Food microstructures microscopy, measurement and modelling edited by v j morris and k groves

Food microstructures © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Related titles: Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods (ISBN 978-1-84569-151-6) Designing functional foods: measuring and controlling food structure breakdown and absorption (ISBN 978-1-84569-432-6) Texture in food Volume 1: Semi-solid foods (ISBN 978-1-85573-673-3) Details of these books and a complete list of titles from Woodhead Publishing can be obtained by: • • • visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 832819; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 499140 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80, High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK) in North America, contacting our US office (e-mail: usmarketing@ woodheadpublishing.com; tel.: (215) 928 9112; address: Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA) If you would like e-versions of our content, please visit our online platform: www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Please recommend it to your librarian so that everyone in your institution can benefit from the wealth of content on the site We are always happy to receive suggestions for new books from potential editors To enquire about contributing to our Food Science, Technology and Nutrition series, please send your name, contact address and details of the topic/s you are interested in to nell.holden@woodheadpublishing.com We look forward to hearing from you The team responsible for publishing this book: Commissioning Editor: Sarah Hughes Publications Coordinator: Emily Cole Project Editor: Elizabeth Moss Editorial and Production Manager: Mary Campbell Production Editor: Mandy Kingsmill Project Manager: Annette Wiseman, RefineCatch Ltd Copyeditor: Jo Egré Proofreader: Eileen Power Cover Designer: Terry Callanan © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition: Number 254 Food microstructures Microscopy, measurement and modelling Edited by V J Morris and K Groves © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, 80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK www.woodheadpublishing.com www.woodheadpublishingonline.com Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia, PA 19102-3406, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, 303, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India www.woodheadpublishingindia.com First published 2013, Woodhead Publishing Limited © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 The publisher has made every effort to ensure that permission for copyright material has been obtained by authors wishing to use such material The authors and the publisher will be glad to hear from any copyright holder it has not been possible to contact The authors have asserted their moral rights This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with 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be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2013944631 ISBN 978-0-85709-525-1 (print) ISBN 978-0-85709-889-4 (online) ISSN 2042-8049 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (print) ISSN 2042-8057 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (online) The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards Typeset by RefineCatch Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk Printed by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall, UK © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Contents Contributor contact details Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition Dedication to Brian Hills Preface Introduction Part I Microstructure and microscopy Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM): principles and applications to food microstructures D J Stokes, FEI Company, The Netherlands 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 1.3 Environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) 1.4 Key applications of ESEM for the study of food microstructure 1.5 Conclusion and future trends 1.6 References Probe microscopy and photonic force microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures V J Morris, Institute of Food Research, UK 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Machines and methods: atomic force microscopes 2.3 Machines and methods: force spectroscopy 2.4 Machines and methods: optical tweezers and photonic microscopy 2.5 Applications of the atomic force microscope as a microscope © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 xi xv xxv xxvii xxix 3 11 21 22 27 27 29 33 40 42 vi Contents 2.6 2.7 2.8 Applications of atomic force microscopes as a force transducer Conclusion References Light microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures P A Gunning, Smith & Nephew Research Centre, UK 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Fundamentals of light microscopy 3.3 Specimen preparation 3.4 Specimen contrast enhancement: physical methods 3.5 Specimen contrast enhancement: chemical and biochemical methods 3.6 Interfacial microscopy 3.7 Recent and future developments 3.8 Conclusion 3.9 References Confocal microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures M A E Auty, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ireland 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Principle of confocal microscopy 4.3 Chemical contrast: identifying ingredients 4.4 Confocal microscopy of food products: a brief review 4.5 Model food systems 4.6 Reflectance confocal microscopy 4.7 Image processing and analysis 4.8 Time dependent studies: dynamic confocal microscopy 4.9 Future trends 4.10 Conclusion 4.11 Sources of further information and advice 4.12 References Optical coherence tomography (OCT), space-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (SRS) and time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS): principles and applications to food microstructures A Torricelli, Politecnico di Milano, Italy, L Spinelli, IFN-CNR, Italy, M Vanoli, CRA-IAA, Italy, M Leitner and A Nemeth, RECENDT GmbH, Austria and N N D Trong, B Nicolaï and W Saeys, KU Leuven, Belgium 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Optical coherence tomography (OCT) © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 51 56 57 62 62 64 71 77 82 90 92 93 94 96 96 97 100 104 109 112 113 115 118 122 122 123 132 132 135 Contents 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Space-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (SRS) Time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS) Conclusion and future trends Acknowledgements References Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures N Wellner, Institute of Food Research, UK 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Instrumentation 6.3 Data analysis 6.4 Applications 6.5 Conclusion and future trends 6.6 Sources of further information and advice 6.7 References Ultrasonic and acoustic microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures M J W Povey and N Watson, Leeds University, UK and N G Parker, Newcastle University, UK 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Theories of ultrasound propagation 7.3 Construction of an acoustic microscope 7.4 Operation and calibration of an acoustic microscope 7.5 Exemplars of acoustic microscopy and applications to food structure 7.6 Conclusion and future trends 7.7 Acknowledgements 7.8 References Using magnetic resonance to explore food microstructures P S Belton, University of East Anglia, UK 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The magnetic resonance experiment 8.3 Theoretical background 8.4 Practical applications of magnetic resonance systems 8.5 Nano-scale magnetic resonance 8.6 Conclusion and future trends 8.7 Sources of further information and advice 8.8 Acknowledgement 8.9 References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 vii 142 150 156 157 158 163 163 166 172 177 186 188 188 192 192 194 204 206 214 216 220 220 223 223 225 229 236 240 241 241 242 242 viii Contents X-ray micro-computed tomography for resolving food microstructures M Barigou and M Douaire, University of Birmingham, UK 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Description of X-ray techniques 9.3 Theory of X-ray tomography 9.4 Contrast, resolution and sample preparation techniques 9.5 Applications to food 9.6 Conclusion and future trends 9.7 References Part II Measurement, analysis and modelling of food microstructures 10 Food microstructure and rheology M A Rao, Cornell University, USA 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Traditional rheological methods and food structure 10.3 Microrheology 10.4 Conclusion 10.5 References 11 Tribology measurement and analysis: applications to food microstructures T B Mills and I T Norton, University of Birmingham, UK 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Background tribology 11.3 Techniques for measuring tribological parameters 11.4 Microstructural influences on tribological behaviour 11.5 Conclusion and future trends 11.6 References 12 Methods for modelling food cellular structures and the relationship between microstructure and mechanical and rheological properties S J Cox, Aberystwyth University, UK 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Foam structure 12.3 Dynamic properties of foams 12.4 Rheology 12.5 Conclusion 12.6 References © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 246 246 247 252 259 262 266 267 273 275 275 275 284 289 290 292 292 293 294 298 305 307 310 310 311 315 320 323 323 Contents 13 Granular and jammed food materials G C Barker, Institute of Food Research, UK 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Packing of granular food material 13.3 Jamming in granular materials 13.4 Research and developments in the study of granular systems 13.5 Conclusion 13.6 References 14 Modelling and computer simulation of food structures S R Euston, Heriot-Watt University, UK 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Molecular simulation methodology 14.3 Food biomolecular structure and function: proteins 14.4 Food biomolecular structure and function: carbohydrates and triglycerides 14.5 Adsorption of food biomolecules 14.6 Simulation of food colloids 14.7 Conclusion 14.8 Acknowledgements 14.9 References Appendix: Electron microscopy: principles and applications