Báo cáo khoa học: "Measurement and transmission within modelling a of radiation stand of maritime pine" pot

Original article Measurement and modelling of radiation transmission within a stand of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait) P Berbigier, JM Bonnefond INRA, Laboratoire de Bioclimatologie, Domaine de la Grande-Ferrade, BP 81, 33883 Villenave-d’Ornon cedex, France (Received 18 October 1993; accepted 13 June 1994) Summary — A semi-empirical model of radiation penetration in a maritime pine canopy was developed so that mean solar (and net) radiation absorption by crowns and understorey could be estimated from above-canopy measurements only. Beam radiation Rb was assumed to penetrate the canopy accord- ing to Beer’s law with an extinction coefficient of 0.32; this figure was found using non-linear regression techniques. For diffuse sky radiation, Beer’s law was integrated over the sky vault assuming a SOC (stan- dard overcast sky) luminance model; the upward and downward scattered radiative fluxes were obtained using the Kubelka-Munk equations and measurements of needle transmittance and reflectance. The penetration of net radiation within the canopy was also modelled. The model predicts the measured albedo of the stand very well. The estimation of solar radiation transmitted by the canopy was also satis- factory with the maximum difference between this and the mean output of mobile sensors at ground level being only 18 W m -2 . Due to the poor precision of net radiometers, the net radiation model could not be tested critically. However, as the modelled longwave radiation balance under the canopy is always between -10 and -20 Wm-2 , the below-canopy net radiation must be very close to the solar radiation balance. model / solar radiation / net radiation / penetration / maritime pine Résumé— Mesure et modélisation de la transmission du rayonnement à l’intérieur d’une par- celle de pins maritimes (Pinus pinaster Ait). Un modèle semi-empirique de pénétration du rayon- nement dans un couvert de pins maritimes a été établi, dans le but d’estimer l’absorption moyenne du rayonnement solaire et du rayonnement net par les houppiers et le sous-bois à partir des seules mesures faites au-dessus du couvert. Le rayonnement direct est supposé le pénétrer selon la loi de Beer, avec un coefficient d’extinction de 0,32 ; cette valeur a été obtenue par des techniques de régres- sion non-linéaires. Pour le rayonnement diffus du ciel, cette loi a été intégrée sur toute la voûte céleste ; en supposant un modèle SOC (standard overcast sky) de luminance : les rayonnements rediffusés vers le haut et vers le bas sont obtenus au moyen des équations de Kubelka-Munk, avec des valeurs mesurées de la transmittance et de la réflectance des aiguilles. La pénétration du rayonnement net est aussi modélisée. Le modèle prédit très bien l’albedo mesurée de la parcelle. L’estimation du rayonnement solaire transmis par la canopée est elle aussi satisfaisante, la différence avec la réponse moyenne de capteurs mobiles au niveau du sol n’excédant pas 18 Wm-2 . La faible précision des pyrradiomètres ne permet pas de valider le modèle de rayonnement net : cependant, comme le bilan de grande longueur d’onde fourni par le modèle sous la canopée est faible (-10 à -20 Wm-2), le rayonnement net sous la canopée doit être très proche du bilan du rayonnement solaire. modèle / rayonnement solaire / rayonnement net / pénétration / pin maritime INTRODUCTION Evaporation and photosynthesis are closely related to the absorption of net radiation and the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) by foliage elements. Thus, the devel- opment of a multi-layer description of canopy water and CO 2 exchange first demands that we model the absorption of net radiation and PAR by each layer. The maritime pine forest of south-west France (Les Landes) consists of 2 well-sep- arated foliage layers, the tree crowns and the understorey. It has been shown (Diawara, 1990) that the trunks have almost no effect on heat and mass exchange. The leaf area index (LAI) of the trees is low (∼ 3), allowing a thick vegetal layer to develop at ground level, consisting of either Gramineae (wet areas) or bracken (dry areas). As the transpiration of the understorey may con- tribute to half of the total evaporation (Diawara, 1990; Diawara et al, 1991), it is important to estimate the proportion of radi- ation absorbed by each layer if we are to fully understand the hydrology of the forest. The first micrometeorogical studies on Les Landes were performed during the Hapex-Mobilhy experiment in the summer of 1986 (Gash et al, 