19174 PNKB show cave management report EN brian clark 2010

MANAGEMENT OF THE TOURIST CAVES OF PHONG NHA - KE BANG NATIONAL PARK A REPORT TO THE QUANG BINH PROVINCIAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT UNIT BY BRIAN D CLARK (PSM) Following the presentation of two reports to the GTZ Project in Quang Binh Province in 2009, a third inspection was requested with a view to:  Providing comment and recommendations regarding the pilot walkway in BiKy Grotto  Proposing areas for cleaning of the floor of Phong Nha Cave  Providing advice on and supervision of practical implementation of such cleaning process  Providing a consolidated report which includes : o Preparation of a proposal for the tourist caves improvement with a particular focus on:  Cleaning and rehabilitation of the tourist caves  Development of a defined walkway through the caves  Upgrading of the cave lighting system  Recommendations for signage in the Park o Formulation of a management manual, specifically for public use of the Phong Nha and Tien Son caves according to international standards ABOUT THE AUTHOR Brian Clark has 25 years of practical experience in the development and management of tourist caves in World Heritage listed National Parks in Australia and Malaysia; he is an Honorary Life Member and former President of the Australasian Cave and Karst Management Association Inc He has served as an advisor to the management of the Riversleigh World Heritage Area in Queensland (Aust), the Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area (Aust.) and on a global scale has worked with the IUCN as an advisor to regional and provincial management authorities on World Heritage management issues in Malaysia, Laos, Korea and China In 2000 he was awarded the Australian Public Service Medal for ‘an outstanding contribution to nature conservation through the innovative blending of tourism with education’ TOURIST CAVE MANAGEMENT IN PHONG NHA - KE BANG NATIONAL PARK PREFACE Along with the benefits of being recognized as a World Heritage Property there comes an obligation to protect the Park’s World Heritage (and other) values to the best of our abilities, ensuring that those values remain in the same, or better, condition than when the site was declared to be ‘World Heritage’ In order to meet their World Heritage obligations it is vital that the agency which is responsible for management of the World Heritage Property immediately embarks upon a strategic management plan based on the principles of  PROTECTION Any human use of the area will potentially have negative impact on the areas values so appropriate steps must be taken to avoid such impacts Even though damage may already have been done prior to its recognition as a World Heritage Area there must be appropriate strategies developed and implemented to prevent ongoing damage  REHABILITATION Any damage which may have already occurred must be identified, quantified and recorded Strategies must be developed to prevent ongoing damage along with the actions taken to repair the damage and monitor the recovery  PRESENTATION The role of tourism in World Heritage Areas is not simply about providing economic opportunity to surrounding communities Tourism activities should be focused on opportunity to raise the visitors’ awareness of the Park’s purpose and significance Unfortunately, there is always the risk that the economics of the tourism opportunity will be put in front of the requirements to protect and rehabilitate but this must not be allowed to happen as it is vital to the long term economic viability of the tourism opportunity that the site is protected and maintained as an attractive destination The community leaders and the members of the managing agency responsible for the site must make themselves aware of the long term business viability issues and embrace the need for protection of the site against damaging processes even when it may mean placing limitations on short term financial gains Not to so will eventually result in the attraction being destroyed – along with the economic opportunity it offered It is often difficult to get people to understand that the most serious of all the potentially damaging processes are not always the big obvious issues like mining or logging or illegal hunting or building a dam in the middle of the Park It is the little things like inadequate controls of how many people are allowed into the Park at any one time, inadequate control of what they are doing while they are there or inadequate and inappropriate facilities provided to facilitate visitor access in the Park Each by themselves may not be such a big problem, but if you put all of the little things together in the same place and at the same time? DISASTER! BACKGROUND The following report is submitted in fulfilment of contract between Brian D Clark (PSM) and GTZ to :  Prepare a proposal for the improvement of the show caves within Phong Nha – Ke Bang National park including a timeline and cost estimate for necessary improvements of the cave infrastructure (walkways and lighting system) and a road map for possible further cave development The schedule of improvement caves should cover the following improvement steps: i Protection and rehabilitation of the caves (walls and floors) ii Construction of walkways in the caves iii Modification or replacement of current lighting system  Partly supervise development of the walkways piloted by PNKB/GTZ Component in the BiKi Grotto section of Phong Nha Cave  Comment on the walkway designs of PNKB caves  Propose areas for upgrading/cleaning of the floor of Phong Nha Cave and supervise practical implementation of such cleaning process Propose further solutions and give instructions to further treat negative visitor impacts  Propose a new/ upgraded lighting system, for example, a system based on ultra-bright LED lighting and sensor controlled switching This proposal should recommend necessary improvement and/or replacement of the existing lighting system and alternatives for spots of installation in the PNKB caves  Prepare a Cave management manual, specifically for public use which addresses the following specific issues • Visitor safety • Visitor information • Visitor guidance • Signing system The requirements of the contract are to, as far as is practicable, base the recommendations with internationally accepted standards and/or guidelines Accordingly there are several attachments to the Report.: Appendix is an abridged version of the IUCN guidelines for the management of karst and caves Appendix is the guidelines for a cave access classification system Appendix is the International Show Caves Associations guidelines for management of show caves Appendix is a draft of the International Union of Speleology’s ‘Code of Ethics” Appendices and are two internationally accredited case studies in the control of lampenflora CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION THE KEY MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS 3.1 CROWDING OF BOATS WITHIN THE CAVE 3.2 CROWDING OF PEOPLE WITHIN THE CAVE(S) 3.3 TRAMPLING OF THE CAVE FLOOR AND TRANSFER OF SEDIMENTS TO SPELEOTHEMS 3.3.1 3.4 A CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR A WALKWAY THROUGH THE CAVES LAMPENFLORA DAMAGE FROM INAPPROPRIATE CAVE LIGHTING 3.4.1 A PROPOSED LIGHTING PLAN FOR THE CAVES OF PHONG NHA NATIONAL PARK 3.5 ACCUMULATION OF LITTER WITHIN THE CAVES 3.6 LIMITED MANAGEMENT CAPACITY 3.7 INSUFFICIENT SITE ORIENTATION, INFORMATION AND INTERPRETATION 3.7.1 KE BANG A CONCEPTUAL SIGNAGE PLAN FOR PHONG NHA – KE BANG NATIONAL PARK 3.7.2 A CONCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION PLAN FOR PHONG NHA NATIONAL PARK - – KE BANG AN OPERATIONAL MANUAL FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE CAVES OF PHONG NHA A) B) C) D) E) F) REVIEW AND REVISE THE REGULATIONS PERTAINING TO VISITATION TO THE CAVES DEVELOP GUIDELINES TO FACILITATE ACCESS APPROVAL TO CAVES WITHIN THE PARK ACCESS TO THE SHOW CAVES OF PHONG NHA – KE BANG NATIONAL PARK CONTROL OF BOATS ENTERING THE RIVER PASSAGE OF PHONG NHA CAVE CROWD CONTROL INFRASTRUCTURE MONITORING Appendix No IUCN GUIDELINES FOR CAVE AND KARST PROTECTION Appendix No GUIDELINES FOR A CAVE ACCESS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Appendix No INTERNATIONAL SHOW CAVES ASSOCIATION’S MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR SHOW CAVES Appendix No DRAFT INTERNATIONAL UNION OF SPELEOLOGY CODE OF ETHICS Appendix No A CASE STUDY IN LAMPENFLORA MANAGEMENT Appendix No AN EXTRACT FROM THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF CAVE MANAGEMENT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Much has been written about the caves of Phong Nha and much literary license used in the writing and there are many claims regarding the longest, the widest, the largest, the deepest, the most beautiful and even ‘best of their kind’ IN THE WORLD! These are very big claims and while some can be measured and proven one way or the other, others are merely a matter of opinion But fact or fiction, proof or opinion, whatever they are is meaningless if they are not properly managed Regardless of literary license the show caves of Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park are indeed spectacular, but they are being spectacularly under-managed and a number of threatening processes are severely impacting on the values of the caves The following report identifies these processes along with their primary causal factors and proffers various solutions which, if implemented correctly, will negate the threatening process and in some cases reverse the negative impacts already incurred  Crowding and insufficient crowd control are primary causal factors contributing to the physical damage to the cave and both detract from the enjoyable/learning experience that a visit to the caves should be A combination of administrative and engineering solutions are proposed to minimize crowding and enhance the ability of staff to manage crowds  While the absence of an appropriate walkway, along with crowding and insufficient crowd control are the causal factors leading to trampling of the cave sediments and transfer of sediments to cave decorations, the lack of a structured walkway is also a causal factor leading to insufficient crowd control Although the raised timber walkway proposed as the engineering solution to the problem is contrary to international standards – (“wooden walkways should never be used except in ice caves”) the former chairman of the IUCN Working Party on caves and karst has acknowledged that there are exceptions to this in that “except for Borneo Ironwood there is no other timber which is known to be suitable for use in caves” Perhaps there are other exceptions and the recommendations to use the local ‘Vietnamese Ironwood’ for a walkway through the caves is couched in caution to monitor and review the performance of this timber BEFORE proceeding with its large-scale introduction to the cave