to food microstructures K Groves, Leatherhead Food Research, UK and M.L Parker, Institute of Food Research, UK A1.1 Introduction A1.2 Techniques and sample preparation A1.3 Applications of electron microscopy (EM) to the understanding of food product structure A1.4 Case studies A1.5 Developments in EM techniques and future prospects A1.6 New challenges and nanotechnology A1.7 Conclusion A1.8 References Index © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 ix 325 325 328 331 334 334 334 336 336 337 342 350 355 366 376 377 377 386 386 388 404 411 418 421 422 423 429 424 Food microstructures DODSON, A G., BEACHAM, J., WRIGHT, S J C and LEWIS, D F (1984a), 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SNYDER, R L (1942), A scanning electron microscope, ASTM Bull., 117, 15–23 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Index Abbe’s equation, 387 absorption, 247, 250 acid gelation structure deformation and fracture behaviour of filled gels, 117–18 Hencky’s strain dependence of true stress on tensile stretching, 119 structure formation of CSLM monitoring in milk, 116–17 acoustic microscopy, 192–219 construction of an acoustic microscope, 204–6 exemplars of acoustic microscopy, 214–16 integrated circuits, 215–16 future trends, 216–19 new information for improved understanding of food structure, 216, 217, 218, 219 emulsion stability, 216 volume fraction from speed of sound in freely creaming emulsion, 219 operation and calibration of an acoustic microscope, 206–14 theories of ultrasound propagation, 194–204 acoustic intensity distribution for the piston transducer, 200 harmonic description of wave propagation, 195–9 particle position, displacement and spatial pressure variation, 196 pressure field distribution in front of a piston transducer, 197 reflection-mode scanning acoustic microscope, 203 resolution and propagation distance of scanning acoustic microscope, 201 scanning methods, 203–4 seven cycle pulse, 201 shear pulse, 197 sonic beam formation, 199–203 speed of sound and attenuation coefficient in distilled temperature, 202 transducer/beam characteristics, 206–9 Acoustiscan, 216 acousto-optical microscopy, 216–19 Acridine Orange, 88 adhesion, 31–2 amplitude modulation, 251 angular reflection, 212–13 antibody labelling, 90 Anton Paar system, 296 apples OCT applications, 139–40 aqueous materials, 13–17 arabinoxylans (AX), 185 athermal, 327, 329 atomic force microscopy (AFM), 240, 364 biopolymer gels, 45–7 deformable colloids, foams and emulsions, 52–6 force transducer applications, 51–6 interfacial structures, foams and emulsions, 47–51 intermolecular binding and bioactivity, 51–2 machines and methods, 29–33 microscope applications, 42–51 molecular heterogeneity and molecular complexes, 43–5 attenuated total reflection (ATR), 169 attenuation spectrum, 198 auto-fluorescence, 87–9 β-casein, 356 β-glucan, 185 β-lac, 343, 344, 369 backscattered electrons (BSE), bacteria, 86–7 bakery products, 107 beam scanning, 99–100 Beer-Lambert Law, 164, 248, 250 Beer law, 153 Bessel function, 200, 210 bile salt adsorption at fluid interfaces, 363–6 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 430 Index bioactivity, 51–2 biopolymer gels, 45–7 Bodipy, 102 Bohr magneton, 228 bond orientation order, 333 Brewster Angle Microscope (BAM), 92 bridging see jamming brightfield stains, 83–7 brightness modulation, 252 Brownian dynamics, 340–1 bulk density, 328 Calcofluor White, 87 calibration, 33–4 carbohydrates food biomolecular structure and function, 350–4 monosaccharides, 350–2 polysaccharides, 352–4 Carr-Purcell-Gill-Meiboom sequence (CPMG), 226 caseins, 346–7 Cassegrain reflector, 166 cereal, 107 cheese, 109 chemical contrast identifying ingredients, 100–4 covalent labelling, 104 fluorescence basics, 100–1 generic labelling of fats and proteins, 101–3 specific and immuno-labelling of polysaccharides with lectins, 103–4 chromatic aberration, 199 clustering, 175 coarse-grained (CG) representation, 340 cohesive arches, 331–2 colloidal force spectroscopy, 39 colloidal particle interactions, 37–8 compound microscope, 65–9 compression testing, 20 Concanavalin A, 103 concentric cylinder geometry, 276 cone-plate geometry, 276 confectionery products, 107–8 confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), 251, 295 confocal microscopy food microstructures, microscopy, measurement and modelling, 96–124 food products, 104–10 future trends, 118–22 breaking the diffraction barrier, 121 confocal Raman the future of chemical mapping, 121–2 lasers, 120–1 molecular diffusion measurement FRAP techniques, 119–20 microscope design, 99–100 principles, 97–9, 97–100 confocal Raman microscopy, 121–2 confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM), 87, 97 conformational stability, 356 CONTIN algorithm, 234 Coulombic field, covalent labelling, 104 critical point drying, cryogenic experiments, 17–19 CryoSEM, 5, 109, 402–3 CryoTEM, 398–9 cupping effect, 259 dairy, 108–11 darkfield illumination, 80–1 deflection mode, 31 deformable colloids, 52–6 degree of anisotropy, 257 depletion flocculation, 72 differential absorption-optical coherence tomography (DA-OCT), 139 differential interference contrast (DIC), 