Trade marks and free trade a global analysis lazaros g grigoriadis

Lazaros G Grigoriadis Trade Marks and Free Trade A Global Analysis Trade Marks and Free Trade ThiS is a FM Blank Page Lazaros G Grigoriadis Trade Marks and Free Trade A Global Analysis Lazaros G Grigoriadis Faculty of Law Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Thessaloniki Greece ISBN 978-3-319-04794-2 ISBN 978-3-319-04795-9 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-04795-9 Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2014938098 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 This work is subject to copyright All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) To my beloved grandmother Sophia ThiS is a FM Blank Page Preface Perhaps one of the most trade-related issues in the field of intellectual property is exhaustion of rights together with the issue of parallel importation Thomas Cottier Contrary to the other industrial property rights and also copyright,1 the legal protection of the right to the trademark is not dictated by the special value encompassed in its essence, namely the sign of which the trademark consists It is dictated by the ability of the trademark to identify the origin of a product or service from a specific undertaking and to distinguish a product or a service from the products or services of another undertaking.2 This position is confirmed by the With regard to industrial property rights, see Nikolaos Rokas (2004), Industrial Property, pp 1–2 (Ant N Sakkoulas Publications, Athens-Komotini) (in Greek); Thanasis Liakopoulos (2000), Industrial Property, pp 77–85 (5th edition, P N Sakkoulas Publications, Athens) (in Greek); Vasilis Antonopoulos (2005), Industrial Property, p 13, Nr 13 (2nd edition, Sakkoulas Publications, Athens-Thessaloniki) (in Greek) For copyright, see Lampros Kotsiris (2000), Greek Copyright Law, pp 112–116, Nr 193–194 (4th edition, Sakkoulas Publications, Athens-Thessaloniki) (in Greek); Michael-Theodoros Marinos (2000), Copyright Law, pp 7–11, Nr 20–26 (Ant N Sakkoulas Publications, Athens-Komotini) (in Greek) Industrial property rights and copyright are often referred to together as “intellectual property rights” (IPRs) See Christos Chrysanthis (2009), The International Protection of the Intellectual Property in Charis Pampoukis (ed.) Law of International Transactions, pp 785, 785–786 (Nomiki Vivliothiki Publications, Athens) (in Greek); Giorgos Koumantos (1994), Intellectual Property, EllDni 1464 (in Greek); William Cornish & David Llewelyn (2007), Intellectual Property: patents, copyright, trade marks and allied rights, paras 1-01, and 1-04 to 1-11 (6th edition, Sweet & Maxwell, London) Vasilis Antonopoulos (2005), Industrial Property, pp 367–368, Nr 444 (2nd edition, Sakkoulas Publications, Athens-Thessaloniki) (in Greek) vii viii Preface definitions of trademarks included in the modern national trademark laws of developed (or industrialised) and developing countries,3 as well as in the TRIPs The United Nations and also most of the research sources used in this study classify countries as developed or industrialised and developing, based on their gross national product (GNP) Definitions of trademarks taken from the European Union (EU) trademark law and from trademark laws of developed (or industrialised) and developing countries are given below: a) EU trademark law: “A trade mark may consist of any signs capable of being represented graphically, particularly words, including personal names, designs, letters, numerals, the shape of goods or of their packaging, provided that such signs are capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings” (Article of Directive 2008/95/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2008 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trademarks) “A trade mark may consist of any signs capable of being represented graphically, particularly words, including personal names, designs, letters, numerals, the shape of goods or of their packaging, provided that such signs are capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings” (Article of the Council Regulation 207/2009/EC of 26 February 2009 on the Community trade mark); b) trademark laws of developed (or industrialised) countries: i) Japan: “‘Trademark’ in this Act means any character(s), figure(s), sign(s) or three-dimensional shape(s), or any combination thereof, or any combination thereof with colors (hereinafter referred to as a ‘mark’) which is: (i) used in connection with the goods of a person who produces, certifies or assigns the goods as a business; or (ii) used in connection with the services of a person who provides or certifies the services as a business (except those provided for in the preceding item)” [Article (1) of Act No 127 of April 13, 1959, as last amended by Act No 16 of April 18, 2008]; ii) Switzerland: “A trade mark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises” [Article 1(1) of Federal Law of August 28, 1992 on the Protection of Trademarks and Indications of Source (status as of July 1, 2011)]; iii) Australia: “A trade mark is a sign used, or intended to be used, to distinguish goods or services dealt with or provided in the course of trade by a person from goods or services so dealt with or provided by any other person” [Sect 17 of Trade Marks Act 1995 (consolidated as of 14 January 2011)]; iv) USA: “The term “trademark” includes any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combination thereof—(1) used by a person, or (2) which a person has a bona fide intention to use in commerce and applies to register on the principal register established by this chapter, to identify and distinguish his or her goods, including a unique product, from those manufactured or sold by others and to indicate the source of the goods, even if that source is unknown” [Sect 45 of U S Trademark Law, 15 U.S.C §§ 1051 et seq (05.07.1946)]; c) trade mark laws of developing countries: i) Indonesia: “Trade Mark shall mean a Mark that is