1989; Granier et al, 1990). Further work has attempted to quan- tify individual contributions to the total evap- oration of the trees and understorey (Lous- tau et al, 1990; Berbigier et al, 1991; Diawara et al, 1991; Loustau and Cochard, 1991). However, radiation was poorly taken into account in these studies. In 1991, Bon- nefond (1993) developed a mobile system integrating the measurements over a 22 x 4 m2 area between 2 tree rows, in order to provide a better experimental foundation for the models of radiation penetration. Some results for solar radiation have already been published (Berbigier, 1993). This paper will focus on solar and net radiation. As the detailed geometrical struc- ture of the tree crowns is largely unknown, the model presented here is a semi-empir- ical one, which treats the canopy as a homo- geneous turbid layer. While a discrete canopy model would in principal be more realistic for radiation, convective exchange can only be treated for horizontally contin- uous canopies. Since, to a good first approx- imation, canopy evaporation is proportional to the absorbed net radiation (Berbigier et al, 1991), such a level of sophistication seems unnecessary for estimating the energy bal- ance. No account is made for the clumping of pine needles. However, since the maritime pine shoots are widely spread, this effect must be less significant than for some other resinous species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Site The experiment took place during the summers of 1991, 1992 and 1993, in a maritime pine stand aged about 20 years, 15-16 m high and situated 20 km from Bordeaux (latitude 44° 42’N, longi- tude 0° 46’ W). The inter-row distance was 4 m. After thinning in autumn 1990, the stand density was 660 trees per hectare. Rows were aligned along a NE-SW axis. Understorey comprised mainly Gramineae species about 0.7 m high. These remained green and turgid throughout the expriments. Radiation measurements Radiation sensors were mounted above the canopy from a 25 m high scaffolding. Two ther- mopiles (Cimel CE180), 1 facing upward and the other downward, measured incident and reflected global radiation. Net radiation was measured with a Didcot DRN/301 net radiometer. At ground level, 5 radiation sensors were mounted on a 4-m-long transverse rod fixed on an electric trolley running on a 22 m railway secured 1 m above the ground. These sensors were Cimel thermopiles in 1991, net radiometers (Crouzet, INRA licence) in 1992, and both in 1993. More details can be found in Bonnefond (1993). For the most part, the data were averaged over 60 min. In 1993, a thermophile with a shadow band mounted at 2 m above ground provided mea- surements of the incident diffuse radiation under the tree canopy. During a few days in late August-early September 1993 (day of the year [DOY] 242-243-244), a third Cimel thermopile mounted at the top of the scaffolding and equipped with a shadow band enabled us to esti- mate the local diffuse radiation; otherwise, this measurement was taken from Bordeaux. Thermopiles were calibrated against a recently calibrated CM6, Kipp and Zonen thermopile, and net radiometers against a recently calibrated Rebs Q6 net radiometer. Despite this, the calibration coefficient of the Didcot net radiometer was obvi- ously overestimated. The limited accuracy of net radiometers due to variations of the calibration coefficient with time, climate, sun elevation, side of the plate, characteristics of the plastic domes, wavelength, etc, has been widely discussed (Field et al, 1992; Halldin and Lindroth, 1992). Four sep- arate calibration coefficients are involved, 2 for each side of the plate, 1 for solar radiation and the other for longwave radiation. However, as it is impossible to separate the individual effects of the 4 radiative components of the net radiometer, only one coefficient is used; this should at least be determined in situ, so that the ratio of the different radiation components is more or less the same as for measurements. This is particularly important for the Didcot instrument, which has thick semi- rigid domes which absorb and emit a significant amount of thermal radiation. For the above reasons, in September 1993 an Eppley PIR pyrgeometer was mounted on top of the scaffolding, in order to correct the Didcot cal- ibration with separate measurements of solar inci- dent and reflected radiation as well as thermal infrared radiation from the sky and thermal emis- sion of the canopy. The latter was estimated by means of Wien’s law using canopy air temperature as a substitute for surface temperature, since they differ by no more than 