78 diffusion limited aggregation (DLA), 366–7 diffusive wave spectroscopy (DWS), 287–8 diglyceride emulsifier, 84–6 dilatancy, 326–7 dipalmitoyl phosphatidyl choline (DPPC), 365–6 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 228 direct colorimetric assays, 50 dissection microscope, 65 dissipative particle dynamics (DPD), 341, 374–5 Doppler optical coherence tomography, 139 dual-photon excitation, 118–19 Durian’s bubble model, 320 DVLO theory, 39 dynamic confocal microscopy, 115–18 elastic tensor, 195 electrical charging, electromagnetic theory, 134–5 electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), 419 electron microscopy, 64 principles and applications to food microstructures, 386–423 developments in EM techniques and future prospects, 418–222 electron paramagnetic resonance, 227 electronic factor, 228 elemental iodine, 83 elemental X-ray analysis (EDX), 411 ellipsometry, 92 embedding, 74–7 emulsions, 47–51, 52–6 droplet deformation, 50 stability, 112 en-face, 140 energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), 7–11, 264, 388 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Index future trends, 21–2 key application to food microstructures, 3–22, 11–21 principles, 8–11 probing mechanical properties in situ, 19–21 scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 4–7 enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), 103 epifluorescence microscope, 97 error signals, 30–1 essential dynamics (ED), 340, 344 Everhart-Thornley SE detector (ETD), extruded breakfast cereals OCT applications, 141–2 far-field wave theory, 200 Fast Green FCF, 102 fat-based products, 108 fats, 84–6 fermented milks, 108–9 finitely extensible non-linear elastic (FENE) potential, 372 fish, 105 fixation, 395–6 flip-flop interaction, 230 flow cytometry, 87 fluorescence, 171 fluorescence activated cell sorting, 87 fluorescence microscopy, 87 fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), 91, 119–20 fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) techniques, 119–20 fluorescent dye molecules, 101–2 fluorescent stains, 87–9 fluorochromes, 101 fluorophores see fluorescent stains foams, 47–51, 52–6 dynamic properties, 315–19 film rupture, 317–18 liquid drainage, 318–19 methods for modelling cellular structure, 310–23 rheology, 320–2 dissipation, 320 geometric disorder effect on shear modulus, 322 shear modulus and yield stress, 321–2 simulation methods, 320–1 topological changes in disordered dry foam, 321 structure, 311–15 disorder, 314 geometry, 311–13 liquid fraction, 311 simulating static foam structure, 314 focal plane array (FPA), 179 focused ion beam (FIB) technology, 21 431 food biomolecules adsorption, 355–66 bile salt, 363–6 proteins, 355–63 food colloids simulation, 366–76 food emulsions, 373–6 film rupture, 375 food–human interface, 112 food microstructure application to food product structure, 404–11 case studies, 411–18 food safety, 417–18 confocal microscopy, measurement and modelling, 96–124 chemical contrast identifying ingredients, 100–4 food products, 104–10 future trends, 118–22 image processing and analysis, 113–15 model food systems, 110–12 principles, 97–100 reflectance confocal microscopy, 112 developments in EM techniques and future prospects, 418–21 ESEM principles and application, 3–22 future trends, 21–2 key applications, 11–21 scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 4–7 Fourier transform infrared and Raman microscopy, 163–88 applications, 177–86 data analysis, 172–7 future trends, 186–8 instrumentation, 166–72 light microscopy principles and applications, 62–94 fundamentals, 64–71 interfacial microscopy, 90–2 recent and future developments, 92–3 specimen preparation, 71–7 magnetic resonance, 223–41 experiment, 225–9 future trends, 241 nano-scale magnetic resonance, 240–1 practical applications, 236–40 theoretical background, 229–36 methods for modelling food cellular structures, 310–23 dynamic properties of foams, 315–19 foam structure, 311–15 rheology, 320–2 OCT, SRS and TRS principles and applications, 132–57 advances in optical measurements, 134–5 future trends, 156–7 principles and applications of electron microscopy, 386–423 new challenges and nanotechnology, 421–2 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 432 Index probe and photonic force microscopy principles and applications, 27–57 applications of atomic force microscope as force transducer, 51–6 applications of atomic force microscope as microscope, 42–51 atomic force microscopes machines and methods, 29–33 force spectroscopy machines and methods, 33–40 optical tweezers and photonic microscopy machines and methods, 40–2 principle features of AFM, 28 rheology and, 275–90 microrheology, 284–9 traditional rheological methods and food structure, 275–84 scattering property relation, 146–7 techniques and sample preparation, 388–404 cryo TEM, 398–9 fixation, dehydration, resin embedding and thin sectioning for TEM, 394–6 freeze fracture replica technique, 396–8 immuno-labelling, 400 negative staining, 398 preparation for SEM, 400–4 tribology measurement and analysis, 292–307 background tribology, 293–4 future trends, 305–7 microstructural influences on tribological