used on goods traded by a person or by several persons jointly or a legal entity to distinguish the goods from other goods of the same kind” [Article (2) of Law No 15 of August 1, 2001, regarding Marks]; ii) Nigeria: “‘trade mark’ means, except in relation to a certification trade mark, a mark used or proposed to be used in relation to goods for the purpose of indicating, or so as to indicate, a connection in the course of trade between the goods and some person having the right either as proprietor or as registered user to use the mark, whether with or without any indication of the identity of that person, and means, in relation to a certification trade mark, a mark registered or deemed to have been registered under Section 43 of this Act” [Article 67 (1) of Trade Marks Act (Chapter 436) (01.01.1965)]; iii) India: ““trade mark” means a mark capable of being represented graphically and which is capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one person from those of others and may include shape of goods, their packaging and combination of colours” [Article (1) (zb) of The Trade Marks Act, 1999]; iv) China: “Any visible sign that can serve to distinguish the goods of a natural person, legal person, or other organization from those of another, including any work, design, letter of the alphabet, numeral, three-dimensional symbol and color combination, or any combination of the above, may be made a trademark for application for registration” [Article of Trademark Law of the People’s Republic of China (23.08.1982)]; v) Madagascar: “‘mark’ shall mean any visible sign Preface ix Agreement, which is the first multilateral treaty that defines trademarks in a binding way for the Contracting Parties.4 Indeed, according to those definitions, the legal protection of the right to the trademark is based on, firstly, the existence of a “sign” and, secondly, the “distinctiveness” of the sign in question.5 It follows from the establishment of the legal protection of the trademark right in the distinctiveness of signs that, in the spirit of modern national legal systems and also of the TRIPs Agreement, trademarks are principally perceived as distinctive features of products and services More specifically, both modern national legislators and the Contracting Parties to the TRIPs Agreement were, evidently, aware of the fact that the role of the trademark in a modern market economy is not limited to that of a distinctive feature of products and services A trademark acquires more and more importance for its owner as a guarantee of the quality of the products traded or the services provided under the trademark; it operates as a communication channel with the consumers, as an investment asset, or even as a means of advertising.6 However, in accordance with the trademark definitions provided by both the current national laws on trademarks and the TRIPs Agreement, a sign may be protected as a trademark irrespective of the economic value that it represents, that is to say the amount of investment that such a sign represents as a means of communication of the manufacturer or trader of a product or the provider of a service to the consumer, as a guarantee of a stable quality level or as a tool promoting the advertising of a product or a service On the contrary, in the perception of modern national legislators and the Contracting Parties of the TRIPs Agreement, the recognition of the legal protection of a sign as a trademark is solely dictated by its ability to make commercial transactions easier as a distinctive feature of a product or a service, that is, its ability to indicate the origin of a product or service from a specific undertaking and to distinguish one product or service from the products and services of other undertakings (“origin function” or “primary function” or “essential function” or intended and capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises” [Article 55 (1) (i) of Ordinance No 89-019 Establishing Arrangements for the Protection of Industrial Property (of July 31, 1989)]; v) Liberia: “‘mark’ means any visible sign capable of distinguishing the goods (‘trademark’) or services (‘service mark’) of an enterprise” [Article 39 (i) of Industrial Property Act (20.03.2003)] (Source: WIPO) “Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, Including Trade in Counterfeit Goods” of 15.12.1993 The Agreement entered into force on 01.01.1995 Pursuant to the first subparagraph of Article 15 (1) of the TRIPs Agreement, “Any sign, or any combination of signs, capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings, shall be capable of constituting a trade mark” According to Ladas [Stephen P Ladas (1975), Patents, Trade marks, and Related Rights, National and International Protection, Vol II, p 969 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts)], the uniformity in the basic identifying features of trademarks, as these derive from the definitions of trademarks included in the several national trademark laws, reflects the “basic uniformity in objectives and a considerable amount of harmonization in essentials” of trademark laws on an international level Cf Case C-487/07, L’Ore´al SA, Lancoˆme parfums et beaute´ & Cie SNC and Laboratoire Garnier & Cie v Bellure NV, Malaika Investments Ltd and Starion International Ltd, [2009] ECR I-5185, para 58 496 States – union of states Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Vietnam States – union of states African Intellectual Property Organization (OAPI)7 Albania Andean Community8 Andorra Armenia Austria Barbados Belize Appendix Provision – case-law – bibliography on exhaustion of trade mark rights Article 16 (6) of the Law on Protection of Rights to Marks for Goods and Services (ЗАКОН Про охорону прав на знаки для товарів і послуг), of December 15, 1993 Article 12 (1) of the Trade Marks Act 1994, of July 21, 1994 Sec 42 Lanham Act, Sec 526 Tariff Act και 19 C.F.R § 133.23 Article 12 of the Law No 17.011 of September 25, 1998, Establishing Provisions on