Ảnh hưởng của khoảng cách quyền lực đến tương tác trong lớp học: Nghiên cứu tình huống ở một trường THPT dân lập tại Hà Nội

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES **************************** NGUYỄN THỊ DUNG INFLUENCE OF POWER DISTANCE ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY AT A PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOL IN HANOI (ẢNH HƢỞNG CỦA KHOẢNG CÁCH QUYỀN LỰC ĐẾN TƢƠNG TÁC TRONG LỚP HỌC: NGHIÊN CỨU TÌNH HUỐNG Ở MỘT TRƢỜNG TRUNG HỌC PHỞ THƠNG DÂN LẬP TẠI HÀ NỘI) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60140111 HA NOI, 2017 VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HA NOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES **************************** NGUYỄN THỊ DUNG INFLUENCE OF POWER DISTANCE ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION: A CASE STUDY AT A PRIVATE HIGH SCHOOL IN HANOI (ẢNH HƢỞNG CỦA KHOẢNG CÁCH QUYỀN LỰC ĐẾN TƢƠNG TÁC TRONG LỚP HỌC: NGHIÊN CỨU TÌNH HUỐNG Ở MỘT TRƢỜNG TRUNG HỌC PHỔ THÔNG DÂN LẬP TẠI HÀ NỘI) M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS Field: English Teaching Methodology Code: 60140111 Supervisor: Prof Dr Hoàng Văn Vân HA NOI, 2017 DECLARATION I hereby state that I: Nguyen Thi Dung, from QH2015.E3, being a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts (MA), accept the requirements of the university relating to the retention and use of Master‟s Graduation Paper deposited in the library In terms of these conditions, I agree that the origin of my paper deposited in the library should be accessible for the purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the librarian for the care, loan and reproduction of the paper Hanoi, May 5th, 2017 Nguyễn Thi Dung ̣ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is an honor for me to express my deep and sincere thanks to those who made this thesis possible First of all, I would like to pay my great gratitude to my supervisor, Prof Dr Hoang Van Van, for his continuous support, careful guidance and valuable advice throughout my thesis-writing period With his comprehensive instruction, his inspiration, enthusiasm and immense knowledge, he helped me step by step write up my thesis to the best of my ability and opened my knowledge of literature It was very lucky for me to be under his guidance My heartfelt thanks and blessings also go to my family, especially my parents who are always beside and support me during the time I did my thesis Their wellbeing is of great spiritual motivation for me all the time Last but not least, I want to offer special thanks to all of my friends, my sweet lover, who always supported and stood by me during the completion of the graduation paper To them all I dedicate this thesis ii ABSTRACT Power distance illustrates how people in a society accept the inequality of power (Hofstede, 2011) Its traits have been proved to appear in almost every aspect of daily life (Hofstede, 1991; cited in Bassett, 2004) Specifically, in classroom communication, certain traits of power distance are found to affect the teacher-student interaction and the student-student one (Hofstede, 1986, p 313) There have been quantitative studies finding out the manifestations of this cutural dimension within the classroom interactions However, sole reliance on quantitative techniques could be problematic, since they conceal more than they reveal of the intricacies of classroom interaction (Sadeghi, 2012) Moving away from the quantitative view above, this paper examines the classroom interactions from the discourse analysis perspective called Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), proposed by Norman Fairclough (1989, 1993, 1995, 1997, 2013), which sees discourse as a form of „social practice‟ with three stages of analysis namely description, interpretation and explanation, to understand classroom practice and interactions under the influence of power distance This case study aims at using CDA as a tool to investigate the manifestations and the influences of power distance in Hofstede‟s theory on the classroom interactions in a private high school Since this environment is also important in the education system, it gets too little attention from researchers and scholars (Glewwe & Patrinos, 1998) The discussion, based on a case study conducted at a private high school classroom in Hanoi, aims at