environment  An inadequately designed and operated lighting system along with a lack of management awareness of internationally accepted control strategies is the cause of some serious lampenflora damage throughout the caves The solutions to resolve this problem include a shift in management awareness of the problem, its causes and accepted control methods, a simple maintenance program and an engineering solution – replacement of the lighting system  Littering, eating, drinking, smoking, toileting and even just touching are all activities which are internationally accepted as very damaging to caves and their environments, and these are all activities which are rampant in the caves of Phong Nha The primary cause of the problem is a lack of management and staff awareness of the impacts of these activities on the cave coupled with an apparent unwillingness to adequately address the problem  The lack of orientation, information and interpretation within the Park is a contributing factor to the inappropriate behaviours in the caves and the solution lies in a combination of policy change, administrative procedures and engineering solutions detailed in the body of the report INTRODUCTION The caves of Phong Nha - Ke Bang National Park in central Vietnam province of Quang Binh have a substantial history of human use dating back to pre-historical times as evidenced by the yet to be interpreted Champa script adorning the walls in the BiKy Grotto More recently they played a significant role during the American War and in the last 20 years both Phong Nha and Tien Son have been developed as ‘show caves’ to help the development of the provincial economy through tourism The Park’s core visitor area comprises:  The ticket selling office and boat boarding area  a boat landing area near the entrance to Phong Nha Cave,  a picnic area where local hawkers sell refreshments and souvenirs,  the access stairs to Tien Son cave,  the river cave passage of Phong Nha and its two dry passages  a walkway from the Phong Nha cave entrance past a pagoda of indeterminate age and up to the entrance to Tien Son Cave, and of course Tien Son Cave itself Today the Park attracts around 300,000 visitors per year and whilst the vast majority are domestic tourists the number of foreign tourists visiting the Park has steadily increased since it became a World Heritage Area in 2003 The caves are the primary attraction to the Park with 100% of visitors going to Phong Nha Cave and an estimated 60% also going to Tien Son Cave Other visitor attraction/facilities include the volunteer cave memorial and the Nuoc Muc Eco-trail The core of visitor experience in the Park is to travel by boat up river from the visitor reception facility to the entrance of Phong Nha Cave where they get out of the boat for a visit to the washroom and/or a coffee break before either reboarding the boat and entering the Phong Nha Cave or climbing the steps to visit Tien Son Cave before visiting the Phong Nha Cave The vast majority enter the Phong Nha Cave first and many not bother with the climb to visit Tien Son In terms of tourist cave experiences the boat ride into the cave, the karst features of the cave itself and the truly spectacular stalagmites and stalactites in Phong Nha Cave should rank this as one of the World’s great cave experiences Similarly the karst forms coupled with the diversity and abundance of stalactites, stalagmites, shawls, rim-pools, flowstone and spectacular cave shields to be seen in Tien Son Cave make it too what should be one of the World’s great cave experiences Most regrettably, they are not The condition of the caves denies them such recognition because:  most of the cave floor and their delicate rim-stone pool features have been severely trampled  most areas of flowstone have been encrusted with dirt carried on the feet of visitors  many of the stalagmites have been damaged by people climbing on them and rubbing them with their hands - and even with money!  significant rim-stone pools have been filled with concrete to make steps  notwithstanding the significance of the Champa inscriptions in BiKy grotto there is an enormous amount of modern graffiti throughout the caves  food scraps and food wrappers, drink cans and other containers are scattered and hidden throughout the caves The floor in many areas is covered with cigarette butts  inadequately designed lighting has produced an exceptional amount of ‘lampenflora’ (plant life forms growing under an artificial light source) throughout the caves, and it is exceptional in terms of extent, intensity and form (the early stage of lampenflora infestation is simple green algae which in time will be replaced by more advanced life forms such as mosses and lichens and eventually even ferns will flourish In Phong Nha and Tien Son all are common! ALL of these have had a severe impact on how the caves look, and it is important to understand that simply touching the stalactites and stalagmites interferes with their natural growth, that the lampenflora along with food scraps – even sugar from spilled drinks – disrupts the natural ecosystem by providing unnatural food supplies for competing populations of cave fauna and that the cigarette butts simply poison everything! In addition to the physical condition of the caves there are also a number management issues which are having a negative impact on the condition of the cave including:  the highly seasonal nature of visitation with some serious peaking problems of 10,000 per day during national holiday times  the lack of defined walkways within the caves  the lack of an awareness among Park staff (and concessionaires working within the caves) of their role in assisting with the protection of the caves  the lack of proper supervision of tourists by park staff  visitors entering the caves with no requirement to be supervised by a guide  the quality of site interpretation by guides is highly variable with a strong leaning towards fantasy The direct consequence of these issues is a steady deterioration of the aesthetic, geological and biological values of the caves and a failure to deliver any meaningful experience to visitors such that they have an opportunity to understand and appreciate the site’s significance as a World Heritage Area While there is no doubt that the pre-tourism era of human use of the caves has had significant impact on the natural conditions of the caves it is obvious that it is the current pattern of use is bringing the caves of Phong Nha – Ke Bang National Park close to being considered ‘beyond repair’ THE KEY MANAGEMENT ISSUES AND PROPOSED SOLUTIONS There are many issues affecting the environment of the caves in PNKBNP; all of them relate to management of visitors or the way that the cave has been developed for tourism The most significant cave management problems identified and proposed solutions include: 3.1 CROWDING OF BOATS WITHIN THE CAVE The boat ride into the cave is an outstanding experience which differentiates it from many other cave experiences However, it does present problems of crowding in the BiKy Grotto area even on days of medium to high visitation On days of extreme visitation it must be all but unmanageable There are two options to resolve this Option 1- initiate and enforce a policy limiting the maximum number of boats permitted to be in the cave at one time During the busiest days it would be best to close the BiKy Grotto section Boats should pole to the entrance of the Grotto, then turn around to off-load visitors to walk through the Fairy and Royal Chambers back to the cave entrance/exit Option 2- employ an engineering solution (which would also add to the experience in the cave) and install a suspended walkway above the river between BiKy Grotto and Fairy Grotto to facilitate a ‘boat in – walk out’ system This will require an initial geotechnical survey to vouch for the integrity of the rock strata and then a detailed structural design prepared by an engineer The height of the walkway should be 3m above the height of the median water level to allow the passage of a boat with a person standing on its deck below the walkway 3.2 CROWDING OF PEOPLE WITHIN THE CAVE(S) The International Show Caves Association’s “Draft Guidelines for Show Cave Management” (see Appendix 3) recommends that a maximum number of people allowed into the cave at the same time be set, and that number should never be exceeded Determining what that number should be is an issue worthy of serious debate as the matter of ‘carrying capacity’ can be viewed from three very different perspectives First is the ‘facility’ carrying capacity How long, how wide, how strong is the walkway? If it is not long enough or wide enough or strong enough then there will be an engineering solution to the problem and the carrying can be said to be limited only by how many square metres and how fast the visitors can walk Second is the ‘environmental’ capacity How many people can fit in without causing irreversible change to the environment? In the case of a show cave this means how many people can be in the cave without causing the cave temperature to rise above acceptable levels? How many people does it take to change the carbon dioxide levels in the cave? These are easily measurable parameters, but how you determine ‘irreversibility’ and who is to say what degree of change is harmful to the cave? Third is the most difficult of all to assess The ‘social’ capacity of the experience How many people can be in the cave before the quality of the experience is so badly affected that visitors wish that they weren’t there at all? For some cultures if they can see or hear other people then the place is already too crowded while for others the crowd is a major part of enjoying the experience Mixing the two together can be a problem Determining the carrying capacity for show caves with an international audience must be based on all three of these perspectives In the case of the show caves of Phong Nha the main river and dry passages of Phong Nha Cave are so large and so well ventilated that an increase in the temperature or carbon dioxide levels even under (short term) extreme visitation would be so minimal as to be unworthy of wasting resources to prove it However, the BiKy Grotto and Tien Son Cave would be at risk of raised ambient temperature and carbon dioxide levels during peak periods of visitation The only reason that the caves are able to accommodate the extreme numbers of 9000 and more in a single day is that is virtually no limitations on where they can spread out to within the caves, so a walkway must be constructed as soon as is possible to protect the caves from ongoing degradation, But - - - - when this has been achieved there will be the need to consider the ‘facility’ capacity of the cave Similarly the walkway in Tien Son will generate the need to consider the facility capacity as well as the environment capacity Management of the social capacity is both difficult and contentious The growing