Trademarks (Ley N 17.011 del 25 de septiembre de 1998, Dı´ctanse normas relativas a las marcas), of September 25, 1998 Article 125 (2) (b) of the Law on Intellectual Property No 50/2005/QH11 of November 29, 2005 Exhaustion of Trade Mark Rights Regime International exhaustion Regional exhaustion National exhaustion International exhaustion International exhaustion Provisions regarding the exclusion of the applicability of the exhaustion of trade mark rights rule Annex III, Trademarks and Service Marks, Article (4) of the Agreement Revising the Bangui Agreement of March 2, 1977, on the Creation of an African Intellectual Property Organization (Bangui (Central African Republic), February 24, 1999) Article 158 (2) of the Law No 9977 of July 07, 2008 on Industrial Property (Ligj Nr 9947, dateă 7.7.2008 Peăr Proneăsineă Industriale) Article 158 of Decision No 486 of September 14, 2000 of the Commission of the Andean Community – Common Industrial Property Regime Article 16 (2) of the Law on Trademarks (Llei de marques), of May 11, 1995 Article 14(3) of the Law of the Republic of Armenia on trademarks, of July 1, 2010 § 10b (2) of Trademarks Protection Law, of July 7, 1970 (Markenschutzgesetz 1970) Article (1) of the Trade Marks Act, Cap 319, of December 21, 1981 Article 27 (2) of Trade Marks Act – Cap 257, of June 22, 2000 (continued) Member States: Coˆte d’Ivoire, Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Equatorial Guinea, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo, Mali, Mauritania, Benin, Burkina Faso, Niger, Senegal, Togo, Chad Member States: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru Appendix States – union of states 497 Provisions regarding the exclusion of the applicability of the exhaustion of trade mark rights rule Benelux (Belgium, Luxembourg, Article 2.23 (3) of the Benelux Convention concerning IntelNetherlands) lectual Property (Trademarks and Designs) of February 25, 2005 (Benelux-Verdrag inzake de intellectuele eigendom (merken en tekeningen of modellen)/Convention Benelux en matie`re de proprie´te´ intellectuelle (Marques et dessins ou mode`les)) Botswana Article 82 (1) (b) of the Industrial Property Act, of April 24, 2010 Bulgaria Article 15 (2) of the Law on Marks and Geographical Indications (Закон за марките и географските означения), of September 1, 1999 Cape Verde Article 168 (2) of Decree-Law No 4/2007 of 20 August Industrial Property Code (Decreto-lei n 4/2007 de 20 de Agosto Co´digo da Propriedade Industrial) Costa Rica Article 27 of Law No 7978 on Trademarks and Other Distinctive Signs (Ley N 7978 de Marcas y Otros Signos Distintivos), of January 6, 2000 Croatia Article 11 (2) of the Trademarks Act (NN 173/2003) and Acts on Amendments to the Trademarks Act (NN 76/2007, NN 30/2009 and NN 49/2011) Cuba Article 47 (2) of the Decree-Law No 203 on Trademarks and Other Distinctive Signs (Decreto-Ley N 203 de Marcas y Otros Signos Distintivos), of December 24, 1999 Cyprus Article (7) of the Trade Marks Law (Cap 268, No 63 of 1962), as amended by Law No 176 (I)/2000 Czech Republic Article 11 (3) of the Law No 441/2003 Coll of December 2003, on Trademarks and on Amendments to Act No 6/2002 on Judgements, Judges, Assessors and State Judgement Administration and on Amendments to Some Other Acts (Act on Courts and Judges) in the Wording of Later Regulations (Za´kon cˇ 441/2003 Sb dne prosince 2003, o ochranny´ch zna´mka´ch ao zmeˇneˇ za´kona cˇ 6/2002 o soudnı´ch rozhodnutı´, soudcı´ch, prˇ´ısedı´cı´ch a sta´tnı´ Rozsudek spra´veˇ ao zmeˇneˇ neˇktery´ch dalsˇ´ıch za´konu˚ (za´kon o soudech a soudcı´ch), ve zneˇnı´ pozdeˇjsˇ´ıch prˇedpisu˚) Denmark Article (2) of the Consolidated Trademarks Act No 90 of 28 January 2009 (Den konsoliderede Varemærker lov nr 90 af 28 januar 2009) Djibouti Article 154 (2) of the Law No 50/AN/09/6th L on the Protection of Industrial Property (Loi n 50/AN/09/6e`me L portant protection de la proprie´te´ industrielle), of June 21, 2009 Dominican Republic Article 88 (1) of the Law No 20-00 on Industrial Property (Ley N 20-00 sobre Propiedad Industrial), of April 4, 2000 (continued) 498 States – union of states El Salvador Estonia European Economic Area (EEA)9 European Union10 Finland France FYROM Georgia Germany Greece Guatemala Honduras Hong Kong (China) Appendix Provisions regarding the exclusion of the applicability of the exhaustion of trade mark rights rule Article 28 (1) of the Law on Trademarks and Other Distinctive Signs (Ley de Marcas y otros Signos Distintivos), of June 6, 2002 Article 16 (3) of the Trademark Act, of May 22, 2002 (Kaubamaărgiseadus Vastu voetud 22.05.2002 RT I 2002, 49, 308) Article (2) of the Directive 2008/95/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 22 October 2008 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trade marks (Codified version) (2008) Article (2) of the Directive 2008/95/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of 22 October 2008 to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trade marks (Codified version) (2008) Article 13 (2) of the Council Regulation (EC) No 207/2009 of 26 February 2009 on the Community trade mark (Codified version) (2009) Article 10a (2) of the Trademark Law No of January 10, 1964 (as last amended by Law No 1715 of 22 December 1995) Article L 713-4 (2) of the Intellectual Property Code (Code de la Proprie´te´ Intellectuelle), of July 1, 1992 Article 209 of the Law on Industrial Property, of February 12, 2009 Article (2) of the Trademark Law of Georgia, February 2, 1999 Article 24 (2) of the Law on the Protection of Trademarks and other Signs (as amended 22 December 2010) (Gesetz uăber den Schutz von Marken und sonstigen Kennzeichen (Markengesetz MarkenG) (geaăndert am 22 Dezember 2010)), of October 25, 1994 Article 128 (2) of the Law 4072/2012 (“Improvement of the business environment – New corporate form – Trade Marks – Realtors – Regulating maritime, port and fishing matters and other provisions”), of April 11, 2012 Article 37 (1) of the Industrial