: Which two ecosystem services and which two economic services you think are the most important? Why? Top: Willyam Bradberry/Shutterstock.com Bottom: James A Harris/Shutterstock.com populations of species Many scientists are carrying out research on the world’s shallow and deep coral reefs For example, with a National Geographic research grant, ecologist Rhian Waller has studied life on deep-sea coral reefs to gather information about how they function and about how to protect them from damaging human activities Worldwide, coral reefs are being damaged and destroyed at an alarming rate by a variety of human activities The newest growing threat is ocean acidification— the rising levels of acidity in ocean waters This is occurring because the oceans absorb about 25% of the CO2 emitted into the atmosphere by human activities, especially the burning of carbon-containing fossil fuels The CO2 reacts with ocean water to form a weak acid (carbonic acid, H2CO3) This reaction decreases the levels of carbonate ions (CO32−) necessary for the formation of coral reefs and the shells and skeletons of marine organisms such as crabs, oysters, mussels, and some phytoplankton This is making it harder for these species to thrive and reproduce, and at some point, this rising acidity could slowly dissolve corals and the shells and skeletons of these marine species Ocean acidification and other forms of degradation could have devastating effects on the biodiversity of coral reefs, on the food webs dependent on them, and on the ecosystem services they provide Coral reef degradation and destruction will also have a severe impact on the apConcept 7.3 147 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Coastal Zone Open Sea Depth in meters Sea level 50 Estuarine Zone Euphotic Zone 100 Continental shelf Photosynthesis Low tide 200 Bathyal Zone 500 1,000 Twilight High tide 1,500 2,000 Abyssal Zone 3,000 4,000 Darkness Water temperature drops rapidly between the euphotic zone and the abyssal zone in an area called the thermocline 10,000 10 15 20 25 © Cengage Learning 5,000 30 Water temperature (°C) FIGURE 7.19 Major life zones and vertical zones (not drawn to scale) in an ocean Actual depths of zones may vary Available light determines the euphotic, bathyal, and abyssal zones Temperature zones also vary with depth, shown here by the red line Question: How is an ocean like a rain forest? (Hint: See Figure 7.15.) sediment plume (cloudiness caused by runoff) forms at the mouth of Madagascar’s Betsiboka River as it flows through the estuary and into the Mozambique Channel 148 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it NASA FIGURE 7.20 Satellite photo of an estuary A FIGURE 7.21 Coastal marsh near Cape Cod, Massachusetts Michael Melford/National Geographic Stock FIGURE 7.22 Mangrove forest on the coast of Thailand Manit Larpluechai | Dreamstime.com Concept 7.3 149 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it FIGURE 7.23 Sea-grass beds, such as this one near the coast of San Clemente Island, California, support a variety of marine species James Forte/National Geographic Stock proximately 500 million people who depend on them for their food or for income from fishing and tourism According to a 2013 study by more than 500 of the world’s leading experts on ocean acidification, since about 1800 on average, there has been a 26% rise in the acidity of ocean water—15% since the 1990s—with the largest increase occurring in deep cold waters near the poles (especially in the Arctic Sea) and along the West Coast waters of the United States These scientists project that by 2100, the oceans may be, on average, as much as 170% more acidic than they were in 1800, unless we sharply reduce our CO2 emissions In 2013, Richard Vevers and teams of marine scientists launched the Catlin Seaview Survey and the Underwater Earth Project These researchers are using sophisticated underwater cameras to create 3-D digital images of the world’s major coral reefs These two global data projects aim to provide a baseline of the health of the world’s coral 150 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it reefs and to identify areas that need emergency protection to keep the reefs from dying They are also aimed at greatly increasing public support for protection of coral reefs and other marine ecosystems Natural Capital Degradation Major Human Impacts on Marine Ecosystems and Coral Reefs Marine Ecosystems Coral Reefs The sharp increase in water depth at the edge of the continental shelf separates the coastal zone from the vast volume of the ocean called the open sea This aquatic life zone is divided into three vertical zones (Figure 7.19), or layers, primarily based on the degree of penetration of sunlight Temperatures also change with depth (Figure 7.19, red line) and we can use them to define zones of varying species diversity in these layers The euphotic zone is