number of international, mostly western, tourists is going to be limited by the dissatisfaction with the experience if something is not done to ‘tone down’ the current behaviour of many domestic tourists Crowds of shouting, cheering, singing, smoking young people surging through the caves detract from the experience and the opportunity of word of mouth promotion of the site by satisfied customers will be lost It is therefore important for both the environment of the cave and the sustainability of the local tourism economy that infrastructure be installed to restrict movement to all parts of the cave and that procedures be put in place to regulate the behaviour of visitors in the caves Due to the highly seasonal nature of visitation the management of visitors is proposed to be adaptive to the particular volume of visitors The following is an initial recommendation subject to practical trial and modification a Very low to Low visitation = up to 200 people per day Average people per hour = 25 with a variance of 18 to 30 Boats with up to 12 persons plus Guide can depart from the Phong Nha village on demand and enter the Phong Nha River passage at their leisure In addition to each visitor paying the scheduled boat fee as it is they will be required to pay a Park entry fee which will include the compulsory services of a Guide who will lead the group which will be variably sized from to 14 persons For those requiring a private Guide an appropriate fee will be payable The Guide will provide a pre-cave entry briefing about required behaviour while in the cave and subsequently monitor and control behaviour while presenting an interpretation of the caves and their values If the group or part thereof is also visiting the Tien Son cave the same Guide will also accompany them to and through that cave Therefore show caves should have a monitoring network to keep the cave environment under control 6-1 Monitoring of the cave climate should be undertaken The air temperature, carbon dioxide, radon (if its concentration is close or above the level prescribed by the law) and if applicable water temperature should be monitored Airflow in and out of the cave should possibly be monitored According to the experience gained after many years of show caves management a group of cave scientists (the so called “Scientific Commission) is extremely useful to advice the cave management in order to avoid serious troubles endangering the cave environment It is very important that such scientists would have a good experience of the cave environment; otherwise also competent scientists not fully aware of the cave environment could result in wrong advices 6-2 Specialized cave scientists should be consulted to carry out further research when situations warrant - MANAGERS INFORMATION The cave management must never forget that the cave itself is “the golden goose” to be preserved with great care Therefore it is necessary that the persons involved in this activity receive a suitable education not only on the management from the point of view of economy, but also on the environmental issues concerning the protection of the environment at large 7-1 Cave managers should be competent both in the economy of management and in the environment protection - GUIDES INFORMATION The cave guides have a very important role because are the “connection” between the cave and the visitors Unfortunately in many instances the guides have not been trained and notwithstanding they are doing their best, the result is not very good Therefore it is very important that the guides receive some simple instructions both about the cave and the behaviour with the public Concerning the last point, the relationship with the visitors must be based upon kindness to avoid discussions On the other hand the guides are the first guardians of the cave; therefore they must be ready to stop any misbehaviour, which could endanger the cave environment -1 Cave guides should be trained to correctly inform the public about the environment of a cave Acknowledgements These Guidelines are the result of contributions from many people, particularly during the discussions after their presentation to congresses and meetings Recently some suggestions from André David, Guilhem de Grully, Elery Hamilton-Smith, Stein-Erik Lauritzen and David Summers were instrumental to finalise the text Special thanks are due to anyone of those who provided comments Draft made Sept 2008 Edited 20 June 2009 Committee: Stein-Erik Lauritzen (Norway), chairman Julia James (Australia) Paul Willimas (New Zealand) 86 Appendix No4 DRAFT INTERNATIONAL UNION OF SPELEOLOGY CODE OF ETHICS It is the consensus of the Bureau of the UIS (2008) that caves and karst features, as well as many other underground cavities, are extremely valuable, vulnerable and irreplaceable These sites are repositories for aesthetics and a vast range of scientific information that is not available elsewhere Caves may be regarded as ‘time-machines’ and their pristine and timeless atmosphere is immediately obvious to any visitor Caves are a limited resource with close to zero carrying capacity Recent developments in cave microbiology and trace element geochemistry strongly support the uniqueness and vulnerability of the cave environment The international community of laymen, cavers and scientists all have a duty to pass on this unspoilt cave legacy to future generations We want future generations to be able to experience the same untouched and aesthetic atmosphere as we in our caves today The basic and simplest rule for maintaining the state of a cave is simple It is to: Keep the main focus strictly on the cave and its contents If, on the contrary, the focus is on something other than the cave, such as financial gain, personal objectives, rescue, etc., then the cave will suffer Visiting a cave is like borrowing a book at the library: it must be returned in the same state as you received it - you don’t tear out pages, write comments or leave coffee stains on it The caving community is international and consists of individuals with a wide range of backgrounds Whether a layman, caver or scientist, all share a keen interest in their caves and have often invested immense personal resources into their exploration and cave stewardship Such efforts deserve great respect when dealing with speleologists from different regions and nations Therefore we suggest a revised UIS Code of Ethics that covers a) general caving in your own country; b) caving expeditions to foreign countries; c) future development of show caves; d) adventure and geo- and eco- tourism; e) competitive caving; and f) scientific sampling The UIS Bureau suggested Code of Ethics A: General caving in your own country Every country should develop its own code of ethics, but we recommend something along these lines: ‘Traceless travel’ should be the underlying principle for every country’s code of ethics We should try to avoid leaving footprints, even on sediment floors, and must avoid smearing and spreading sediments over rocks and speleothems Likewise, during a cave rescue, the focus is naturally – and it should also be- on the victim and the transport logistics This is therefore perhaps the only conceivable situation where excessive trampling and wear has to be accepted However, similar damage is unavoidable during rescue practice (training) Therefore, rescue practice should be restricted to only a few already damaged caves and never performed in newly discovered or otherwise pristine caves Every caving trip makes an impact and contributes to the eventual cumulative destruction of the cave Ideally, all caving trips should aim to have some kind of return - apart from personal excitement- to make up for the damage in the form of documentation (for example, survey, photographs, observations) Knowledge is the most important legacy we can provide for others Likewise, every caver must carry out their trash, etc Check and adhere to your own country’s code of caving ethics (examples of websites) B: Caving expeditions to foreign countries 87 Here we distinguish between visiting known caves (adventure caving) and exploring areas for new caves (expedition caving) The remarks that follow refer particularly to expeditions The principle is to realise that one is a guest in a foreign country and utilise common sense and pay respect to the host UIS supports the international activities of speleological societies, caving groups and karst scientists because they are important for:  discovering new caves and extending the exploration of previously known caves;  investigating their contents, for example, minerals, biota and archaeological and anthropological remains;  distributing the knowledge of karst and caves throughout the world;  enabling the exchange of safe caving practices;  assisting in the protection and preservation of caves and karst However, visiting cavers must be aware that exploration for new caves by foreigners may not be welcome when local cavers are already exploring the same area To avoid misunderstanding by indigenous and local people, government, and local and national caving organisations in the country in which the proposed cave exploration or scientific investigation is to take place, the UIS has prepared the following recommendations Before leaving your country In many cases it will be necessary to obtain prior official permission in the country to be visited In addition, as a matter of courtesy it is necessary to inform one or more of the following: the national speleological organisation; the UIS national delegate; local caving club(s); and relevant individuals from whom cooperation is sought If adequate contact has not been made, then only a reconnaissance expedition is justified Results of the expedition should be given to the host party and, in return, it is their responsibility to acknowledge any results of the expedition used in their future publications If possible, organise joint expeditions with cavers from the country to be visited The national speleological organisation will be familiar with the official requirements for visiting expeditions They will be well versed in the requirements for the lodging of expedition reports and the published material, and in the regulations pertaining to the removal of any materials by the expedition from the caves and to other countries for scientific studies or other purposes During the expedition The expedition members should respect the laws of the country and local traditions, and understand that some caves may be sacred sites and have a religious and/or cultural significance; exploration and research studies in these caves may be restricted The expedition members should not damage either the karst or its caves They should, where possible, educate and advise local communities in the protection and preservation of their karst and caves After the expedition Samples from the caves and karst collected during the expedition should only be taken out of the cave and