Property Law (Ley de Propiedad Industrial), of September 18, 2000 Article 98 of the Decree No 12-99-E, Industrial Property Law (Decreto N 12-99-E, Ley de Propiedad Industrial), of December 30, 1999 Section 20 (2) of Chapter: 559 Trade Marks Ordinance (商標 條例), of June 15, 2000 (continued) Member States: Member States of the European Union, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway Member States: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Germany, Denmark, Greece, Estonia, United Kingdom, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Cyprus, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Hungary, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Czech Republic, Finland, and Croatia 10 Appendix States – union of states Hungary India Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Madagascar Malta Moldova Montenegro Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Poland Portugal Romania 499 Provisions regarding the exclusion of the applicability of the exhaustion of trade mark rights rule Article 16 (2) of the Act XI of 1997 as consolidated on January 1, 2008 Article 30 (4) of the Trade Marks Act, December 30, 1999 Article 16 (2) of the Trade Marks Act No 6, March 16, 1996 Article 1bis (2) of the Trademark Law, Royal Decree No 929 of June 21, 1942 (as last amended by Legislative Decree No 198 of March 19, 1996) Article (3) of the Law on Trademarks and Indications of Geographical Origin (Likums par precˇu zı¯me¯m un ģeogra¯fiska¯s izcelsmes nora¯de¯m), of June 16, 1999 Article 13 (5) of the Law on the Protection of Trademarks and Geographical Indications (Trademark Protection Law) (Gesetz uăber den Schutz von Marken und Herkunftsangaben (Markenschutzgesetz)), of December 12, 1996 Article 40 (2) of the Law on Trademarks of October 10, 2000, No VIII-1981 (as amended on June 2006 – by Law No X-651) (2000 m spalio 10 d Prekiu˛ zˇenklu˛ ˛istatymas Nr VIII-1981 (su pakeitimais, padarytais 2006 m birzˇelio d ˛istatymu Nr X-651)) Article 68 (1) of the Ordinance No 89-019 Establishing Arrangements for the Protection of Industrial Property (of July 31, 1989) (Ordonnance n 89-019 instituant un re´gime pour la protection de la proprie´te´ industrielle (du 31 juillet 1989)) Article 12 (2) of Trademarks Act (Chapter 416), of January 1, 2001 Article 13 (2) of the Law on the Protection of Trademarks, No 38-XVI of February 29, 2008 (Lege privind protectia marcilor, nr 38-XVI sin 29 februarie 2008) Article 15 (2) of the Law on Trademarks (ЗАКОН О ЖИГУ), of November 30, 2010 Article 29 (1) of Law No 380, Law on Trademarks and Other Distinctive Signs (Ley N 380, Ley de Marcas y Otros Signos Distintivos), of February 14, 2001 Article (2) of the Trademarks Act (Act No of March 26, 2010) Article 100 (1) of the Law No 35 of May 10, 1996 Enacting Provisions on Industrial Property (Ley N 35 de 10 de mayo de 1996 por la cual se dictan Disposiciones sobre la Propiedad Industrial) Article 17 of the Law No 1.294/1998 on Trademarks (Ley N 1.294/1998 de Marcas), of June 24, 1998 Article 155 (3) of the Industrial Property Law of 30 June 2000 Article 259 (2) of the Industrial Property Code (consolidated as of 2008) (Co´digo da Propriedade Industrial (consolidado em 2008)), of March 5, 2003 Article 38 (2) of the Law No 84/1998 on Trademarks and Geographical Indications (Legea nr 84/1998 privind marcile s¸i indicat¸iile geografice) (continued) 500 States – union of states San Marino Serbia Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Uruguay Appendix Provisions regarding the exclusion of the applicability of the exhaustion of trade mark rights rule Article 72 (4) of the Law on Industrial Property of May 25, 2005, No 79 Article 40 (2) of the Law on Trademarks, of December 11, 2009 Article 29 (2) of the Trade Marks Act (Chapter 332), of December 11, 1998 Article 15 (2) of the Act No 506/2009 Coll on Trade marks (Za´kon cˇ 506/2009 Z.z o ochranny´ch zna´mkach), of October 28, 2009 Article 50 (2) of the Industrial Property Act (ZIL-1-UPB3) of 23 May 2001 as last amended on February 2006 (as in force from 11 March 2006) Article 36 (2) of the Law 17/2001 of December, on Trademarks (Consolidated Text Including the Amendments Made by Law 20/2003, of July 7, 2003, on Legal Protection of Industrial Designs) (Ley 17/2001, de de diciembre, de Marcas (Texto consolidado que incluye las modificaciones introducidas por la ley 20/2003, de de julio 2003, de proteccio´n jurı´dica del disen˜o industrial)), of July 9, 2003 Article 12 (2) of the Trademark Act (2010:1877) (Varumaărkeslag (2010:1877)), of September 12, 2010 Article 13 (2) of the Decree-Law No 556 on the Protection of Trademarks (556 Sayl Markalarm Korunmas Hakknda Kanun Huăkmuănde Kararname), of June 24, 1995 Article 16 (6) of the Law on Protection of Rights to Marks for Goods and Services (ЗАКОН Про охорону прав на знаки для товарів і послуг), of December 15, 1993 Article 12 (2) of the Trade Marks Act 1994, of July 21, 1994 Article 12 of the Law No 17.011 of September 25, 1998, Establishing Provisions on Trademarks (Ley N 17.011 del 25 de septiembre de 1998, Dı´ctanse normas relativas a las marcas), of September 25, 1998 About the Author Lazaros G Grigoriadis Ph.D., Attorney at Law – Legal commentator Faculty of Law Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece) Major Publications in Legal Magazines The Application of EU Competition Law in the Pharmaceutical Sector: The Case of Parallel Trade, European Business Law Review 1/2014, pp 141–201 (Kluwer Law International) Exhaustion and Software Resale Rights in Light of Recent EU case law, Journal of International Media and Entertainment Law, Vol 5, No 1, pp 111–127 (Forums on Communications Law and the Entertainment and Sports Industries of the American Bar Association and the Donald E Biederman Entertainment and Media Law Institute of Southwestern Law School) Report from Greece: A New Business Entity in Greek Company Law: The Private Company (P.C.), European Company Law 10 (2013), Issue 6, pp 213–215 [Kluwer Law International] L.G Grigoriadis, Trade Marks and Free Trade, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-04795-9, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 501 502 About the Author Comparative and Keyword Advertising and Trademark Protection in the Light of EU and U.S Laws, California Western Law Review, Volume 44, Issue 2, Spring 2014, forthcoming (California Western School of Law) The question of exhaustion of copyright with regard to a material copy of a work made by a user of on-line services with the consent of the rightholder Some considerations in the light of the decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in “UsedSoft GmbH v Oracle International Corp.” of 03.07.2012 (Case C-128/2011), Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 3/2013, pp 1107–1117 (Nomiki Vivliothiki Publications) (in Greek) Copyright and EU Fundamental Freedoms Some considerations in the light of the decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union in “Football Association Premier League Ltd and Others v QC Leisure and Others (C-403/08) and Karen Murphy v Media Protection Services Ltd (C-429/08)”, Dikaio Epixeiriseon kai Etairion 6/2013, pp 569–580 (Nomiki Vivliothiki Publications) (in Greek) Parallel Imports and EU Pharmaceutical Regulatory Law, Armenopoulos 2013, pp 234–258 (in Greek) (Bar Association of Thessaloniki) Parallel Trade in Medicines and EU Law, Episkopisi Emporikou Dikaiou 4/2013, pp 807–832 (in Greek) (Sakkoulas Publications) The Community legal framework for the protection against imports of counterfeit and pirated products, Hellenic Review of European Law 2009, pp 23–43 (in Greek) (Bar Association of Thessaloniki - Centre of International and European Economic Law) Index A Absolute territorial protection, 35, 62, 63, 131, 134, 139, 314 Addition of the parallel importer’s trademark, 379–382, 402 Andean Community, 60 Arbitrage, 5, 19 Article (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC, 53, 54, 59, 61, 120, 127, 156, 157, 182, 185, 196, 198–200, 202–206, 208, 212–215, 217, 218, 224, 226, 228–241, 245–271, 273–280, 282, 284–290, 292, 298, 303, 304, 310, 314, 316, 318, 319, 323, 331, 334, 337, 349, 351, 385, 388, 392, 396, 398, 405, 413, 414, 420, 421, 455, 469, 470 Article 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009, 59, 128, 196, 199–200, 212, 215, 219, 224, 226, 229, 244, 262–263, 282, 285–288, 292, 303, 304, 316, 318, 321–324, 331–416, 420, 421, 423, 424, 469, 470, 472, 473 Artificial partitioning of the markets between Member States, 161–163, 170, 344, 349–359, 361–363, 377, 378, 423, 472 Authorised goods, 3, 33, 442–444 B Black market, Brazil, 58, 60, 76, 86, 87, 269, 427, 457–458, 463, 473 Law No 9279 of 14 May 1996, 457 Burden of proof, 128, 319–324, 379, 414–416 risk of market partitioning, 321–323 Bypassing the selective distribution network, 405–408 C Change, 90, 139, 217, 220, 270, 312, 332, 335–397, 400, 422, 423, 430–432, 442, 471, 472 Change of the purpose of trademark law, 259–262 Chicago School, 35 China, 77, 86, 269, 311, 427, 452, 463, 473 Close substitute, 16 Closure of national markets, 22 Commercial agent, 54, 582 Commercial policy measure, 276 Commercial promotion, 32, 398 Common market, 59, 127, 129–132, 135, 137, 140–142, 161, 173, 175, 182, 184, 195, 196, 202, 232, 252, 254, 273, 310, 314–316, 355 Community trademark with a reputation, 194, 259 Comparative advantage, 25 Competition, 4, 9, 11, 12, 16, 18, 19, 25–26, 29, 32, 35–37, 40, 41, 48–49, 58, 59, 62, 97, 98, 103, 130–141, 144, 151, 182, 190, 192, 195, 202, 216, 217, 236, 239, 242, 243, 254, 265, 273–275, 297, 300, 303, 313–315, 323, 332, 353, 375, 378, 405, 406, 409–414, 432–435, 449 Competition law, 87, 405, 406, 410, 411 Concept of “consent” within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/ EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 L.G Grigoriadis, Trade Marks and Free Trade, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-04795-9, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014 503 504 Concept of “consent” within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/ EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 (cont.) cases of consent breach of contractual provisions in the trademark licence, 297–303 combination cases of consent, 291–303 forced sale of a trademarked good by court order, 296 marketing of a trademarked good by an authorized (exclusive or selective) distributor, 295–296 marketing of a trademarked good by an undertaking of the same group, 293–294 marketing of a trademarked good by a trademark licensee, 294 expression of consent, 286–290 scope of consent, 283, 290–291 Concept of “putting on the market” within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 distribution, free of charge, of trademarked items, 224, 420, 469 donation of trademarked goods, 221 importation of a trademarked good, 354, 356 internal transit, 222, 419, 468 offer for sale of a trademarked good, 217 placing non-Community goods under the customs warehousing procedure, 223 placing non-Community goods under the external transit procedure, 223 preparatory actions for selling a trademarked good, 221, 419, 468 sale of trademarked goods, 218, 221, 244, 419, 468 sale of trademarked goods under reservation of title, 220, 221, 419, 468 shifting of the profit or loss, namely the economic risk, of any onward sale of a trademarked good, 54, 180, 219 transfer of ownership of a trademarked good by way of security, 221, 419, 468 transfer of the (actual) right of disposal of a trademarked good, 219, 220 Concept of “trademarked good” within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 concept, 221, 285 Index distinction between goods and services, 75, 239, 254 goods registered as trademarks, 216 item of a trademarked product, 216 items serving the provision of services, 214, 215 place where a trademarked product has been manufactured, 214 place where a trademarked product has been put on the market, 213, 420, 469 service