understanding the unseen social processes Transcription of classroom interactions was put into a qualitative analysis of CDA with three typical stages: description, interpretation and explanation The research findings suggest that power of the teacher seems less than the students in terms of personal pronouns analysis, meanwhile, the teacher exerts power when calling or motivating students involving in the classroom activities In this case study, the power distance motivates and promotes the classroom interaction between teacher and students iii TABLE OF CONTENT ACCEPTANCE ………………………………………………………… … i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………… ii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………… iii TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………… ……… iv LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES…………………………… …… … vii LIST OF APPENDICES ………………………………………….….…… vii PART A: INTRODUCTION I Statement of research problem and the rationale for the study…….…… II Purpose of the study …………………………………………….…… … III Significance of the study………………………………………….……… IV Research methodology …………………………………………….… … Research participants …………………………………………… ….… Data collection methods and procedure …………………………… …… 2.1 Data collection instruments……………………………………… ……… 2.2 Data collection procedure………………………………………….……… Data analysis methods and procedure ………………………….….……,,, V Design of the study ………………………………………….…….….… PART B: LITERATURE REVIEW I Definition of key terms …………………………………………… ……… Power distance …………………………………………………… …… 1.1 Definition of power distance……………………………………….……… 1.2 Classification of power distance…………………………………….….… 1.3 Power distance in Vietnam ………………………………………… …… 1.4 Power distance in classroom environment ……………………….……… Classroom interactions …………………………………………….…… iv 10 2.1 Definition of classroom interactions…………………………………… 10 2.2 Teacher-Student interaction……………………………………………… 11 2.3 Student-Student interaction……………………………………………… 13 II Related studies and research gap ……………………………………… 14 Related studies on power distance and classroom interactions ……….…., 14 Research gap ……………………………………………………….….… 16 PART C: DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: Theoretical background An overview of CDA ………………………………………………….… 17 1.1 Definition ………………………………………………………………… 17 1.2 Critical, Discourse, Analysis……………………………………………… 18 1.3 Key concepts ………………………………………………………….… 20 1.4 Principles and Aims of CDA……………………………………………… 21 1.5 Methodology in CDA …………………………………………………… 22 Systematic Functional Linguistics in CDA …………………………… 23 CHAPTER 2: A critical discourse analysis of the influence of power distance on classroom interaction at a private high school in Hanoi 2.1 Texual description and analysis………………….…………………… 26 2.1.1 Analysis in terms of vocabulary used………………………………… 26 2.1.2 Analysis in terms of grammar features ……………………………… 27 2.1.2.1 The use of personal pronoun ………………………………… … 27 2.1.2.2 The use of voice ………………………… …………….………… 32 2.1.2.3 Modes of the sentences………………….………………….……… 33 2.1.2.4 Modality ……………………………………………….…………… 34 2.1.2.5 Connective values of the discourse ……………………………… 36 2.1.3 Analysis in terms of transitivity ……………………………………… 39 2.1.4 Analysis in terms of thematization …………………………………… 39 v 2.1.5 Analysis in terms of macrostructure of the discourse ……………… 40 2.2 Interpretation of the relationship between productive and interpretative process …………………………………………………………………….… 42 2.2.1 Interpretation of situational context ……………………………….… 42 2.2.2 Intertextual context and presupposition ……………………………… 43 2.3 Explanation of the relationship between discourse processes and social processes……………………………………………………………………… 44 PART D: CONCLUSION A summary of finding …………………………………………… …… 46 Conclusion ………………………………………………………… … 47 Implications to English teaching and learning …………………….… 48 Reccomendations ………………………………………………… … 49 REFERENCES ………………………………………………….