country if the correct export procedures are followed and their export has been permitted As a courtesy, copies of all printed material produced by the expedition, together with the location and maps of the caves, should be sent to the participating caving clubs and the national speleological organisation and/or the UIS national delegate Assistance received from the organisations within the country visited should be acknowledged in all the expedition publications Respect for the work of other groups and individuals 88 Before undertaking an expedition to a foreign country, the visitor group should research previous work and/or current exploration by local or foreign cavers, in order not to interfere with current projects Credit for previous exploration should be given in expedition reports If several groups happen to be working in the same area, then the opportunity should be taken to learn from each other and to coordinate further work Addenda to the UIS Code of Ethics (accepted in Brasilia, Brazil, 2001) a The UIS urges all their Bureau Members and National Delegates, who know of any expedition being organised to a foreign country, to immediately contact and inform the National Delegate of the target country b If a member of the UIS Bureau discovers a violation of its Code of Ethics regarding a foreign expedition, it will contact the National Delegate of the expedition’s country of origin suggesting that the expedition findings and reports should not be accepted in their official publications, and advising also that the reports will not be accepted in any UIS-sponsored publication or event c For expeditions organised by countries of high speleological development to countries of lower speleological development, the expedition group should its best to offer the transfer of knowledge and to promote local speleological activity C: Future development of show caves The prescriptions and guidelines of the International Show Caves Association (ISCA), as endorsed by the UIS, should be used to guide any future development of show caves The principle should be to utilise removable installations, such as suspended plastic or stainless steel walkways, in preference to the more difficult mediums such as concrete High efficiency, cool lighting should be employed, and every effort must be made to conceal cables without damaging the cave It is essential that the development, and subsequent use, has the absolute minimum impact on the natural environment of the cave The principles of sustainable development should be followed D: Adventure, geo- and eco- tourism Damage caused by adventure tourism and commercial recreation reduces the legacy bequeathed for future generations To minimise impact, party size must be restricted, especially in low energy and small caves – less so in river caves - and groups must be controlled by guides who are aware of cave conservation values The environment of the cave must take precedence over all economic considerations E: Competitive caving Ideally, competitions of any sort should never be held in caves, because their natural values will be degraded (Competitions should only be held in caves that have already been heavily used) Damaging caves in the name of sport is totally unjustified F: Scientific sampling The UIS is aware that excessive scientific sampling of caves is occurring Sampling should only be undertaken by well qualified experts (or their trained assistants) for their own research Samples and specimens should be neither purchased nor sold Local practice should be followed for permission Results of research should be passed to international data repositories Living organisms 89 Cave environments are extreme and subterranean organisms are correspondingly fragile, vulnerable and often only present in very low numbers Thus sampling must be well considered and should only be undertaken by well qualified experts for their own research Speleothems Is someone’s transient career more important than an ancient, still-growing speleothem in situ? The irreplaceability of growing and fossil speleothems must be appreciated The removal of a growing speleothem from a cave means its ‘life’ is ended, as is its value for future appreciation Speleothems should not be bought (we must not create a market) and without knowledge of the sample’s stratigraphic context its scientific value is much reduced Sediments Sediments in a cave form the habitat of many organisms and contain records of past environmental history Like any other cave deposit, they should be treated with respect and not be trampled or sampled indiscriminately Archaeological, fossil and sub-fossil deposits These deposits are irreplaceable and of great value to science, and so should only be excavated by qualified professionals after having first obtained official permission Excavations should remove only a fraction of the deposit of interest to ensure that a major portion is left untouched for future work 90 Appendix No A case study in lampenflora management CONTROL OF LAMPENFLORA AT WAITOMO CAVES NEW ZEALAND KARL JOHNSON (This paper is the result of a two year study at Waitomo in 1977-78 conducted as the result of a recommendation made by the Waitomo Caves Research study Group to the Tourist Hotel Corporation, the administrators of Waitomo Caves) INTRODUCTION The growth of lower plants; algae, mosses and ferns "lampenflora" in the vicinity of lighting fixtures is a well recognised problem in commercial caves In all caves the naturally occurring levels of nutrients and moisture are sufficient to support plant growth However, only in commercialised "tourist" caves are the other growth factor, light, provided in sufficient quantity and quality to allow development of coloured patches of autotrophic plants adjacent to the lights primarily the patches of lampenflora are a visual nuisance in that they obscure and discolour the cave formation but also, the plants produce weak organic acids which in time can erode the calcite and limestone of which the cave formations are made Therefore it is generally conceded that an attempt should be made to eliminate these organisms The elimination of the lampenflora involves one or more of the following actions: (a) making the cave environment locally toxic or inhibitory to plant growth, (b) the periodic killing and/or removal of the plant populations, or (c) a reduction, to sub-growth levels, of the quantity and/or quality of light used for cave illumination This study of the lampenflora in the Waitomo Caves and the possible methods for control of plant growth in the caves was started because it was recognised that after many years of operating as tourist caves, the three Waitomo caves were undergoing changes in their natural environment, including the growth of substantial lampenflora populations which could lead to permanent deterioration of the caves The methods investigated for control of lampenflora in commercial caves outside of New Zealand have been discussed by Kermode 1975) The two most successful methods reported have used either steam and/or hot water to both kill and remove the lampenflora (Aley 1972) or a formaldehyde solution to kill and bleach the lampenflora (Leferur and Laporte 1969) The research reported here was undertaken to establish what possible methods of lampenflora control could be used in the Waitomo Caves Primary consideration in the methods tested was for their: ecological acceptability particularly with regard to other cave organisms such as the Glow-worms, practicality with regard to continuing public access and safety, and immediate applicability such that lampenflora control could begin without delay Therefore, the work reported has centred around two main areas: the use of phytotoxic chemicals to kill and retard regrowth of existing lampenflora populations, and the possible control of cave lighting to retard or prevent population regrowth after chemical cleaning WAITOMO LAMPENFLORA The plants found in the Waitomo Caves referred to as "Lampenflora" belong to four major groups: algae, mosses, ferns and fungi (See Table 1) These groups, while occupying a similar habitat exhibit two and possibly three modes of energy uptake The mosses and ferns are obligate auto- trophs requiring light energy for photosynthesis and growth The algae, both green and blue-green, are basically autotrophic but some species may also be myxotrophs (Kermode 1975, p.339) and thus may be able to utilize the energy from both light and organic molecules for growth The fungi are obligate heterotrophs obtaining all of their energy requirements from the breakdown of organic materials and therefore not directly require light for growth The growth of autotrophic plants in any environment is dependent on the availability of adequate levels of three essential factors: light moisture and nutrients 91 Generally adequate levels of water and nutrients are available in the environment of all caves, commercial or wild Thus only the introduction of artificial lighting in commercial caves such as the Waitomo caves is necessary to provide an ideal environment for the growth of autotrophic plants Unlike the autotrophic plants, the fungi occur in both wild and commercial caves and not themselves require light However, it is only in commercial caves that organic matter is produced by autotrophic plants in sufficient concentrations to permit significant development of fungal populations Within the three Waitomo tourist caves it appears that the close interaction of the three essential growth factors controls the growth, development and specific composition of the lampenflora Light - The restricted occurrence of lampenflora to areas directly lit by the fixed lamp housings in the caves clearly shows that light is the primary controlling factor for lampenflora development The extent of lampenflora growth around any one lamp housing depends on the number of bulbs in that housing and on the distance of that housing from a suitable substrate Light intensity measurements made in the Glow-worm and Ruakuri caves suggest that the minimum light levels required for continued growth of the different autotrophic lampenflora organisms are: green and blue- green algae 0.1 to 1.0u E /m2 /sec (10 to 50 lux), mosses 1.0 to 3.5u E / m2/sec (50 to 180 lux), and ferns 5.0u E/m 2/sec (250 lux) A laboratory experiment was undertaken to try and evaluate the growth of one species of cave algae, Stichococcus bacillaris, at low levels of illumination This species was grown in an enriched soil extract liquid medium to 150ml flasks, at 20 C under 24 hour illumination from cool white fluorescent tubes on an orbital shaker table operating at 100 oscillations per minute Pairs of flasks were equally shaded such that each pair received a different level of illumination ranging from 0.05 to 2.80u E / m /sec The growth of the algal population in each flask was monitored at weekly intervals for four weeks by measuring the optical density of chlorophyll in the living population The