marks, 214–216 Concerted practice, 135, 406 “Connection between the forms of commercial use” (“Lehre vom Zusammenhang der Benutzungsarten”), 51 Consumer, 4–6, 8, 11, 15–17, 19, 21–40, 47–49, 64, 96, 150, 151, 153, 154, 167–169, 171, 173, 175, 195, 216, 217, 236, 238, 240, 243–245, 254, 255, 262, 264, 265, 274, 290, 308, 333, 338, 340, 343, 359, 360, 362, 364, 367, 368, 371, 372, 374, 378, 381, 382, 385–387, 389–392, 400, 402, 411, 430, 431, 433, 436, 439–448, 453, 456 Consumer associations, 16, 255, 391 Consumer confusion/Consumer deception, 26–27, 32–34, 430, 440, 443, 446, 447 Consumer information, 16, 34, 38, 173, 372, 402, 446 Consumer’s per capita income, 8, 15 Consumer welfare, 24, 25, 35 Copyright, 29, 37, 41, 52, 79, 86, 111, 132, 135, 137, 138, 147, 179, 191, 197, 250, 264–267, 317, 412, 413, 429, 433, 449 Cost differentials, 15–16 Cost of production, 15, 28 Cost of supply and processing raw materials, 15 Counterfeit goods, 6, 46, 75, 431, 436, 452 D Damage to, or risk of damage to, or unfair exploitation of the reputation of the trademark borne by parallel imported goods within the framework of the circumstances under which the goods are marketed, 401–404, 408, 423, 472 within the framework of the independent trader’s advertising, 398–401, 403, 423, 472 Index Decrease of the trademark’s goodwill (economic value), 34–35, 40 Delimitation agreements, 135, 136 Demand structure, 22–26 Differences in local demand–Different competition conditions, 16 Different marketing strategies pull strategy, 17 push strategy, 17 Different prices, 5, 7, 14–18 Different quality, 15, 442 Directive 2008/95/EC Article of Directive 2008/95/EC, 250, 251 Article of Directive 2008/95/EC, 196 Article of Directive 2008/95/EC, 59, 127, 198–200, 204–208, 214, 215, 235, 240, 248, 278, 332, 333, 343, 455 Directive 89/104/EEC Article of Directive 89/104/EEC, 239, 320, 422, 471 Article of Directive 89/104/EEC, 196 Article of Directive 89/104/EEC, 196–198, 204–208, 214, 239, 240, 248, 320, 343, 422, 471 Distribution agreements, 43, 296, 407 Doctrine of “common origin” [“Theorie der Ursprungsgleichheit” in German] contractual assignment, 172, 174, 177 governmental act, 172, 174, 177 Doctrine of Community exhaustion of rights, 178–181 Doctrine of “essential function of the right” (“Lehre von der wesentlichen Funktion” in German), 171–172 Doctrine of “exercise/existence of the right” [“Lehre von Bestand und Ausuăbung in German], 143146 Doctrine of specific subject-matter of the right [“Lehre von dem spezifischen Gegenstand” in German], 147 Dominant position abuse, 137, 138, 140, 317, 318 holding a dominant position, 452 Downstream market, 217 Duration of protection of other intellectual property rights, 266 of trademark right, 266 E Economic efficiency, 26, 27, 35, 36 EEA Agreement, 59, 197, 200, 203, 207, 214, 227, 228, 235–238, 244–248, 291, 308, 309, 312, 455, 470 Effectiveness of investment, 31 505 Effet utile Articles 34 and 36 of the TFEU, 6, 55, 115, 127, 130, 132, 133, 139–144, 152, 169, 172, 173, 183, 189, 190, 198, 206, 229, 236, 242, 267–268, 271, 274, 281, 282, 303, 311, 317–321, 324, 333, 339, 341, 349, 378, 407, 410, 413–415, 420, 422, 469, 471 provisions related to economic policies of the EU, 268–271, 311, 420, 469 Efficient allocation of resources, 25 End user, 8, 47, 49, 153, 167, 169, 195, 264, 338, 340, 343, 367, 368, 372, 411 Essential function copyright, 264 patent, 264 rewarding the proprietor of the right (“Belohnungsgedanke” in German), 265 trademark, 45, 47, 64, 132, 151, 154–158, 160, 161, 165, 168, 171, 172, 175, 177, 195, 224, 290, 292, 355, 356, 364, 368–370, 411, 431 Establishment of a minimum legal framework for intellectual property protection, 80 EU economic policies balanced economic growth, 270 convergence of the economic performances of the Member States, 112 full employment, 270 price stability, 270 EU primary law, 133, 198, 206, 215, 226, 271–280, 316, 318 Exchange rate fluctuations, 13, 18–20, 22 “incomplete pass through” of exchange rates, 18, 19 Exporting/source country, Extension of the rules enshrined in Articles (2) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (2) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 by the national court, 307–312, 409 by virtue of International Agreements, 307–312 F “Fortress Europe” [“Festung Europa” in German], 269 Free riding free riding on goodwill, 29, 30 free riding on services, 29, 31 French law on trademarks of 1964, 191, 195 506 G GATT 1994 Article III (4) of GATT 1994, 80, 109–110 Article XI of GATT 1994, 103, 107, 109 Article XIX of GATT 1994, 108–109 Article XXIV of GATT 1994, 104, 117–120, 278, 309 Article XX(d) of GATT 1994, 98, 107, 108, 111–117 Article XXVIII of GATT 1994, 120, 279 GATT/WTO Law, 76, 105, 123, 199, 207–208, 241, 249, 271–280, 308, 420, 468, 469 Genuine product, 364 German Law on trademarks of 1936, 190, 191 Goods of the entertainment industry, 41 Gray market, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 27–40, 443, 446, 447 Gray market goods, 3, 12, 23, 29, 33, 34, 37–39, 46, 90, 445–449 I Identical or similar products, 192, 411 Identifiable markets, Impairment, 41, 64, 69, 335–396, 399, 422, 471 Importing/destination/target country, Improper use of rights, 135 Independent trader, 5, 8–14, 20, 27, 29–33, 38–40, 56, 62, 90, 128, 152, 191, 192, 238, 240, 244, 268, 274, 303, 305, 320–324, 334, 337, 338, 357, 393, 397–405, 407, 408, 411, 416, 423, 424, 431, 432, 445, 472, 473 India, 15, 60, 77, 86, 87, 269, 427, 457, 463, 473 Trademarks Act, 1999 (No 47 of 1999), 457 Industrial design right, 41, 135 Industrial development, 24 Infringement of the contractual obligations, 20 Innovation, 23, 96 Interbrand competition, 18, 32, 41, 62, 300 Intermediate policies on the legality of parallel imports, 37–39 International Trademark Treaties/Agreements/ Conventions, 75 Intrabrand competition, 11, 12, 25–26, 35, 40, 41, 48, 58, 62, 97, 134, 139, 243, 300, 432, 434, 435 Investments related to research and development (R&D), 23, 24 related