behaviour, 298–305 techniques for measuring tribological parameters, 294–8 ultrasonic and acoustic microscopy, 192–219 construction of an acoustic microscope, 204–6 exemplars of acoustic microscopy and applications to food structure, 214–16 future trends, 216–19 operation and calibration of an acoustic microscope, 206–14 theories of ultrasound propagation, 194–204 X-ray micro-computed tomography, 246–66 applications to food, 262–5 contrast, resolution and sample preparation techniques, 259–61 description of X-ray techniques, 247–52 future trends, 266 theory of X-ray tomography, 252–9 food safety, 417–18 bacteria on lettuce surface, 418 negatively stained bacterium, 419 spectra of glass from SEM and X-ray analysis, 420 food systems modelling and computer simulation of structures, 336–77 adsorption of food biomolecules, 355–66 food biomolecular structure and function – carbohydrates and triglycerides, 350–5 food biomolecular structure and function – proteins, 342–50 molecular simulation methodology, 337–42 simulation of food colloids, 366–76 force–distance curve, 33–4 force spectroscopy calibration, 33–4 machines and methods, 33–40 probing intermolecular interactions, 36–7 stretching single molecules, 35–6 forward validation, 146 Fourier-domain, 136–7 Fourier theorem, 255 Fourier transform, 115, 232 Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) applications, 177–86 biopolymer films fracture, 178–9 cell wall polymer orientation in stretched onion epidermis, 180 FTIR map of protein/starch distribution in maize kernel, 182 FTIR map of the 1079/1041 cm−1 band ratio in wheat kernel section, 185 grains, 181–6 IR map showing deformation zone around progressing fracture tip, 179 mixed gels, 177–8 other applications, 186 plant cell wall mechanics, 180–1 data analysis, 172–7 chemical imaging, 176–7 composition, 172–6 FTIR-ATR spectra of major food components, 174 hyperspectral data cube, 173 influence of hydration and phase on FTIR spectra, 175 instrumentation, 166–9, 170 principles and applications to food microstructures, 163–88 future trends, 186–8 fragmentation index, 257 freeze drying, freeze fracture replica technique, 396–8 chocolate surfaces, 397 friction, 31–2, 327 friction force, 293 fruit, 105–7 full width at half maximum (FWHM), 137 fungi, 86–7 gas amplification, 13 gel-promoting cations, 45 gelation, 282 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Index gelation line, 368 gellan, 47 generalised Stokes-Einstein relationship (GSER), 286 geometric disorder, 314 glass capillary viscometers, 279 glass transition temperature, 351 glassy state, 350–1 glutaraldehyde, 395 granular foods jammed food materials, 325–34 grey-scale mathematical morphology, 115 gums, 83–4 half-value layer (HVL), 248 hand-cut sections, 73–4 Hausner ratio, 328 healthy foods, 413, 415–17 salt of different crystal sizes, 416 sugar co-dried with calcium carbonate, 415 surface of fried potato chip with table salt crystals, 417 Heaviside step function, 210 hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL), 344–5 hetero-globule, 367 high-order statistical analysis, 115 high voltage electron microscopy (HVEM), 389 Histo-Clear, 76–7 holotomography, 250 homo-globule, 367 hydrated materials handling and imaging aqueous materials, 13–17 ESEM micrograph of bread mould, 15 ESEM micrograph of oil-in-water emulsion, 17 hydrodynamic regime, 293 hydrophobins, 361 image analysis, 113–15 image processing image analysis, 113–15 image reconstruction, 32–3 image resolution, 32–3 imaging modes, 30–1 immuno-labelling, 89–90, 103–4, 400 importance sampling, 338 indicator Kriging, 257 inelastic scattering, infra-red microspectroscopy, 119 inspection microscope, 65 Instron texture analyser, 299 instrumental response function (IRF), 152 interfacial microscopy, 90–2 interfacial structures, 47–51 interlocking arches, 332–3 intermolecular binding, 51–2 inverse validation, 146 iodine, 83 433 jamming granular materials, 331–3 cohesive arches, 331–2 influence on material properties, 333 interlocking arches, 332–3 jump diffusion, 351–2 k-space imaging, 233, 234 Köhler illumination, 70 Kriging method, 257 Lambert law, 138–9 Langevin equation, 340 Langmuir-Blodgett method, 47–8, 92 Langmuir trough method, 47–8 Laplace inversion, 241 Laplace transform, 234 Laplace-Young law, 313, 319 Larmor frequency, 224, 225 laser excitation light, 100 lasers, 120–1 lattice-Boltzmann method (LBM), 321, 341–2, 376 leap-frog algorithm, 340 lectins, 103–4 Leica Monozoom, 205 Lennard–Jones potentials, 372 Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm, 153 Lifshitz-Slyozov-Wagner mean-field theory, 317 light microscopy, 4, 97 fundamentals, 64–71 principles and applications to food microstructures, 62–94 light propagation, 145 light scattering, 134–5 light sources, 137–9 lipid transfer protein (LTP), 358–9 lipids, 84–6 liquid foams, 310 low temperature experiments, 17–19 cryogenic experiments, 17–19 ESEM micrograph of ice cream using ESEM under sub-zero thermal conditions, 18 low vacuum mode, 12 Lugol’s solution, 83 magnetic resonance, 223–41 experiment, 225–9 effects of 90- and 180-degree pulses on equilibrium magnetisation, 226 effects of magnetic field inhomogeneities, 