…………… 50 APPENDIX I ………………………………………………………………… I vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Hofstede‟s cultural dimension index in Vietnam (My Anh, 2013) Figure Fairclough's dimension of discourse and discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1989, 1995a, cited in Janks (1997, p.330)) LIST OF TABLES Table Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies Table Power distance differences in general norms, family, school and workplace issue Table Power distance in classroom environment Table Differences in Teacher/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance Table Differences in Student/Student Interaction in Relation to Power Distance Table Instance of the use I and me in the lesson Table Instance of the use we in the lesson Table Instance of the use you in the lesson Table Instance of the proper personal pronouns in the lesson Table 10 Time appeared and percentage of the active and passive sentences used in the lesson Table 11 Time appeared and percentage of the declarative, imperative and questions in the lesson Table 12 Summary of transitivity analysis data Table 13 Summary of thematic analysis data vii PART A: INTRODUCTION I Statement of research problem and the rationale for the study Culture is one of the factors reflecting people‟s behavior within a community or a society It makes people understand each other better (Coelho, n.d.) Hofstede did a lot of studies (Hofstede, 1986; Hofstede, 1991; Hofstede, 2011) to investigate cultural factors affecting the communication of human being Among his cutural dimensions, power distance seems to get much concern from scholars as it brings a comprehensive view of how people in a society accept the inequality of power (Hofstede, 2011) Power distance‟s traits have been proved to appear in almost every aspect of daily life (Hofstede, 1991; cited in Bassett, 2004) In classroom communication, certain traits of power distance are also found influence on the teacher- student interaction and the student-student one (Hofstede, 1986, p 313) As a result, various models of classroom interaction/discourse analysis such as speech act theory, interactional sociolinguistics, conversation analysis, variation analysis, pragmatics, and ethnography of communication (Schiffrin, 1994, cited in Sadeghi et al, 2012) have been investigated up to now Although each approach emphasizes different aspects of language use, they all view language as a social interaction which is shaped by social contexts Additionally, since most studies conducted investigated the power distance on the university context (Li and Guo, 2012; Yoo, 2014) or public high school environment (Kasuya‟s, n.d.), very little attention was paid to the private school environment which is also an important part in the education system of Vietnam (Glewwe & Patrinos, 1998), especially in terms of critical discourse analysis This paves the way for the author to conduct current research to examine the presence and influence of power distance on the classroom interactions between teacher and student and student and student within the context of Vietnamese private (491) S: The Japanese built the bridge (492) T: Ok And what is special about the bridge? (493) S: The temple (494) T: Ok There is a temple or a pagoda inside the bridge Thank you Sit down Ah (495) Văn Huy Tell me something about the old houses in Hoi An Old houses It is (495.1) made of (496) S: of wood (497) T: And (498) S: And their pillars were carved with ornamental designs (499) T: Thank you Now This is some of the pictures of Hoi An (show three picture (500) of Hoi An in the past) Do you think it is in the past or at present? (501) SS: In the past (502) T: Do you think it has the same architecture? (503) SS: Yes (504) T: About the roof It is title-roofed And you know the name of the river? (505) SS: Thu Bon (506) T: Thu Bon Yeah Thank you Ok Thank you very much for your attention At (507) home please learn the new words Ok Thank you (508) SS: Thank you Good bye teacher See you again XVI APPENDIX III: TRANSITIVITY ANALYSIS Line 10 13 14 15 16 17 29 33 45 47 63 65 69 78 79 79 87 95 97 97 98 108 108 103.1 104.1 105.1 Participant You That It You It It It We It It This We You We You You The stele My first exercise I You Việt anh They There You You Memorialize You “Carve” We You Participant type Actor Carrier Carrier Senser Carrier Carrier Carrier Carrier Carrier Carrier Carrier Sayer Actor Carrier Senser Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Actor Actor Actor Actor Senser Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Senser XVII Process Read is Is Know Is Is Is Have Is Means Is Say Carve Have See Describe Is Is Will point Will read Calls Engrave Are Find Guess Means “honor” Can write Means Have Can understand Process type