the brightly lit upper zone, where drifting phytoplankton carry out about 40% of the world’s photosynthetic activity Large, fast-swimming predatory fishes such as swordfish, sharks, and bluefin Half of coastal wetlands lost to Ocean warming agriculture and urban development tuna populate the euphotic zone Rising ocean acidity The bathyal zone is the dimly lit middle Over one-fifth of mangrove forests zone, which receives little sunlight and lost to agriculture, aquaculture, and Rising sea levels development therefore does not contain photosynthesizSoil erosion ing producers Zooplankton and smaller Beaches eroding due to development fishes, many of which migrate to feed on the and rising sea levels Algae growth from fertilizer runoff surface at night, are found in this zone Ocean-bottom habitats degraded by Bleaching The deepest zone, called the abyssal zone, dredging and trawler fishing is dark and very cold There is no sunlight to Increased UV exposure At least 20% of coral reefs severely support photosynthesis, and this zone has damaged and 25–33% more Damage from anchors and from little dissolved oxygen Nevertheless, the threatened fishing and diving deep ocean floor is teeming with life because it contains enough nutrients to support a FIGURE 7.24 Human activities are having major harmful impacts on large number of species Most organisms in all marine ecosystems (left) and particularly on coral reefs (right) the deep waters and on the ocean floor get their food from (Concept 7.3) Questions: Which two of the threats to marine ecoshowers of dead and decaying organisms—called marine systems you think are the most serious? Why? Which two of the snow—drifting down from upper, more lighted levels of threats to coral reefs you think are the most serious? Why? the ocean Top left: Jorg Hackemann/Shutterstock.com Top right: Rich Carey/Shutterstock.com Bottom left: Piotr Marcinski/Shutterstock.com Bottom right: Rostislav Ageev/Shutterstock.com Net primary productivity (NPP) is quite low in the open sea (Figure 3.12, p 50), except in upwelling areas, where currents bring up nutrients from the ocean bottom However, because the open sea covers so much of the earth’s surface, it makes the largest contribution to the earth’s lines, mangrove forests, and coral reefs, as summarized in overall NPP Figure 7.24 (Concept 7.3) We examine these harmful effects and possible ways to lessen them in Chapter Human Activities Are Disrupting and Degrading Marine Ecosystems Certain human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecosystem and economic services provided by marine aquatic systems, especially coastal marshes, shore © Cengage Learning The Open Sea and the Ocean Floor Host a Variety of Species CONSIDER THIS THINKING ABOUT Coral Reef Destruction How might the loss of most of the world’s remaining tropical coral reefs (Core Case Study) affect your life and the lives of any children or grandchildren you might have? What are two things you could to help reduce this loss? Concept 7.3 151 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it 7.4 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF FRESHWATER SYSTEMS AND HOW ARE HUMAN ACTIVITIES AFFECTING THEM? Natural Capital Freshwater Systems Ecosystem Services Economic Services CONCEPT 7.4 Freshwater lakes, rivers, and wetlands pro- Climate moderation Food vide important ecosystem and economic services that are being disrupted by human activities Nutrient cycling Drinking water Waste treatment Precipitation that does not sink into the ground or evaporate becomes surface water—freshwater that flows or is stored in bodies of water on the earth’s surface Freshwater aquatic life zones include standing bodies of freshwater such as lakes, ponds, and inland wetlands, and flowing systems such as streams and rivers Surface water that flows into such bodies of water is called runoff A watershed, or drainage basin, is the land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to a stream, lake, or wetland Although freshwater systems cover less than 2.2% of the earth’s surface, they provide a number of important ecosystem and economic services (Figure 7.25) Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed when precipitation, runoff, streams, rivers, and Irrigation water Flood control Hydroelectricity Groundwater recharge Transportation corridors Habitats for many species Genetic resources and biodiversity Recreation Scientific information Employment FIGURE 7.25 Freshwater systems provide many important ecosys- tem and economic services (Concept 7.4) Questions: Which two ecosystem services and which two economic services you think are the most important? Why? Top: Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock.com Bottom: Kletr/Shutterstock.com ANIMATED FIGURE 7.26 A typical Painted turtle deep temperate-zone lake has distinct zones of life Question: How are deep lakes like tropical rain