1 degree (Diawara, 1990). This same correction was used for the 1992 data. In 1991, 5 clear days (DOY 217-218-222-223- 224), 1 overcast day (219) and 2 partially cloudy days (220-221); in 1992, 4 clear days (DOY 237- 238-240-246) and 1 partially cloudy day (239); and in 1993, 5 clear days (DOY 177-178-242- 243-244) and 1 overcast day (168) were chosen for analysis. In 1992, more days were available, but unfortunately the air temperature measure- ments necessary for net radiation modelling were not made. Since the instruments were rarely all available at the same time, we were able to validate sepa- rately the models for direct and diffuse radiation from in situ measurements on only a few clear days (in 1993, DOY 242-243-244). However, for adjusting them, we chose the clear days 177 and 178 in 1993, even though the sky diffuse radiation was not measured on site, because, at this time of the year, changes in sun elevation are maximal allowing better precision of the adjustments. On clear days, the measurement of diffuse radiation at Bordeaux instead of on site induces a negligi- ble error. Days 242, 243 and 244 were used for a validation as an independent set of data. The models were then compared with data of years 1991 and 1992. Optical properties of the needles The spectral reflectance and transmittance of the needles were determined using an integrating sphere (Licor, LI-1800) scanning the bandwidth from 400 to 1 100 nm. The sample port was 10 mm in diameter so that it could not be covered by a conifer needle. We followed the technique developed by Daughtry et al (1989). Briefly, this consists of laying needles side by side approxi- mately a needle-width apart and taping their extremities and measuring spectral transmission and reflection of this sample. The needles are then coated with an opaque flat black paint, and the transmittance of the blackened sample, ie the effect of gaps, is measured, taking care to lay the sample in the sample port in exactly the same position as before. It is then easy to account for the effect of the gaps and calculate the true spec- tral reflection and transmission coefficients of the needles. Five samples of each age of needles (1, 2, 3 years) were analyzed. As the new season shoots had not yet opened at the time of measurements, they were not taken into account. The difference between 1, 2 and 3 year needles was non-sig- nificant, and so the average of 15 samples was finally retained. The mean reflectance and transmittance over a given waveband were then calculated by sum- ming the product of spectral reflectance and trans- mittance, respectively, by the spectral density of the incident beam radiation of a clear day, and dividing this sum by the sum of the spectral den- sities. Leaf area index The LAI of the stand was measured at regular intervals by an optical method based on the inter- ception of the solar beam (Demon system, CSIRO, Australia: Lang, 1987). THEORY The penetration of the different radiative components in the canopy is schematized in figure 1. Beam penetration The non-intercepted direct beam radiation Rb (λ) (W m -2 ) at depth λ (cumulated LAI from the top of the canopy) can be written as: where Rb (0) is the beam radiation above the canopy, β is the angular sun elevation, and κ is the extinction coefficient. For a spherical distribution of needles, κ takes the value of 0.5; otherwise, it varies with solar elevation (Sinoquet and Andrieu, 1993). Diffuse radiation penetration The penetration of the non-intercepted sky diffuse radiation is modelled in the follow- ing way. First, we assume that the diffuse flux originating from a given point of the sky vault penetrates the canopy according to equation [1 ] where β is the angular elevation of the source. In addition, we need to know how the diffuse luminance of the sky varies over the hemisphere. For this we use the standard overcast sky (SOC) law proposed by Steven and Unsworth (1980): where N(β) is the luminance, assumed con- stant for any azimuth, of a ring of angular elevation β; N(π/2) is the luminance of the zenith. Strictly speaking, this law is only true for overcast skies. For clear skies, the lumi- nance may be described as the superposi- tion of a background and a circumsolar term (Steven and Unsworth, 1979). Furthermore and contrary to the SOC model, the back- ground luminance tends to decrease as the angular elevation increases. However, for clear skies, the diffuse flux density is less than 20% of the global radiation and so the relative error remains low. Moreover, the more cloudy the sky, the more accurate equation [2] becomes. The mean flux density of diffuse radia- tion above the canopy may be written as: [...]