optical density was measured at 678nm as suggested by Sorokiu (1973 pp 342-3) on a Beckman Spectronic 700 spectrophotometer The results of this experiment, (Fig 14) indicate that under the experimental temperature and light conditions a population of A bacillaris requires more than 0.9u E/mW / Sec illumination for growth This result is much too high when compared to the lower light intensities known to permit growth in cave populations Two reasons for this difference in the required illumination for growth between the experimental and it situ populations are suggested: (I) within the laboratory cultures a previously unknown change in growth morphology artificially depressed the indicated growth at low light levels At light intensities l.5u E/m 2/ sec S bacillaris grew as a dispersed population of single cells evenly distributed through the medium However, at light intensities of l.5u E/m2 /sec the algal cells showed an increasing tendency to clump Thus, the measured optical density of chlorophyll in the low light cultures was inaccurate because of the uneven distribution of the algal cells (2) it has been shown by Aruga (1965, p 284) that in natural algal populations a decrease in temperature results in a greater depression of respiration than photosynthesis so that population growth can occur at low light levels at low temperatures since it was not possible to duplicate the 10-12'c temperatures found in the caves a test of the temperature effect was not made However, it seems likely that at cave temperatures growth could well occur at much lower levels of illumination than was indicated in the experiment Observations suggest that established lampenflora populations, can survive long periods of much lower levels of illumination than those cited above During the course of an experiment on the development of lampenflora under different colours of light (discussed later in this report) a lamp failed after the growth of a lampenflora population This lamp was not repaired for five months, and after this period of essentially zero illumination the associated lampenflora appeared to have suffered little or no deterioration There are two possible mechanisms by which long periods of darkness are tolerated The first, as mentioned by Kermode (1975, p 339) is that certain algae can " change from autotrophy to myxotrophy and finally to heterotrophy " The second possible mechanism is that the plants can undergo physiological changes (e.g a much reduced rate of dark respiration) which permit survival during long periods of low light or darkness Moisture - the normally discontinuous or irregular distribution of the lampenflora around any one lamp housing is predominantly caused by differences in the available moisture in or on the substrate These differences arise through the interaction of two variables; the nature of the substrate and the regularity of the moisture source The substrates available in the Waitomo caves are of three types: mud/clay, porous limestone/leucite and hard surfaced calcite The moisture source c can also be characterised as either a continuous or a periodic supply of percolating ground water Observations of discrete populations of lampenflora clearly show that the distribution of different plant groups is at least partly dependent on the various combinations of moisture regime and substrate type The ferns, because of their extensive root system and upright habit are restricted to moist mud/clay or extremely soft porous limestone substrates The mosses, which require a large amount of moisture, are usually found on mud/clay or porous limestone/calcite substrates Both of these substrates have a high moisture holding capacity and thus there is an adequate supply of water for plant growth even if the source of ground water is periodic On hard substrates mosses only occur where there is an essentially continuous supply of ground water The algae appear able to withstand much greater fluctuations in available 92 moisture than the mosses and ferns They may occur on any substrate regardless of whether there is any visible moisture present This capability is probably due to both a physiological adaptation to dehydration as well as a positional advantage resulting from growing as a thin layer directly on the substrate and thus being able to utilise all available moisture close adherence to the substrate also places the algae within the calm boundary layer adjacent to the substrate surface thus protecting them from drying air currents The proximity of the lamp housing can also affect the moisture available to the lampenflora Heat from the lamps can dry the adjacent substrate surface if the supply of moisture is low or sporadic This drying results in a barren patch nearest the lamp surrounded by a healthy lampenflora Nutrients - the ultimate source of almost all the nutrients necessary for autotrophic plant growth is percolating ground water In its passage, first through the soil and then the limestone, this water picks up soluble inorganic nutrients which are thereby introduced into the cave In a non commercial cave there are two possible fates for these nutrients, either they are flushed through the cave by continued water movement or they are concentrated by the evaporation of the carrying water In a commercial cave either of the above may occur or the nutrients may be taken up by the lampenflora and thus held, at least temporarily within the cave Observations of distribution and luxuriance of lampenflora growth in the three Waitomo Caves suggest that nutrients bound to particles of clay are a major source of nutrients for the lampenflora This is suggested as part of the reason for the dramatic growth of lampenflora seen on mud or clay substrates where they occur naturally or where this type of substrate has been used to camouflage electrical wiring There is a third source of nutrients for the lampenflora which while not a major source does lead to a further accumulation of nutrients within a commercial cave This source involves the release of nutrients contained in the organic matter produced by the autotrophic organisms, through the action of the heterotrophic fungi followed by uptake again Thus, within the lampenflora population itself there may be a cycle of nutrient utilisation, release and utilisation by the autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms Laboratory Cultures Laboratory cultures of selected lampenflora species were established to serve as test organisms during this study (see Table 1) These species were isolated by the streak plating technique (Hoshaw and Rosowski 1973 p 58) from samples of lampenflora populations collected in the Glow-worm and Ruakuri Caves The cultures were grown at 20'c and a 16:8 photoperiod on a soil extract-agar medium (Nichols 1973 p 19) enriched with 9mg KH2 PO4 and 80mg KNO3 per litre LAMPENFLORA CONTROL INTRODUCTION The control of lampenflora in any established commercial cave like the three Waitomo Caves, involves two operations: one, the elimination of existing plant populations; and two, the prevention or retardation of their regrowth A number of ways of accomplishing these two objectives have been suggested by overseas experience and by previous experiments carried out in the Waitomo Glow-worm Cave (Kermode 1975, p 340) These methods of lampenflora control fall into three main categories: Physical control, chemical control, and Environmental control; each of these are discussed separately below The methods selected for trial in this study were first evaluated on the basis of ecological acceptability and safety, together with consideration of cost and suitability for general application Physical control - The general Use of any harsh physical or corrosive methods of lampenflora control is not advocated This recommendation is based on the deleterious effect these materials and techniques would have on the soft speleothem formation in the Glow-worm Cave and the long-term effect on surfaces in the other caves The methods included in this category are the use of: stiff brushes, abrasive cleansers, high pressure water and strong acids There may be a case of using those techniques for a single or extremely infrequent application in specific areas of the caves, but they are claimed inappropriate for general or repeated use The single exception to this might be the general use of high pressure water once to remove dead plant material and clean the cave surfaces after treatment by phytotoxic chemicals Chemical control - Early in this study it was realised that chemical control of lampenflora offered an attractive solution to the problem However, the choice of phytotoxic material used required consideration of many factors which eliminated the possible use of certain groups of compounds The personal safety of the cave guides, the visiting public and both people and livestock downstream from the caves particularly the Glow-worm and Ruakuri Caves, eliminated the possible Use of two large groups of phytotoxic chemicals These groups were, those contain highly toxic materials such as arsenic, cyanide, lead or mercury; and, materials of moderate toxicity, which are not quickly degraded which might therefore accumulate within the caves such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and other carbonate compounds In considering the effect 93 of any chemical on glow-worms, it is not enough to allow only for possible direct contact It is also necessary to evaluate possible effects of exposure to volatile products or by-products from the phytotoxic chemicals used Thus, highly aromatic compounds such as formalin or acrolein were not considered for use A number of other phyotoxic agents are also eliminated strictly on the basis that insufficient information was available to assess their potential hazard in the Waitomo caves environment Consequently only five potential phytotoxic substances were chosen for further evaluation by in-situ trails in the caves These trails confirmed that a practical and safe method of eliminating and controlling lampenflora growth is possible using chemical phytotoxins Environmental control - Theoretically the ideal way to kill and /or prevent the growth of lampenflora would be to temporarily or permanently alter the environment in which it lives such that growth is not possible Three methods of lampenflora control have been suggested which accomplish this objective: (1) temporally exposing the lampenflora to lethal temperatures, e.g 70'c+ by the use of low pressure hot water or steam (Aley 1972 p 33); (2) periodically exposing the lampenflora to lethal intensities and wavelengths of ultra-violet light, e.g 150 to 250 u W/cm2 at 200 to 300 nm (Kermode 1975, p 340); or (3) altering the quality or quantity of light used for illumination in the caves to a condition which will not support plant growth The hot water/steam technique for lampenflora removal and cave cleaning has been given extensive trials in the Glowworm Cave (Kermode 1975, p 341-2) From