forests? (Hint: See Figure 7.15.) Blue-winged teal Green frog Muskrat Pond snail Littoral zone Plankton Limn etic z unda Diving beetle Ben l zon Northern pike e thic z Yellow perch one Bloodworms © Cengage Learning one Prof 152 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it © Cengage Learning Water Stands in Some Freshwater Systems and Flows in Others FIGURE 7.27 Trillium Lake in the U.S state of Oregon with a view of Mount Hood tusharkoley/Shutterstock.com groundwater seepage fill depressions in the earth’s surface Causes of such depressions include glaciation (as in Lake Louise in Alberta, Canada), displacement of the earth’s crust (Lake Nyasa in East Africa), and volcanic activity A lake’s watershed supplies it with water from rainfall, melting snow, and streams Freshwater lakes vary tremendously in size, depth, and nutrient content Deep lakes normally consist of four distinct zones that are defined by their depth and distance from shore (Figure 7.26) Ecologists classify lakes according to their nutrient content and primary productivity Lakes that have a small supply of plant nutrients are called oligotrophic lakes This type of lake (Figure 7.27) is often deep and can have steep banks Glaciers and mountain streams supply water to many of these lakes, which usually have crystal-clear water and small populations of phytoplankton and fish species, such as smallmouth bass and trout Because of their low levels of nutrients, these lakes have a low net primary productivity Over time, sediments, organic material, and inorganic nutrients wash into most oligotrophic lakes, and plants grow and decompose to form bottom sediments A lake with a large supply of nutrients is called a eutrophic lake (Figure 7.28) Such lakes typically are shallow and have murky brown or green water Because of their high levels of nutrients, these lakes have a high net primary productivity Human inputs of nutrients through the atmosphere and from urban and agricultural areas within a lake’s watershed can accelerate the eutrophication of the lake This process, called cultural eutrophication, often puts excessive nutrients into lakes Most lakes fall somewhere between the two extremes of nutrient enrichment Concept 7.4 153 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it This lake has been overfertilized with plant nutrients flowing off the surrounding land FIGURE 7.28 This eutrophic lake has received large flows of plant nutrients As a result, its surface is covered with mats of algae Nicholas Rjabow | Dreamstime.com Freshwater Streams and Rivers Carry Large Volumes of Water In drainage basins, water accumulates in small streams that join to form rivers, which, collectively, carry huge amounts of water from highlands to lakes and oceans Typically, a stream flows through three zones (Figure 7.29): the source zone, which contains headwater streams found in highlands and mountains; the transition zone, which contains wider, lower-elevation streams; and the floodplain zone, which contains rivers that empty into larger rivers or into the ocean As streams flow downhill, they shape the land through which they pass Over millions of years, the friction of moving water has leveled mountains and cut deep canyons, and sand, gravel, and soil carried by streams and rivers have been deposited as sediment in low-lying areas At its mouth, a river may divide into many channels as it flows through its delta—an area at the mouth of a river built up by deposited sediment and often containing estuaries (Figure 7.20) and coastal wetlands (Figure 7.21) These important forms of natural capital absorb and slow the velocity of floodwaters from coastal storms, hurri- 154 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it FIGURE 7.29 Three zones in the downhill flow of water—the source zone (see photo), transition zone, and floodplain zone Glacier Headwaters kurdistan/Shutterstock Lake Rain and snow Rapids Waterfall Tributary Flood plain Oxbow lake Salt marsh Delta Deposited sediment Ocean Source Zone Sediment Water Floodplain Zone canes, and tsunamis and provide habitats for a wide variety of marine life Freshwater Inland Wetlands Are Vital Sponges Inland wetlands are lands located away from coastal areas that are covered with freshwater all or part of the time—excluding lakes, reservoirs, and streams They include marshes, swamps, and prairie potholes (depressions carved out by ancient glaciers) Other examples are floodplains, which receive excess water from streams or rivers during heavy rains and floods Some wetlands are covered with water year-round and others remain under water for only a short time each year The latter include prairie potholes, floodplain wetlands, and arctic tundra (see Figure 7.12, bottom) Inland wetlands provide a number of free ecosystem and economic services, which include: • filtering and degrading toxic wastes and pollutants; • reducing flooding