to the cost of sale of goods, 23, 385 Italian Law of 1942, 191 Index J Japan, 60, 77, 112, 255, 269, 427, 443, 455–457, 463, 473 L Legal effects of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 (re-)affixing the trademark, 339 using the trademark in advertising, 305 using the trademark in marketing, 304–305 Legal effects of Articles (2) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (2) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 financial remedies, 409 principle of proportionality, 409 Legality of non-price vertical restraints, 25, 35, 36, 48, 130 Luxury products, 47, 149, 164, 166, 167, 260, 261, 306, 338, 371 M Margin profits, 11, 12, 15–17, 24, 243 Market power, 17, 22 Mark-up, 16, 18 Measures having equivalent effect, 108, 130, 141–143, 159, 181, 183 Mercosur, 60, 457, 458 Monopoly, 17, 46, 50, 64, 435 N National trademark with a reputation, 212 Non-price vertical restraints, 35, 36 Norway, 77, 82, 203, 235–238, 245–247, 427, 454–455 The Trademarks Act (Act No of March 26, 2010), 455 O Objective of trademark law, 168 Overcapacity for a product, 20 P Parallel application of the TRIPs Agreement and the GATT 1994, 104–106 Parallel import classification of parallel imports of trademarked goods cases, 41–44 Index forms of parallel imports, 6, 42, 157, 347, 356, 358 issue of the legality of parallel imports of trademarked goods, 42, 48, 49, 62, 63, 91, 123, 133, 139, 189–193, 201, 207, 232, 271–278, 311, 312, 342, 430, 467 proposed approaches for resolving the issue of the legality of parallel imports of trademarked products, 45–61 Parallel importer, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 19, 20, 27, 34, 40, 46, 61, 63, 64, 90, 95, 155, 157, 166, 170, 238, 240, 262, 291, 305, 319, 322, 323, 335, 336, 338–340, 344, 349, 350, 357–360, 362, 367–369, 372–376, 378–382, 397, 402, 403, 406, 408, 409, 411, 414–416, 422, 424, 432, 442, 444, 447, 457, 468, 471, 473 Parallel trade, 3–5, 7, 8, 12–14, 18–29, 39–42, 49, 56, 58, 60, 64, 65, 95, 97, 98, 104, 108, 113, 123, 131, 132, 135, 138, 140, 142, 150, 164, 167, 168, 182, 189, 202, 223, 242, 243, 260, 266–270, 282, 315, 316, 319, 338, 340, 341, 357, 375, 377, 378, 382, 404, 408, 410, 413, 434 Patent right, 41, 51, 52, 55, 81, 98, 115, 135, 152, 178–180, 191, 264, 266, 296, 413, 429, 433, 456 Pharmaceutical products, 23, 41, 149, 154–166, 168, 306, 332, 337, 338, 341–348, 352, 354, 355, 358–361, 363, 367–371, 376, 380, 397 Pirated goods, 6, 242 Price discrimination, 17–18, 21–25, 114 Principle/Doctrine/Rule of Exhaustion of rights [“αρχή της ανάλωσης τoυ  o (in Greek), Erschoăpfungsgrundsatz (in German), epuisement (in French), “esgotamiento” (in Spanish), “esausta˜o” (in Portuguese), “shomoˆriron” or “shojinron” (in Japanese)] advantages of the principle of exhaustion of rights, 51 concept, 51 consent, 51 legal effects, 55, 277, 303–306 legitimate reasons for excluding the applicability, 391, 422, 471 507 putting on the market, 53, 204, 217–303, 419, 468 types/regimes of exhaustion of rights international/worldwide exhaustion of rights, 60 national exhaustion of rights, 58, 112, 113, 115, 116, 450, 451, 453, 455, 458 regional exhaustion of rights, 59, 93, 94, 107, 110–113, 115–117, 467 Principle of free movement of goods, 63, 131, 140, 143, 174, 232, 237, 251, 256, 257, 260, 276, 300, 334, 365, 367 Principle of national treatment, 80, 89 Principle of territoriality [Territorialitaătsprinzip in German], 50 Principle of the General Elimination of Quantitative Restrictions and Equivalent Measures, 103 Principle of the most favoured-nation treatment, 80, 81, 99, 104, 308 Principle of Universality [(Territorialitaătsprinzip in German)], 50 Production efficiency, 26, 27 Property right, 4, 6, 7, 28, 29, 41, 51, 52, 55, 57, 59, 60, 76, 79–83, 85–88, 91–94, 96–99, 105, 114–116, 118, 127, 130–135, 137, 141–146, 152, 159, 180, 191, 193, 197, 217, 227, 228, 231, 233, 238, 242, 244, 248, 263–267, 284, 288, 296, 297, 308, 309, 318, 409–414, 421, 449, 456, 470 Putting on the market within the EEA within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 “Amended Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community trademark”, 256–258, 300, 342 “Amended Proposal for a First Council Directive to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trademarks”, 258, 300, 312, 342 Commission Memorandum on the creation of a Community trademark (1976), 252 Commissions’ Explanatory Memorandum to the Regulation on Community trademarks, 254 508 Putting on the market within the EEA within the meaning of Articles (1) of Directive 2008/95/EC and 13 (1) of Regulation (EC) 207/2009 (cont.) Commission’s “Proposal for a Council Regulation on Community trademarks”, 253–256, 341 Commission’s “Proposal for a first Council Directive to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trademarks”, 253–258, 300, 312, 341, 342 “Draft Council Directive to approximate the laws of the Member States relating to trademarks” of July 1979, 253 “Draft Council Regulation on the Community trademark” of July 1978, 253 internet sales, 244 “Preliminary Draft of a Convention for a European TradeMark” (1964), 252 Protocol 28 to the EEA Agreement, 197, 200, 203, 227, 228, 244, 247, 308, 419, 455, 468 Q Quantitative restrictions, 103, 107, 111, 130, 139, 141–143, 159, 181, 183, 229, 323 R Rationale of patent law, 51 R&D See Research & Development (R&D) Regulation (EC) 40/94 Article of Regulation (EC) 40/94, 244 Article 12 of Regulation (EC) 40/94, 196 Article 13 of Regulation (EC) 40/94, 196, 197 Regulation (EC) 207/2009 Article of Regulation (EC) 207/2009, 244 Article 12 of Regulation (EC) 207/2009, 196 Article 13 of Regulation (EC) 207/2009, 199–200 Regulation (EEC) 123/85, 406 Regulation (EU) 330/2010, 406 Removal of the trademark, 338, 381–383, 402 Removal or elimination of identification numbers, 376–379 Repackaging a trademarked good imported in parallel Index addition of new user instructions or information, 158, 363 affixation of a new label to the original packaging, 338 