these trials and overseas experience (Aley 1972) this method has been shown to be effective, and it has the advantages of highly localised effect and a lack of any toxic residues However, there are also a number of disadvantages which must be considered In the Glow-worm cave the soft condition of some speleothem surfaces means that even low pressure steam or hot water will erode these surfaces somewhat and repeated applications could result in serious damage (Kermode 1975 p 341) Also, this method of treatment is not easily undertaken, as the equipment needed is bulky and requires ready access to a steady supply of water and energy Finally, this method is not fast, as Aley (1972, p 34) reports that ten minutes are necessary to treat one square metre of cave surfaces these disadvantages are not insurmountable with regard to the Glow-worm Cave which is fairly small and has piped water available However, for this method of lampenflora control to be used in either Ruakuri or Aranui caves a considerable amount of time and manpower would be required just to move the equipment and supply it with water The use of steam or hot water for initial lampenflora control may be warranted, if a general cave cleaning programme is undertaken But, the repeated use of this method for long-term lampenflora control is considered unsatisfactory tar the Waitomo Caves The use of ultra-violet light to kill and prevent regrowth of lampenflora has been discussed by Kermode (1975 p 340) From this an experiment to test the gross effect of short wave ultra-violet light on lampenflora was undertaken as part of this study The results of this experiment indicate that this method of control is impractical particularly as reported by Kermode (loc cit.) ultra-violet radiation, from a 30 W lamp is effective only to a distance of 50 to 70 cm from the light source while lampenflora is often found growing in excess of 3m from existing lamp housings Therefore to totally control lampenflora by this method would require lamps of about 400 W output positioned with existing lamp housings or multiple low power lamps positioned closer to the lampenflora substrate In either case the costs alone would make such a method of lampenflora control impractical Altering the quality or quantity of light used for illumination in the caves to control lampenflora can be accomplished in two ways; one, to use colours of light that cannot be utilised by plants for photosynthesis; or two, by reducing the intensity or duration of illumination below the level required for lampenflora growth The first of these alternatives was tested by experimentation in the Glow-worm Cave, the second has been evaluated by an eleven month study of present lighting practices within the three Waitomo Caves From these studies it does not appear that control through the use of non-photo-synthetically active light is feasible, and, that total control of lampenflora through reducing light intensity and/or duration cannot be accomplished throughout the caves because of the minimum light levels needed for visitor safety and enjoyment of the caves However, the adoption of the recommendation on lighting practice made later in this report concerning the control of cave lighting would greatly reduce the amount of lampenflora growth, and therefore the need for frequent applications of other control methods Chemical Control On the basis of criteria mentioned elsewhere the five phytotoxic chemical compounds chosen for use in the Waitomo Caves were: Diquat (6, - Dihydrodipyridon (1, - a: 1, 1 - c) pyrazidinium dibromide) , Diuron (3 - (3-4 Dichlorophenyl) -1, 1- dimethylurea), Sodium hypochlorite (Na CLO) , Calcium hypochlorite (Ca (CIO) 2H2 0) and Sodium tetraborate (Na B 07 102O) Borax) The herbicides Diquat and Diruon are primarily photosynthetic inhibitors and both are rapidly degraded on contact with the substrate calcium and Sodium hypochlorite are fast acting contact poisons which also degrade rapidly sodium tetroborate is a slow acting long-term soil sterilant of moderate to low animal toxicity 94 The initial tests of these compounds in the caves consisted of spraying separate 10cm square areas of established lampenflora with each of these chemicals The results of these tests showed that the two photosynthetic herbicides had no apparent effect while all three of the inorganic chemical compounds clearly reduced or eliminated the lampenflora in the test squares (see Table 2) Between the inorganic chemicals the major difference seen was in the speed of phytotoxic effect The two hypochlorite treatments showed obvious death of lampenflora within 12 hours, whereas the effect of the Borax treatment was not apparent until about one month after application The lack of visible effect of the photosynthetic herbicides Diquat and Diuron was unexpected subsequent study of reports on the way these compounds are thought to act suggests that their failure was caused by a combination of the low light levels under which the plants live and the rate of degradation of the herbicidal compounds In both cases the toxic action of these herbicides is the result of an interruption of photosynthesis and the formation of a secondary toxic in the plant treated (Ashton & crafts 1973 pp 195-6, 386-7) It is suspected that, because of the low light levels in the caves, the toxic action of the herbicide was too slow compared to its rate of degradation and therefore toxicity was never reached lethal levels In comparison to the photosynthetic herbicides the three chemical herbicides tested are toxic to plants when applied and not require light to be effective The two hypochlorite compounds are quick acting penetrate poisons Therefore, when sufficient hypochlorite is applied, plant death occurs soon after and is indicated by bleaching Since both of these compounds degrade rapidly, particularly when in contact with organic matter, their effectiveness is dependent on the concentration of hypochlorite in the solution applied and on the density of this plant material to be treated The noted difference in effectiveness of the two hypochlorite compounds is probably due to deterioration of the Sodium hypochlorite used This compound is available only in aqueous solutions and in this form is unstable and thus deteriorates with time unless it is stored in the dark under refrigeration The killing action of Sodium tetraborate results from the excessive uptake of boron by the treated plants In very small quantities, as it occurs naturally, boron is an essential nutrient for plants However, when a high concentration of this element is present the plants will take up a toxic quantity Therefore when this compound is used as an herbicide it is applied such that a toxic concentration is present in the plant's environment over a sufficient period for lethal uptake to occur Table Herbicide Conc Diquat 0.11% None Diruon 0.14% None NaCLO 2% 50% Kill Ca(CIO)2.2HxO 2% NaxB4O7.IOH2O Effect Time hours 90% Kill hours 1% 100% Kill weeks Laboratory experiments were conducted to find out what concentration of sodium tetraborate was necessary to totally inhibit growth of lampenflora organisms In these experiments each lampenflora species which had been established in unispecies culture was inoculated on a soil-extract-agar medium containing from to 800ppm (0 to 800 mg/l) sodium tetraborate Most of the organisms tested showed a high initial inhibition of growth with a decreasing rate of inhibition with increasing concentration (Fig 15a) Total inhibition in this group occurred between 500 and 700ppm Sodium tetraborate In contrast the Oscillatoria sp tested was resistant to concentrations up to 300 then showed rapidly decreasing growth with increasing concentration with total inhibition occurring at 800ppm (Fig 15a) Based on the results of the small scale trial and consideration of the ecological impact of the chemicals involved calcium hypochlorite was chosen for large scale cave trials Calcium hypochlorite was selected in preference to sodium tetraborate for two reasons: (1) Sodium tetraborate is a non-degradable compound which is dissipated only by leaching with water, while Calcium hypochlorite is degraded within to 12 hours after application (A.W Haugley pers Comm.) Thus, the use of sodium tetraborate over a period of low rainfall and therefore ground water percolation could result in a build-up of the chemical within the caves This build-up could then be released over a short period, after substantial rainfall, which could result in uncontrolled toxic levels of Boron in the caves and in the Waitomo stream (2) sodium tetraborate is slow acting requiring to weeks for visible results while Calcium hypochlorite kills and bleaches the plant material within 30 to hours Therefore, since two and sometimes three applications of phytotoxic chemicals are needed for a 100% kill, the use of Sodium tetraborate could require to 12 weeks before a given lampenflora population was dead whereas using calcium hypochlorite the bleaching action of this compound gives visible proof of a complete kill within hours 95 In the large scale trials of calcium hypochlorite carried out in the Glow-worm and Ruakuri Caves it was found that the concentration of hypochlorite needed for effective control depended on the composition and density of the lampenflora to be treated where the lampenflora consisted only of a thin covering of algae, then a 2% solution* was strong enough to clear the surface If however, the lampenflora was made up of a dense matt of mosses and algae then a 4% solution* was necessary The only major problem noted concerning the use of Calcium hypochlorite is the strong chlorine smell evident immediately after treatment The actual concentration is very low but human sensitivity to this chemical is such that decided irritation is noted This problem is only serious in unventilated areas of the caves, e.g the Organ Loft of the Glow-worm Cave However, 12 hours after treating the Organ Loft area with four litres of 4% hypochlorite only traces of chlorine could be detected, and after 36 hours the smell was undetectable (as judged from Cave Guides comment) * The percentage hypochlorite used is a weight to volume ratio of commercial granular HTH brand calcium hypochlorite in water The commercial product actually contains 70% available hypochlorite therefore the true percentage of hypochlorite in the two solutions tested was 1.4% and 2.8% respectively Lighting control The potential control of lampenflora by modification of present lighting practice in the Waitomo caves involves either the reduction of light quantity and/or the alteration of light quality If it is assumed that lampenflora growth is proportional to the duration of lighting, then any reduction of lighting duration will result in a reduction of lampen-flora growth Also it is known that blue light at wavelengths of 350 to 530nm and red light at 600 to 700 nm (Bickford & Dunn 1972) are the colours chiefly responsible for photosynthesis, therefore