and erosion by absorbing storm water and releasing it slowly, and by absorbing overflows from streams and lakes; â Cengage Learning Transition Zone ã helping to sustain stream flows during dry periods; • helping to recharge groundwater aquifers; • helping to maintain biodiversity by providing habitats for a variety of species; • supplying valuable products such as fishes and shellfish, blueberries, cranberries, and wild rice; and • providing recreation for birdwatchers, nature photographers, boaters, anglers, and waterfowl hunters Human Activities Are Disrupting and Degrading Freshwater Systems Human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecosystem and economic services provided by freshwater rivers, lakes, and wetlands (Concept 7.4) in four major ways First, dams and canals restrict the flows of about 40% of the world’s 237 largest rivers This alters or destroys terrestrial and aquatic wildlife habitats along these rivers and in their coastal deltas and estuaries by reducing water flow and the flow of sediments to river deltas Second, flood control levees and dikes built along rivers disConcept 7.4 155 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it individuals matter 7.1 Courtesy of Alexandra Cousteau Alexandra Cousteau is proud of her heritage as granddaughter of Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau and daughter of Philippe Cousteau Her father and grandfather were legendary underwater explorers who brought the mysteries and wonders of the oceans into living rooms around the world with their films and books The focus of Alexandra’s work is advocating the importance of conservation and sustainable management of water in order to preserve a healthy planet She seeks to make water one of the defining issues of this century, stating: “We live on a water planet, which means we’re all downstream from one another Where water comes from, where it goes, and its quality is intricately connected to our quality of life.” She is utilizing tools not even imagined by her grandfather—those of social networking and other modes of mobile communication She believes that environmental advocates can use such new media tools and technology to inform people about how their actions affect our water For example, she imagines a day in the future when knowing the quality and quantity of our water is as easy as checking the weather on our smart phones Alexandra’s nonprofit Blue Legacy International harnesses technology to tell the stories of our water planet and provides film and digital resources to allow others to explore and understand water issues A large number of scientists and other individuals are devoting their lives to understanding aquatic systems and learning how we can use them more sustainably (Individuals Matter 7.1) Big Ideas connect the rivers from their floodplains, destroy aquatic habitats, and alter or degrade the functions of adjoining wetlands Third, cities and farms add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to nearby streams, rivers, and lakes For example, runoff of nutrients into a lake (cultural eutrophication, Figure 7.28) causes explosions in the populations of algae and cyanobacteria, which deplete the lake’s dissolved oxygen Fishes and other species may then die off, which can mean a major loss in biodiversity Fourth, many inland wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or have been covered with concrete, asphalt, and buildings More than half of the inland wetlands estimated to have existed in the continental United States during the 1600s no longer exist About 80% of these lost wetlands were drained to grow crops This loss of natural capital has been an important factor in increasing flood damage in parts of the United States Many other countries have suffered similar losses For example, 80% of all inland wetlands in Germany and France have been destroyed • Differences in climate, based primarily on long-term differences in average temperature and precipitation, largely determine the types and locations of the earth’s deserts, grasslands, and forests • Saltwater and freshwater aquatic systems cover almost three-fourths of the earth’s surface, and oceans dominate the planet • The earth’s terrestrial and aquatic systems provide important ecosystem and economic services that are being degraded and disrupted by human activities 156 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Background photo: Lisa Heeter | Dreamstime.com Alexandra Cousteau: Environmental Storyteller and National Geographic Emerging Explorer Tying it ALL Together Coral Reefs and Sustainability ecological and economic importance of the world’s incredibly diverse coral reefs They are living examples of the three scientific principles of sustainability in action They thrive on solar energy, play key roles in the cycling of carbon and other chemicals, and sustain a great deal of aquatic biodiversity