227 electron spin resonance, 227–9 ESR spectra of spin label, 229 nuclear magnetic resonance, 225–7 refocusing of magnetisation by a series of 180-degree pulses in CPMG sequence, 228 future trends, 241 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 434 Index nano-scale magnetic resonance, 240–1 practical applications, 236–40 2D T1–T2 Laplace transform plot of water in apple parenchyma, 238 ESR methods, 240 q- and k-space imaging, 238–40 relaxometry, 236–8 theoretical background, 229–36 distribution of transverse relaxation times for water in apple parenchyma, 235 ESR spectrum, 235–6 multidimensional methods in NMR relaxometry, 234–5 NMR spectrum and magnetic field gradients, 232–4 plot of transverse relaxation rate vs protein concentration, 231 relaxation in NMR, 229–32 magnetic resonance force microscopy (MRFM), 240 magnification, 258 Maltese Cross pattern, 82 Markov chains, 337 Maxwell distribution, 15 mean square displacement (MSD), 285 meat, 105 3D reconstructions of confocal scanning laser micrographs, 106 medial axis analysis, 257 metadynamics, 340 micromanipulation, 12 microrheology, 284–9 microscopy, 29–30 microtomes, 74 Mie theory, 147 Mini Traction Machine, 297 mixed regime, 293 model food systems, 110–12 emulsion stability, 112 food–human interface, 112 phase separation studies, 111–12 protein gel systems, 110 modelling, 337 molecular complexes, 43–5 molecular diffusion measurement, 119–20 molecular dynamics (MD), 336, 338–40, 360–1 molecular force spectroscopy, 35 molecular heterogeneity, 43–5 molecular simulation methodology food structure, 337–42 Brownian dynamics, 340–1 dissipative particle dynamics, 341 lattice–Boltzmann method (LBM), 341–2 molecular dynamics method, 338–40 Monte Carlo methods, 337–8 monoenergetic beam, 248 monoglyceride emulsifier, 84–6 monosaccharides, 350–2 Monte Carlo (MC), 336, 337–8 computer simulation model, 330 sampling, 316 simulation, 145 moulds, 86–7 multi-photon excitation, 118–19 multiparticle video microscopy, 288–9 90-degree pulse, 225 nano-scale magnetic resonance, 240–1 nanomaterial, 421–2 Navier–Stokes equation, 342 near-field methods, 121 near infrared (NIR) imaging instrumentation, 171–2 near-infrared (NIR) radiation, 134 negative staining, 398 Campylobacter preparation, 399 Neper (Np), 198 Newtonian shear rate, 276 Newton’s rings, 91 Newton’s second law of motion, 339 Nikon, 258 Nile Blue, 102 Nipkow disk, 99–100 noise reduction, 258 Nomarski, 78 non-propagational, 195 number of frames, 258 object surface/volume ratio, 257 oils, 84–6 one-dimensional relaxometry, 241 optical coherence tomography (OCT), 135–42 applications, 139–42 background, 136–9 space-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (SRS) and time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS), 132–57 principles and applications to food microstructures, 132–57 optical microscopy, 97 optical phantoms, 146 optical properties, 145–6 optical tribological configuration (OTC), 295 optical tweezers photonic microscopy machines and methods, 40–2 oscillatory rheometry, 116 osmium staining, 85–6 osmium tetroxide, 395, 400 Ostwald ripening, 315, 317 packing, 328–31 PARAFAC algorithm, 237 parallel disk geometry, 278 parallel plate geometry, 278 partial least squares (PLS), 175 Peltier-type cooling stage, 108 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Index percentage object volume, 257 phase contrast microscopy, 79 phase contrast tomography, 250 phase separation, 370 studies, 111–12 4-phenyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-3-imidazoline-1oxyl (PTMIO), 240 phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), 349 Pheonix X-ray, 258 photo acoustics, 216 photobleaching, 119 photon time-of-flight, 150 photonic force microscopy probe microscopy principles and applications to food microstructures, 27–57 applications of atomic force microscope as force transducer, 51–6 applications of atomic force microscope as microscope, 42–51 atomic force microscopes machines and methods, 29–33 force spectroscopy machines and methods, 33–40 optical tweezers and photonic microscopy machines and methods, 40–2 photonic microscopy, 40–2 piezoelectric devices, 30 Plateau border network, 321 Plateau borders, 312 plot field gradient method, 239 point spread function, 211–12 polarisation sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT), 139 polarising microscopy, 81–2 polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 295 polysaccharides, 103–4, 352–4 models of β-glucans, 353 starches, 83–4 Potts model, 317 powder, 326 powders, 110 PreXion, 258 Principal Components Analysis (PCA), 175 probe broadening, 32–3 probe microscopy photonic force microscopy principles and applications to food microstructures, 27–57 applications of atomic force microscope as force transducer, 51–6 applications of atomic force microscope as microscope, 42–51 atomic force microscopes machines and methods, 29–33 force spectroscopy machines and methods, 33–40 optical tweezers and photonic microscopy machines and methods, 40–2 probing intermolecular interactions, 36–7 protein denaturation, 343 435 protein gel systems, 110 proteins, 86 adsorption at fluid interfaces, 355–63 conformation