the reduction of lighting in these wavelengths may also reduce lampenflora growth To establish what reduction in duration of lighting was possible in the caves, an eleven month study of present lighting duration was made (Fig.16) AMF Vennerette time clocks were modified to function as cumulative hour recorders and were connected to existing lighting circuits at numerous locations throughout the three caves The locations of the timers were selected such that whenever possible each lighting switch box controlled at least one timer These timers were then read at two to five week intervals over the eleven months from May 1977 to April 1978 The readings were then converted to average daily hours of lighting (see Appendix 1) The resulting data showed a considerable variation in apparent lighting efficiency between the Glow-worm Cave and Ruakuri and Aranni caves In the Glow-worm Cave the daily average hours of lighting follows the expected pattern of high values at the cave on entrance, and at the entrance to the Cathedral and low values at the Organ Loft and near the Demonstration chamber This pattern is shown graphically in Fig 16A where the cave entrance average (clear bar) is compared with the total cave average (shaded bar) for each sample period This graph clearly shows the difference resulting from the reduced lighting periods in the Organ Loft and cathedral Also clearly indicated is the variation in lighting over the year resulting from seasonal differences in tourist numbers and therefore the number of tours going through the cave each day The eleven month data is summarised in the final pair of bars on the graph which shows the eleven month averages From the eleven month averages it was calculated that total cave lighting was 24% less than entrance lighting The results of an identical analysis of the timer data from Ruakuri Fig 16B and Arunui caves Fig 16c shows a considerably different result In both of these caves it is apparent that the lights are left on for considerable periods when no tours are in these caves In fact in both caves there were only six out of twenty-four samples periods when the total cave lighting average was less than the entrance average The eleven month averages show that the total cave lighting exceeds the entrance lighting by 23% in Ruakuri Cave and 14% Aranui cave These percentages are particularly significant because both of these caves are essentially in-out eaves which not have tourist parties passing one point in the cave repeatedly during a tour as happens at the cathedral entrance in the Glow-worm Cave From these results it is obvious that a significant reduction of the quantity of light available for plant growth can be achieved in Ruakuri and Arunui caves In the Glow-worm Cave no such obvious excess lighting is apparent At the beginning of this study an experiment was set up by Dr P.1 Dromgoole (Botany Department, University of Auckland) in the Blanket Chamber of the Glow-worm Cave to test the effect of different coloured commercially available lamps, on the development and growth of lampen- flora In general the results of this experiment were negative with regard to providing a means of lampenflora control, but the results demonstrate some interesting features of the development of lampen flora in the caves In all cases lampenflora development was apparent on substrates adjacent to the lamps after a comparatively short period of exposure Different colours of light were noted to have a noticeable effect on the composition of the lampenflora and 96 in a number of cases the lampenflora that developed was composed of plant species previously unknown in the Waitomo caves Also, from this experiment it is apparent that even if a suitable non- photosynthetically active light source was available it could prove to be unacceptable on aesthetic grounds The use of coloured lamps greatly alters human perception of the physical formation in the caves and eliminates many of the colour contrasts in the cave formations which give them much of their unique character RECOMMENDATIONS The results of this study suggest that management recommendations in three areas are necessary to safely eliminate the present lampenflora and to prevent its regrowth First; spraying the existing lampenflora populations with Calcium hypochlorite to kill and bleach the plants Second; to modify the present method of cave lighting control to reduce the possibility of lamps being left on for long periods when they are not needed Third; to institute a continuing programme of cave cleaning and maintenance to limit the possible sites for lampenflora development Calcium hypochlorite - the ability of Calcium hypochlorite to safely kill living populations of lampenflora has been shown earlier in the report However, there are two aspects of the use of this compound which must be considered when planning a large scale long-term programme of lampen- flora control; its limited phytotoxic effect and its unpleasant odour With regard to toxicity one of the advantages of using Calcium hypochlorite is the hi9h rate at which it breaks down into non-toxic components However, this high rate of breakdown means that redevelopment of the lampenflora may begin very shortly after the initial treatment, therefore periodic retreatment will be necessary Unfortunately the one year limit of this study did not permit a further evaluation of this aspect of control However, theoretical analysis of the problem suggests that even with more time for experimentation no precise timetable for re-treatment could be produced It is apparent that the rate of lampenflora growth, and therefore regrowth varies widely both within and between the three Waitomo Caves This variation, resulting from different levels of light moisture, and nutrients in the caves, means that no prescribed frequency of treatment will serve all situations Also, the effect on regrowth of implementing the recommendations on lighting control discussed later, would significantly alter any timetable based on the present situation in the caves In view of the present impossibility to predict the time interval between treatments it is suggested that after the initial treatment to kill the existing lampenflora repeat treatments be applied, as necessary based on three-monthly inspections of the caves Further, if this policy is carried out and re-spraying is done as soon as regrowth is noticed, it is possible that all re-spraying could be done with hypochlorite solutions of or even per cent Every attempt should be made to Use the lowest concentration possible as infrequently as possible This suggestion is not based on any apparent hazards connected with using Calcium hypochlorite It is the result of a general appreciation that any "foreign" material introduced into the cave environment may have long-term effects that are not immediately apparent in the short term study used here The release of chlorine gas during the breakdown of the Calcium hypochlorite requires that spraying be done at appropriate times, e.g when it is known that no tourist parties will be in the caves for a number of hours Also, it would be best to spray only limited areas at any one time so that natural cave ventilation can dissipate the chlorine within a reasonable time only in Arunui cave could there be any need to restrict tourist access after spraying with hypochlorite This cave is both very deep and very poorly ventilated compared with either the Glow-worm or Ruakuri Caves Lighting Modifications - The present problem of excessive lighting in the Waitomo Caves is caused by the cave guides sometimes neglecting to switch off lamps as a tourist party leaves a cave or an area in a cave The easiest solution to this problem would appear to be the replacement of the multiple switches on any one box with a single switch mounted visibly on the front of the box, which controls all the lighting circuits in that box by activating a multiple relay A second modification of present light switching which could further reduce the total hours of lighting in specific areas of all three caves is also possible Cave lighting serves two distinct functions: (i) general illumination to permit safe passage through the cave; (ii) specific illumination to highlight special formations In a number of places in the caves these two functions are controlled by separate switches which are all turned on and off at the same time It is necessary that the general lighting be switched on and left on while the tourist party is in the area controlled by any particular switch box However, in many cases it would be possible to control the highlight illumination by momentary switches which remain on only while being held Thus, in the Organ Loft of the Glow-worm Cave the guide holds the switch to illuminate the Organ during his commentary but it goes off when he releases the switch to continue the tour 97 This type of switching could also facilitate the guide’s commentary in that while discussing a given formation only that formation would be illuminated thus focussing the tourist's attention on the particular formation Cave Cleaning and Maintenance - As was discussed at the beginning of this report, two sources of nutrients for lampenflora organisms are mud and decaying organic matter In many areas of all three caves those two nutrient sources occur naturally and are a part of the "natural cave environment" However, in other areas accumulations of mud and organic matter have resulted from past cave management practices A progressive programme of cave cleaning is recommended Costs - The costs of implementing the above recommendations should not be excessive, particularly in view of the potential saving in electricity cost that will be made after the modification of light switching Based on the present daily average lighting of Ruakuri and Aranui Caves reported earlier, and assuming a reduction in average total cave lighting similar to that seen in the Glow-worm Cave it should be possible to reduce electricity consumption by 7,320.5 kwh/yr in Ruakuri Cave and 7,880.9 kwh/yr in Arunui Cave These savings would represent 152/yr for each one cent of the current cost of one kwh of electricity REFERENCES • ALEY, T 1972 Control of unwanted plant growth in electrically lighted caves Caves and Karst 14(5): 33-35 • ARUGA, Y 1965 Ecological studies of photosynthesis and matter production of phytoplankton I seasonal changes in photosynthesis of natural phytoplankton Botanical Magazine (Tokyo) 78: 280-288 • ASHTON, F.M and CRAFTS, A.S 1973 "Mode of Action of Herbicides John Wiley and sons, New York 504 pp • BICKFORD, E.D and DUNN, 1972, "Lighting for Plant Growth" Kent state university Press ix-221 pp • HOSHAW R.W and ROSOWSKI, J.R 1973 Methods for microscopic algae in Stein, J.R 1973 53-68 • KERMODE, L 1975 Glow-worm Cave Waitomo Conservation study New Zealand speleological Bulletin 5(91): 329-344 • LEFEYRE, M and LAPORTE, 0.8 1969 The "Maladie Verte" of Lascaux, diagnosis and