We also discussed the influence of climate on terrestrial biodiversity in the formation of biomes—deserts, grasslands, and forests—as well as the life forms that live in those systems These relationships are also in keeping with the three scientific principles of sustainability The earth’s dynamic climate system helps to distribute heat from solar energy and to recycle the earth’s nutrients This in turn helps to generate and support the biodiversity found in the earth’s various biomes Finally, we looked at how human activities are degrading the vital ecosystem and economic services that the earth’s terrestrial and aquatic systems provide Scientists call for much Chapter Review Core Case Study What are coral reefs and why should we care about them? What is coral bleaching? What are the major threats to coral reefs? Section 7.1 What is the key concept for this section? Distinguish between weather and climate Define ocean currents Describe three major factors that determine how air circulates in the lower atmosphere Explain how varying combinations of temperature and precipitation, along with global air circulation and ocean currents, lead to the formation of various types of forests, grasslands, and deserts Define and give three examples of a greenhouse gas What is the greenhouse effect and why is it important to the earth’s life and climate? What is the rain shadow effect and how can it lead to the formation of deserts? Why cities tend to have more haze and smog, higher temperatures, and lower wind speeds than the surrounding countryside? more research on the components and workings of the world’s terrestrial and aquatic systems, on how they are interconnected, and on which systems are in the greatest danger of being disrupted by human activities JonMilnes/Shutterstock.com This chapter’s Core Case Study pointed out the Section 7.2 What are the two key concepts for this section? What is a biome? Explain why there are three major types of each of the major biomes (deserts, grasslands, and forests) Explain why biomes are not uniform Describe how climate and vegetation vary with latitude and elevation What is the edge effect? Explain how the three major types of deserts differ in their climate and vegetation Why are desert ecosystems fragile? How desert plants and animals survive? Explain how the three major types of grasslands differ in their climate and vegetation What is a savanna? Why have many of the world’s temperate grasslands disappeared? What is permafrost? Explain how the three major types of forests differ in their climate and vegetation Why is biodiversity so high in tropical rain forests? Explain why most soils in tropical rain forests hold few plant nutrients Why does a thick layer of decaying litter typically cover the floors of temperate deciduous forests? What are coastal coniferous or temperate rain forests? How most species of coniferous evergreen trees survive the cold winters in boreal forests? What important ecological roles mountains play? Chapter Review 157 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it About what percentage of the world’s major terrestrial ecosystems are being degraded or used unsustainably? Summarize the ways in which human activities have affected the world’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains Section 7.3 What is the key concept for this section? What percentage of the earth’s surface is covered with ocean water? What is an aquatic life zone? Distinguish between a saltwater (marine) life zone and a freshwater life zone, and give two examples of each List five factors that determine the types and numbers of organisms found in the layers of aquatic life zones What major ecosystem and economic services are provided by marine systems? What are the three major life zones in an ocean? Define and distinguish between the coastal zone and the open sea Distinguish between an estuary and a coastal wetland Explain the ecological and economic importance of coastal marshes, mangrove forests, and sea-grass beds What is ocean acidification and why is it a threat to coral reefs? Describe the three major zones in the open sea List five human activities that pose major threats to marine systems and eight human activities that threaten coral reefs Critical Thinking What are three steps that governments and private interests could take to protect the world’s remaining coral reefs (Core Case Study)? Why most animals in a tropical rain forest live in its trees? How might the distribution of the world’s forests, grasslands, and deserts shown in Figure 7.10 differ if the prevailing winds shown in Figure 7.3 did not exist? Which biomes are best suited for (a) raising crops and (b) grazing livestock? Use the three scientific principles of sustainability to come up with three guidelines for growing crops and grazing livestock more sustainably in these biomes What type of biome you live in? (If you