of native LTP, 358 MD simulation of the hydrophobin HFBI, 362 simulated adsorbed conformation for all-atom LTP, 360 simulation of the HFBI hydrophobin, 363 structures of SC3, 361 typical configurations, 357 food biomolecular structure and function, 342–50 gelation, 366–73 AFM images and coarse-grain molecular dynamics reconstructions, 372 conformations for non-interacting heteroglobule systems, 371 conformations for non-interacting homoglobule systems, 369 state diagram for homoglobules without interglobule interaction, 368 state diagrams for heteroglobules with interglobule interactions, 370 proton relaxation, 229 Ptychography, 93 (π/2) pulse, 225 purge-flood cycles, 16 q-space imaging, 234 radiative transfer theory (RTT), 135 Raman effect, 164 Raman microscopy applications, 177–86 biopolymer films fracture, 178–9 cell wall polymer orientation in stretched onion epidermis, 180 grains, 181–6 mixed gels, 177–8 other applications, 186 plant cell wall mechanics, 180–1 Raman maps of WT and high-amylose maize endosperm sections, 184 data analysis, 172–7 chemical imaging, 176–7 composition, 172–6 hyperspectral data cube, 173 instrumentation, 169–71 principles and applications to food microstructures, 163–88 future trends, 186–8 Raman mode, 169 Raman scattering, 164 Raoult’s law, 13–14 raw starch, 83 reaction limited aggregation (RLA), 366–7 reflectance confocal microscopy, 112 reflection-mode acoustic microscopy, 203 region of confusion, 197 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 436 Index replica exchange molecular dynamics (REMD), 340, 344 resin embedding, 75–6 resolution, 137, 258 retinol, 348 rheology food microstructure and, 275–90 microrheology, 284–9 traditional rheological methods and food structure, 275–84 Rhodamine B, 102 rigid lattice regime, 230 root mean square displacement (RMSD), 359 rotary microtome, 77 rotation increment, 258 rotation rate, 225 sample damage, 31–2 Sauter mean radius, 322 Scanco, 258 scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 4–7, 38, 250, 387, 391–4 beam-specimen interaction, 5–7 diagram of signal range in SEM, fruits and vegetables, 404–7 meat, 407–9 preparation, 400–4 typical images from SEM of foods and ingredients, 401 salt crystals, 393 sorbital crystals, 392 sugar crystals, 394 scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM), 4, 5, 387 scattering (Compton scatter), 247 secondary electrons, segmentation Kriging, 257 segregation, 330 shelf-life foods, 411–13 CryoSEM image of bloom on chocolate surface, 413 shortenings, 84–6 Siemens Somatom Emotion CT, 258 single particle microrheology, 285–6 Skyscan, 258 sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), 311 Soft Matter, 37–8 soft solids, 195 soft X-ray cryomicroscopy/tomography, 266 sonic beam formation, 199–203 sound transducer, 193 space-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (SRS), 142–9 application and differentiation of microstructure of sugar foams, 147–9 scattering and absorption coefficient spectra acquired for three sugar foams, 149 spatially resolved diffuse reflectance profiles with 10-minute whipping time, 148 instrumentation, 142–5 principle of cw SRS measurement, 143 schematic illustration of SRS approaches and set-ups, 144 optical coherence tomography (OCT) and time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS), 132–57 principles and applications to food microstructures, 132–57 physical models, 145–7 estimation of optical properties, 145–6 food microstructure and scattering property relation, 146–7 Monte Carlo methods for describing light propagation, 145 optical phantoms, 146 specimen contrast enhancement chemical and biochemical methods, 82–90 brightfield stains for basic food groups, 83–7 fluorescent stains and auto-fluorescence usage, 87–9 immuno-labelling methods, 89–90 physical methods, 77–82 diagram of DIC optics, 78 diagram of phase contrast optics, 80 raw potato starch viewed through cross-polarisers and partially cross-polarisers, 81 specimen preparation, 71–7 embedding, 74–7 procedure, 75–7 flocculated emulsion, 73 hand-cut sections, 73–4 homogeneously disperse emulsion, 72 vibratomes and microtomes, 74 spectral-domain optical coherence tomography, 137 spin, 223 spin echo, 226 spin lattice relaxation, 225, 229 spin-spin relaxation, 229 spinning disk, 99–100 spreads, 84–6 stage scanning, 99–100 static friction, 326–7 steady-state continuous wave SRS, 142 stereoscopic dual energy X-ray, 266 stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy, 121 Stokes’ shift, 100 stretching single molecules, 35–6 Stribeck curves, 293, 299 structural model index, 257 structure separation index, 257 structure thickness, 257 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 Index sugar foams, 147–9 Surface Evolver, 314, 320 swept-source optical coherence tomography, 137 synchroton tomography, 263 tandem scanning confocal microscopes see spinning disk Tapping mode, 31 Taylor series, 339 tensile testing, 118 Thermo Scientific, 296 thin film microscopy, 91–2 threshold, 329 time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC), 150 time dependent studies dynamic confocal microscopy, 115–18 general comments, 115–16 structure formation of