treatment studies in Speleology 2(1): 35-44 • NICHOLS, H.W 1973 Growth media-freshwater In Stein, J.R 1973 7-24 • SOROKIN C 1973 Dry weight, packed cell volume and optical density In Stein, J.R 1973 321-344 • STEIN, J.R (ed) 1973 "Handbook of Physiological Methods: Culture Methods and Growth Measurements" Cambridge university press Cambridge xii - 48B pp • WILLIAMS, p (ed) 1974 "Report on the conservation of Waitomo Caves" New Zealand Speleological Society (unpublished) 98 Appendix No From encyclopaedia of caves website TOURIST CAVES: ALGAE AND LAMPENFLORA Visible growths of algae, cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae), mosses, and moss protonema (green filamentous structures arising from an asexual spore of moss) are common within electrically lit caves In some caves lichens and ferns are also locally encountered All such growths are termed lampenflora because of their association with electric lights Lampenflora change the natural appearance of cave features and, if not promptly treated, damage speleothem surfaces due to the production of organic acids which corrode the surface In caves with prehistoric art (such as Lascaux) lampenflora are extremely destructive (Ruspoli, 1986) Management programmes to minimize and control lampenflora typically involve two strategies (Aley, Aley & Rhodes, 1984) First, light intensity/light duration thresholds are identified below which little or no visible plant growth will develop; light intensities on sensitive cave surfaces are then mostly kept below these thresholds Second, lampenflora growth which does occur is treated with 5.25% sodium hypochlorite solution (bleach) However, the use of bleach solutions for control of lampenflora in caves with prehistoric art is likely to damage features of significance and is thus not likely to be a viable management strategy for such caves Lampenflora management strategies should not be predicated on an assumption that algae did not exist in the cave prior to the introduction of electric lighting for visitors Studies by Claus (1962; 1964), Hajdu (1966), Kol (1967), and others demonstrate that many genera and species of algae and cyanobacteria grow in the perpetually dark portions of many caves Such growth is generally not very obvious, is typically black in colour, and is limited to frequently or perennially wet cave surfaces Some of the algal and cyanobacteria species found growing in the perpetually dark portions of caves become components of the lampenflora if the cave is electrically lit; many of these species are distributed widely around the world The composition of lampenflora varies substantially among caves in the United States which the author has studied In 1984 in Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, lampenflora growths consisted of about 70% cyanobacteria, 20% green algae, and 10% moss protonema In addition, there were diatoms present in about 25% of all of the clusters of lampenflora Yellowgreen algae were also present, but they were found in very few locations Lampenflora were associated with 43% of the lights inspected in the Caverns, and the total number of lampenflora species present in the cave was estimated at 200 Carlsbad Caverns is in a semi-arid region and moisture availability is limiting even where lampenflora exist In 1985 lampenflora growths in Oregon Caves, Oregon, consisted of about 15% mature moss, 10% moss protonema, 40% cyanobacteria, and 35% green algae Diatoms were present in about half of the clusters of lampenflora, and the total number of lampenflora species present was estimated at 100 Oregon Caves has a Mediterranean climate with a dry summer Most cave surfaces are routinely wet, and lampenflora were associated with every fixed light in the cave Visible lampenflora are usually limited to moist or wet surfaces Soft surfaces (such as cave sediments and moonmilk) provide more moisture storage than hard surfaces (such as found on actively depositing speleothems) As a result, soft surfaces are more prone to the development of lampenflora and especially to the existence of luxuriant growths However, hard surfaces often have adequate moisture to support lampenflora, especially in humid regions The total light energy received, a function of the intensity of the light and the duration of the lighting, is a critical factor for the establishment and growth of lampenflora Theoretically, a period of continuous lighting for a given number of hours per day should yield more lampenflora growth than short periods of lighting which total the same number of hours per day This is because plants make a number of chemical and physiological changes between light phase and dark phase conditions, and these changes require some time and plant energy The management significance of this is that switching lights on and off multiple times during the course of a day in addition to reducing the total lighting period helps prevent or reduce lampenflora In general, the light necessary to produce lampenflora consisting of algae and cyanobacteria is less than the amount required for the establishment and growth of moss protonema The establishment and growth of moss protonema requires less light than does the growth of mature moss, and ferns and lichens require still more light In Carlsbad Caverns, 85% of the lampenflora received incident light intensities of 3.6 footcandles (39 lux) or more; a similar estimate for Oregon Caves was 4.2 footcandles (45 lux) Both of these caves were usually illuminated for most or all of the time that the cave was open for tours Light intensity, rather than the type or colour of the light, is the important factor A notable exception is green light, since the photosynthetic pigment found in lampenflora primarily absorbs red and blue light and reflects green light, thus reducing 99 photosynthetic efficiency However, for aesthetic reasons, green cave lighting is an impractical strategy Yellow lighting is a possible alternative, since algae not strongly absorb yellow light Due to filters that absorb parts of the white light spectrum, coloured lights produce lower incident light intensities on cave surfaces than uncoloured lights of the same type and wattage; this accounts for the common observation that there is less lampenflora growth around lights using coloured filters than around white lights For the same incident light intensities on moist cave surfaces, there is no detectable difference in lampenflora growths between fluorescent and incandescent lights Growth plots testing the extent of lampenflora growth on various cave substrates were established in both Carlsbad Caverns and Oregon Caves Lint and other detritus from visitors and their clothing produced the most extensive and rapid lampenflora growths Laundry products contain phosphates and residual phosphates are present in lint Phosphates enhance algal growth in aquatic systems Many chemical agents have been tested for their ability to kill lampenflora For most situations, 5.25% sodium hypochlorite solution applied as a light mist proves the most effective control while concurrently minimizing adverse impacts on cave features More dilute solutions can be used, but they typically require the use of much more solution The solution oxidizes the plant material and ruptures plant cells One to two weeks after treatment fungal growth on the dead plant material will usually make it possible to wash the dead material from speleothems without scrubbing Calcium hypochlorite solutions should not be used since they leave a calcium residue which is difficult to remove Hydrogen peroxide is ineffective in controlling lampenflora Sodium hypochlorite should be carefully applied as a light mist on surfaces with lampenflora; multiple treatments should be used in areas with dense growth Adverse impacts are minimized by treating areas as soon as the lampenflora is visible Drippage or runoff of the treating solution should be captured; burlap or other fabric which will be oxidized by the treating solution can be placed adjacent to the target areas While cave fauna could be killed if they come in direct contact with the sodium hypochlorite solution, the oxidizing ability of the solution (and thus its toxicity) diminishes rapidly in the presence of materials (such as lampenflora, cave lint, and burlap) which are subject to oxidation Careful application and control of the sodium hypochlorite is the key to protecting cave fauna while conducting lampenflora control work (see Restoration of Caves and Speleothem Repair) Recent advances in lighting, such as the use of fibre optics and low energy lamps, can permit more precise use of light in caves If appropriately used, this enhanced control has the potential to permit cave lighting with reduced lampenflora growth TOM ALEY       Works Cited Aley, T., Aley, C & Rhodes, R 1984 Control of exotic plant growth in Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico Proceedings of the 1984 National Cave Management Symposium Missouri Speleology, 25(1–4):159–71Claus, G 1962 Data on the ecology of the algae of Peace Cave in Hungary Nova Hedwigia, 4(1):55–79 Claus, G 1964 Algae and their mode of life in the Baradla Cave at Aggtelek II International Journal of Speleology, 1:13–20 Hajdu, L 1966 Algological studies in the cave at Maytas Mount, Budapest, Hungary International Journal of Speleology, 2:137–49 Kol, E 1967 Algal growth experiments in the Baradla Cave at Aggtelek International Journal of Speleology, 2:457–74 Ruspoli, M 1986 The Cave of Lascaux: The Final Photographs, New York: Abrams and London: Thames and Hudson Further Reading Aley, T.J 1996 Caves in crisis 1997 Yearbook of Science and the Future, edited by D.Calhoun, Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica  Gillieson, D 1996 Caves: Processes, Development and Management, Oxford and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwells  Giordano, M., Mobili, F., Pezzoni, V, Hein, M.K & Davis, J.S 2000 Photosynthesis in the caves of Frasassi (Italy) Phycologia, 39(5):384–89  Hazslinszky, T (editor) 1985 International Colloquium on Lamp Flora, Budapest: Hungarian Speleological Society Olson, R 2003 Control of lamp flora in developed caves In Restoration and Conservation of Caves, edited by V.Hildreth-Werker and J.Werker, Huntsville, Alabama: National Speleological Society 100 ... GUIDELINES FOR CAVE AND KARST PROTECTION Appendix No GUIDELINES FOR A CAVE ACCESS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Appendix No INTERNATIONAL SHOW CAVES ASSOCIATION’S MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES FOR SHOW CAVES Appendix... WITHIN THE CAVE( S) The International Show Caves Association’s “Draft Guidelines for Show Cave Management? ?? (see Appendix 3) recommends that a maximum number of people allowed into the cave at the... where they can spread out to within the caves, so a walkway must be constructed as soon as is possible to protect the caves from ongoing degradation, But - - - - when this has been achieved there