live in a developed area, what type of biome was the area before it was developed?) List three ways in which Section 7.4 What is the key concept for this section? Define surface water, runoff, and watershed (drainage basin) What major ecosystem and economic services freshwater systems provide? What is a lake? What four zones are found in deep lakes? Distinguish between oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes What is cultural eutrophication? Describe the three zones that a stream passes through as it flows from highlands to lower elevations What is a delta? Give three examples of inland wetlands and describe the ecological and economic importance of such wetlands List four ways in which human activities are disrupting and degrading many of the ecosystem and economic services provided by freshwater rivers, lakes, and wetlands How is Alexandra Cousteau attempting to educate people about the importance of aquatic systems? 10 What are this chapter’s three big ideas? Explain how terrestrial and aquatic systems are living examples of the scientific principles of sustainability in action Note: Key terms are in bold type your lifestyle could be contributing to the degradation of this biome What are three lifestyle changes that you could make in order to reduce your contribution? You are a defense attorney arguing in court for sparing a tropical rain forest from being cut down Give your three best arguments for the defense of this ecosystem Do the same for sparing a threatened coral reef (Core Case Study) If you had to choose between protecting a tropical rain forest and a coral reef, which one would you select? Explain Why is ocean acidification considered to be a very serious problem? If acidity levels in the ocean rise sharply during your lifetime, how might this affect you? Can you think of ways in which you might be contributing to this problem? What could you to reduce your impact? Suppose you have a friend who owns property that includes a freshwater wetland and the friend tells you she is planning to fill the wetland to make more room for her lawn and garden What would you say to this friend? 158 Chapter 7 CLIMATE AND BIODIVERSITY Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it write a description of the system, including its dominant vegetation and any animal life that you are aware of Also, note how any human disturbances have changed the system Compare your notes with those of your classmates Doing Environmental Science Find a natural ecosystem near where you live or go to school, either a terrestrial ecosystem such as a forest, or an aquatic system such as a lake or wetland Study and Global Environment Watch Exercise rates of coral reef destruction and what areas are seeing falling rates; and (c) what is being done to protect coral reefs in various areas Write a report on your findings Search for Coral reefs and use the topic portal to find information on (a) trends in the global rate of coral reef destruction; (b) what areas of the world are seeing rising In what month (or months) does the most precipitation fall in each of these areas? Data Analysis What are the driest months in each of these areas? In this chapter, you learned how long-term variations in average temperatures and average precipitation play a major role in determining the types of deserts, forests, and grasslands found in different parts of the world Below are typical annual climate graphs for a tropical grassland (savanna) in Africa and a temperate grassland in the Midwestern United States 3 What is the coldest month in the tropical grassland? What is the warmest month in the temperate grassland? 350 20 300 10 250 200 Freezing point –10 150 –20 100 –30 50 –40 J F M A M J J Month A S O N D 30 350 20 300 10 250 200 Freezing point –10 150 –20 100 –30 50 –40 J F M A M J J A S O N D Mean monthly precipitation (mm) 30 Mean monthly temperature (°C) TEMPERATE GRASSLAND (PRAIRIE) Mean monthly precipitation (mm) Mean monthly temperature (°C) TROPICAL GRASSLAND (SAVANNA) Month To access course materials, including Aplia homework, please visit www.cengagebrain.com WWW.CENGAGEBRAIN.COM 159 Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning All Rights Reserved May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s) Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it ... it Environmental Science, Fifteenth Edition G Tyler Miller, Scott E Spoolman © 2016, 2013 Cengage Learning Product Director: Mary Finch ALL RIGHTS RESERVED No part of this work covered by the... content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it Environmental Science Fifteenth Edition G Tyler Miller Scott E Spoolman Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom... Creative Robert King/Shutterstock.com Doing Environmental Science 61 SCIENCE F OCUS Geological Processes Affect Biodiversity76 Doing Environmental Science 98 Global Environment Watch Exercise61