... radiation Models that take into account the rediffused solar radiation do so in the same way, by establishing the radiative balance of an elementary layer (or volume, for multidimensional ones) of the canopy (eg, Norman and Jarvis, 1975) Practically all assume that the rescattered radiation is Lambertian, despite the fact that the reflection by a leaf has a strong specular component (Breece and Holmes, 1971).This... measurements of both solar and net radiation were available In figure 9, the model is compared against measurement of net radiation under the canopy The agreement is not very good Moreover, the sign of the deviations differ for 1992 and 1993 A more accurate analysis was possible in 1993 (fig 10) This showed that the choice of any of the 2 radiance distributions (equations [ 8a] and [8b]) had almost no... -2 made at Bordeaux by 100 Wm However, in any case, we find that the modelled value of R almost unaffected (L) is s Net radiation Attempts were made to validate the model against the net radiation measurements of August 1992 and August-September 1993 Canopy LAIs were respectively 3.0 and 3.67 The longwave radiation balance under the canopy could be estimated in 1993 only when simultaneous measurements... exponential attenuation: very sim- providing an analytical solution However, assumptions of horizontal continuity and identical angle distribution of the needles within all the layers are questionable This model may provide a good estimation of the spatial average of solar radiation under the canopy, but is probably a much poorer representation of radiation disple model systematically underestimated the -2...on day 178 This may be due to the fact that the diffuse radiation of the sky was not measured on site Whereas all the other radiative terms measured at the experimental site were essentially the same on days 177 and 178, the sky diffuse radiation measured at Bordeaux was different (maximum: 175 -2 Wm day 177, 107 Wm on day 178) on -2 On day 177, the sky was probably somewhat at Bordeaux than at the... reflected radiation above the canopy As usual, the agreement is slightly worse for transmitted radiation, which was slightly overestimated by the model, but this dis -2 crepancy is less than 18 Wm The sky diffuse radiation was measured at Bordeaux The LAI was 2.68 We must stress the fact that the moving located at different places to 1993, and so the discrepancy between the stand and local LAI could... several standard distribution functions (Campbell, 1986; De Wit, 1965), it is possible to use statistical adjustment to get a rough idea of an angular distribution of the foliage elements, assuming that it is the same for all layers However, at the present, we prefer to wait for the experimental analysis of the canopy architecture of maritime pine, which is now being carried on by Dauzat and his colleagues... clear days of year 1991, this leads to a significant underestimation of diffuse radiation by about 100 Wm However, the modelled trans -2 mission of solar radiation is almost unaffected This probably due to the fact that the transmission coefficient for diffuse radiation R /R is more or less equal to (L) (0) dd the mean daily value of R /R (k (L) (0) bb k’ = 0.467 for β= 43°) = Rediffused radiation. .. estimated at 3.67 The predictions agree well with the model The downward scattered radiation -2 is somewhat underestimated (by 7 Wm maximum), in contrast to figure 6 The effect of rows has almost disappeared, as the maximum sun elevation decreased August 1991 (DOY 217 to 225) at In figure 8a and b, we show the measured and modelled hourly values of transmitted solar radiation under the canopy and reflected... provides a very simple approach, which is accurate enough on the daily scale and quite convenient for estimating the evapotranspiration of the 2 vegetational layers Diffuse radiation tribution of sky diffuse luminance over the sky vault As outlined by Cowan (1968), the results of SOC and UOC (uniform overcast sky) models were almost the same, so that a constant sky luminance could have been used without appreciable . coef- ficient of diffuse radiation (assuming Rd (λ) /R d (0) = exp(-k’λ )), and p and rare the reflectance and transmittance of the needles. Rearranging [ 4a] and. Original article Measurement and modelling of radiation transmission within a stand of maritime pine (Pinus pinaster Ait) P Berbigier, JM Bonnefond INRA, Laboratoire de Bioclimatologie,. λ can be written as: where R+ (λ) is the downward rescattered radiation, R_(λ) is the upward rescattered radiation, k = κ/sinβ,