alteration of the contents or the appearance of the external packaging, 158, 338 conditions for the legality, 273, 346 replacement of the accompanying product, 158, 415 replacement of the packaging, 159, 338, 359 Repair or reprocessing works addition of a relevant indication, 394 change in the colour or shade of a trademarked good, 391–395 change of the intended purpose or the basic design of a trademarked good, 387 deterioration in the quality level of a trademarked good, 387–389, 391, 392 extent of the works carried out, 384–387 impact of the repair work on the functioning of a trademarked good, 389–390 importance of the replaced parts for the good’s operation, 390 origin of the spare parts used for the repair of a trademarked good, 392–394 Replacement of the original trademark of a good imported in parallel, 348–350, 355 condition for the legality, 352, 356, 364, 373, 374, 395, 366, 370 Resale price maintenance (RSP), 31 Research & development (R&D), 23, 24, 28, 31 Restriction of competition, 315 Returns, 35 Reward, 51, 179, 180, 264, 265, 413 Rule of reason, 61, 62 Russia, 58, 269, 427, 453, 463, 473 Trademark Law # 3520-1 of September 23, 1992, as amended by the federal law 166-FL on December 11, 2002, 453 S Second stock, 10 Services after sales services, 23, 24, 27, 29, 31 before sales services, 31 services non-relating to the production or the distribution of goods, 216 Index services relating to the production or the distribution of goods, 216 Sherman Act, 48, 49, 435 Single international enterprise, 43, 280, 435, 451 Socio-economic welfare, 13, 21–28, 65, 96, 123, 269 South Korea, 427, 458, 463, 473 Spare parts, 41, 196, 385, 386, 392–394 Switzerland 1891 Swiss Trademark Law, 453 Swiss Trademark Law of 1992, 454 T Taxation systems, 15 Theory of Ramsey pricing, 22 Trademark advertising function (or “investment function”, “Werbefunktion” in German) luxury products, 164 pharmaceutical products, 164 criterion for the protection, 146, 162, 178, 389, 394 definitions of trademarks, 335–337 distinctiveness, 41 economic value/goodwill, 20, 26, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34–35, 37–40, 46, 47, 53, 64, 97, 113, 116, 136, 180, 216, 219, 221, 224, 225, 280, 346, 430–436, 441–443, 451, 456 exhaustion of rights, 51–61, 63, 65, 81–89, 92, 94, 99, 110, 113, 117, 127, 178–181, 202, 220, 221, 230, 236, 254, 256, 260, 281, 294–296, 305, 429, 450–455, 458, 467 guarantee function (or quality function, Qualitaătsfunktion in German) luxury products, 167 pharmaceutical products, 168 origin function [“primary function” or “essential function” or “main function” of trademarks; “Herkunftsfunktion” or “Hauptfunktion” in German] Article 36, subparagraph of the EEC Treaty (now Article 36 of the TFEU), 159, 164 pharmaceutical products, 154–158 repackaging of a good imported in parallel, 33, 336, 387, 390 509 replacement of the trademark originally borne bya good imported in parallel, 306, 332, 359, 363, 364, 415 principle of territoriality [Territorialitaătsprinzip in German], 50 principle of Universality [(Territorialitaătsprinzip in German)], 50 reputation of trademarks, 147149, 160, 163–167, 170, 171, 259, 344, 346, 352, 361, 369–374, 376, 378–383, 385, 386, 389–392, 395, 397–405, 408, 415, 416, 423, 433, 472 service marks, 214–216 sign, 35, 41, 42, 75, 91, 190–195 Trademark law, 4, 35, 37, 40, 45, 46, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 58, 63, 64, 75, 76, 91, 113, 127, 133, 167, 168, 173, 189, 190, 198, 199, 207, 216, 217, 219–221, 233, 239, 248, 255, 256, 263, 272, 289, 293–296, 300, 303, 305, 319, 331, 332, 405, 406, 409–411, 433– 435, 450–455, 457, 458, 463, 473 Trademark licensee, 42, 44, 48, 49, 54–56, 62, 63, 131, 135, 138–140, 152, 153, 170, 292, 294, 297–302, 421, 445, 470 Trademark’s functions, 61, 260 Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement, 60 TRIPs Agreement Article of the TRIPs Agreement, 28, 65, 81–89, 91, 98, 99, 105, 114–116, 123 Article of the TRIPs Agreement, 96, 123, 308 Article 16 of the TRIPs Agreement, 83, 91 Articles and of the TRIPs Agreement, 82, 83, 93–95, 99 Preamble, 79, 80, 83, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96–99, 105, 106, 308, 309 preparatory work, 96–98 Turkey, 58, 77, 269, 427, 455, 463, 473 Decree-Law No 556 on the Protection of Trademarks (of June 27, 1995), 455 U Unauthorized goods, 3, 4, 8, 25, 29, 31, 36, 38 Unemployment, 36 Unfair competition law, 32, 37, 40, 192, 202, 303, 332, 406, 409–414, 433 510 Uniform Law of Benelux of 1962, 191, 192, 195, 201 Uniform pricing, 13, 22, 23 Uruguay Round of Multilateral Trade Negotiations, 76, 85, 88 USA 19 C.F.R 133.21 (c) (1972), 437–444 19 CFR § 133.23 (a) (1) and (2) and § 133.2 (d), 439 “first sale doctrine”, 429–430 Sec 42 of the Lanham Act of 1946 likelihood of confusion, 85, 90, 91, 193–195, 333, 436, 443, 453 Sec 337 of the 1930 Tariff Act, 444–450 Sec 526 (a) of the Tariff Act of 1930 “authorized used” exception, 437, 438 Cellar Bill, 435 “common control” exception, 437–439 Index “common ownership” exception, 437–439 “genuine goods statute”, 434 US common law trademark’s goodwill, 34–35, 39, 40, 431–433, 441 trademark’s origin function, 45, 46, 61, 150, 224, 231, 259, 262, 333, 397, 399, 430–431 US positive law, 433–450 W White market, World Trade Organization (WTO), 28, 76, 80, 81, 95, 97, 98, 105, 106, 112–117, 123, 199, 207–208, 241, 249, 268, 271–280, 308, 420, 468, 469 .. .Trade Marks and Free Trade ThiS is a FM Blank Page Lazaros G Grigoriadis Trade Marks and Free Trade A Global Analysis Lazaros G Grigoriadis Faculty of Law Aristotle University of Thessaloniki... CNL-SUCAL NV v HAG GF AG, [1990] ECR I-3711, para 13; Case C-9/ 93, IHT Internationale Heiztechnik GmbH and Uwe Danzinger v Ideal-Standard GmbH and Wabco Standard GmbH, [1994] ECR I-2789, para 37 Although... Union is attempted The book concludes with Part V (Chap 15) Thessaloniki, Greece Lazaros G Grigoriadis ThiS is a FM Blank Page Abbreviations AIPLA Q J AIPPI Akron Law Rev All ER Am Bus Law J Am Econ