CSLM monitoring of acid gelation in milk, 116–17 time-domain ultrahigh-resolution optical coherence tomography (TD-UHR-OCT), 140 time-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (TRS), 150–6 applications, 154–6 instrumentation, 150–2 optical coherence tomography (OCT) and space-resolved reflectance spectroscopy (SRS), 132–57 principles and applications to food microstructures, 132–57 physical models, 152–4 typical TRS curve, IRF and fitting with model of photon diffusion, 153 tissue processor machine, 75 Toluidine Blue, 84 tomographic reconstruction, 255 topological disorder, 314 Toshiba, 258 total internal refraction microscopy, 121 transducer electrical impedance, 206–7 transducer emission, 207 transducer unit, 204 transmission, 247 transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 32–3, 85, 250, 387, 389–90 images of sections of emulsions, 396 mint oil gland, 390 schematic diagram, 390 transmission-mode acoustic microscopy, 203 transverse relaxation, 225, 229 tribology background tribology, 293–4 importance of friction and lubrication in food science technology, 294 Stribeck curve displaying the different lubrication regimes, 294 future trends, 305–7 agarose fluid gel lubrication properties, 306 437 measurement and analysis, 292–307 microstructural influences on tribological behaviour, 298–305 proposed fluid gel lubrication mechanism, 303 techniques for measuring tribological parameters, 294–8 diagram of Anton Paar tribology equipment, 297 friction apparatus from Fort and Prinz and Lucas, 295 optical tribology configuration, 296 rheology equipment developed by Goh et al and by Kavehpour and Mckinley, 298 tribology equipment developed by PCS Instruments, 298 triglycerides, 354–5 TRS_MW system, 150–1 schematic illustration, 151 TRS_SW system, 151–2 schematic illustration, 152 Turbiscan, 216 two-photon fluorescence microscopy, 118–19 ultra-violet high resolution imaging, 119 ultrasonic microscopy, 192–219 construction of an acoustic microscope, 204–6 exemplars of acoustic microscopy and applications to food structure, 214–16 future trends, 216–19 operation and calibration of an acoustic microscope, 206–14 theories of ultrasound propagation, 194–204 uncoated materials imaging, 12–13 ESEM micrograph of chocolate using low vacuum mode, 13 UTEX-320, 204 utrasound-modulated optical tomography (USMOT), 218 vane yield stress, 280 variable pressure scanning electron microscopy (VPSEM), vegetable products, 105–7 velocity-Verlet algorithm, 340 Verlet algorithm, 339 Versatile Scanning Acoustic Platform (VSAP), 209 vertex model, 321 vibrational spectroscopy, 163 vibratomes, 74 visco-elasto-plastic (VEP) fluid, 320 visible light (VIS) radiation, 134 Voronoi tesselation of space, 314 water vapour, 10, 12 wax embedding, 76–7 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 438 Index waxes, 84–6 wetSTEM, 21 Witech Alpha 300R, 122 X-ray computed tomography, 136 X-ray micro-computed tomography, 246–66 advantages of X-ray techniques, 250–2 confocal laser scanning microscopy, 251 electrical tomography, 252 magnetic resonance imaging, 252 mercury intrusion porosimetry, 252 ultrasound and acoustic technology, 251–2 X-ray micro CT vs electron microscopy, 251 applications to food, 262–5 bread and bread crumbs, 264 extruded products: foams, 264–5 fruits and vegetables, 263 granular products, 263–5 in vivo applications, 265 low moisture food: porous materials, 263 meat and related products, 262–3 other miscellaneous foods, 265 artefacts, 259–60 beam hardening, 259 hot points, 259 ring artefacts, 259–60 contrast, resolution and sample preparation techniques, 259–61 contrast, 260 sample preparation techniques, 261 spatial resolution, 260–1 description of X-ray techniques, 247–52 interaction of X-rays with matter, 248 overview of X-ray techniques, 249–50 X-ray principle, 247–9 diagram, 253 future trends, 266 image post-processing, 256–8 background subtraction, 256 thresholding, 256 windowing, 256 theory of X-ray tomography, 252–9 equipment and settings, 258–9 principle of tomographic reconstruction, 255–6 slicing of reconstructed 3D image of an aerated chocolate bar, 256 tomographic scan acquisition, 252–5 detector, 254–5 sample holder, 254 shadow image of aerated chocolate bar, 254 source, 252–3 X-ray microanalysis, 10 X-ray microscopy, 64 X-ray photons, X-rays, yeasts, 86–7 Young’s modulus, 118 z-stacking, 65 zoom stereomicroscope, 65–9 compound microscope diagram, 68 diagram, 67 micro-tensile stage accessory, 68 nosepiece with objective lenses, 66 © Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2013 ... foods Edited by C J Kennedy 44 Handbook of hydrocolloids Edited by G O Phillips and P A Williams 45 Food labelling Edited by J R Blanchfield 46 Cereal biotechnology Edited by P C Morris and J. .. in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition Handbook of herbs and spices Volume Edited by K V Peter Texture in food Volume 2: Solid foods Edited by D Kilcast Proteins in food processing Edited by. .. Edited by T Børresen 159 In-pack processed foods: Improving quality Edited by P Richardson 160 Handbook of water and energy management in food processing Edited by J Kleme#aks, R., Smith and J. -K Kim