Material Relational Relational Mental Relational Relational Relational Relational Relational Relational Relational Verbal Material Relational Mental Material Relational Relational Material Material Material Material Existential Material Mental Relational Material Relational Relational Mental 105.1 117 117 118 That We “Representative” The banyan trees in Văn Miếu Carrier Sayer Carrier Attribute 130 135 136 136 138 139 139 148 152 152 152 152-153 153 153 154 156 156 159 162 162 162-163 163-164 You Ngọc You It I Who It Everyone I It I This It Văn miếu I It Who The first one We We Quốc tử giám Thousand of talented men It The answer You It There Visitors Recipient Actor Senser Carrier Actor Actor Carrier Senser Senser Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Sayer Carrier Actor Carrier Actor Senser Carrier Goal 166 178, 180 191 193 194 196 Carrier Carrier Sayer Carrier Actor XVIII Is Say Means Continue to flourish Will get Does Think Is Will call Can not Is Can hear Feel Is not Read Is Is Educated Say Is Choose Is Can answer Know Is Were trained Relational Verbal Relational Material is Is Say Is Are Can see Relational Relational Verbal Relational Existential Material Material Material Mental Relational Material Material Relational Mental Mental Relational Material Relational Relational Material Verbal Relational Material Relational Material Mental Relational Material 196 204 (Some trees) which I 204 205 207 209 210 210 211 211 213 214-215 There I You 217 219 223 225 228 231 236 238 247 248 248 250 250 251 251 258 261 261 263 266 268 You We You You I The Temple of Literature The answer We Việt anh The correct answer It “Flourishing” You You This Who Who right now You I Who Who raises hand Văn miếu You Quốc tử giám This He You Carrier Carrier Have been Have Relational Relational Actor Actor Actor Actor Actor Senser Actor Actor Carrier Are Will collect Can see Write Must Have learnt Can guess Havenot done it Will collect Is Existential Material Material Material Material Material Mental Material Material Relational Carrier Senser Sayer Carrier Carrier Carrier Senser Actor Carrier Actor Recipient Actor Actor Actor Recipient Goal Sayer Goal Carrier Actor Senser Is Know Says Is Is Means Remember See Is Do Will receive Did Will count Raises hand Will get Was built Say Was established Is Matches Should remember Relational Mental Verbal Relational Relational Relational Mental Material Relational Material Material Material Material Material Material Material Verbal Material Relational Material Mental XIX 273 274 278 289 295 297 301 301 301 304 305 306 306 308 310 311 311 312 314 315 315 316 317 318 319 320 320 321.1, 326 328 328 329 329 341 342 You It The lesson today You You There It It The Japanese That This It You We Number We This Number It You This You We Merchant Who It You It We We The last one Certify‟ The people The merchants Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Carrier Actor Senser Carrier Sayer Goal Carrier Carrier Senser Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Carrier Senser Carrier Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Actor Actor XX Describe Is Is Have ever been See Are Is Means Built Is Is Is Can go Will listen Is Say Is built Is Is Know Is See Have Is Goes Means Know Is Have Use Is Means Come Come Material Relational Relational Material Material Existential Relational Relational Material Relational Relational Relational Material Mental Relational Verbal Material Relational Relational Mental Relational Material Relational Relational Material Relational Mental Relational Relational Material Relational Relational Material Material 343 343 344 344 344 346 351 351 354 357 359 361 365 369 371 373 375 382 383 386 389 393 396 397 399 402 406 411 412 412 414 417 417 The house This It You You Hội An Hội An Well-known (The houses) which Covered bridge Tân Kỳ house We The first one Hội An Hội An The Japanese covered bridge You B You You That Number This exercise I I It This We You (vân) I I You Carrier Carrier Carrier Actor Actor Goal Carrier Carrier Carrier Goal Goal Senser Carrier Carrier Carrier Goal Is Is Is Must see Go Is located Is Means Are Was built Was built Will listen Is Used to be Is Was built Relational Relational Relational Material Material Material Relational Relational Relational Material Material Mental Relational Relation Relational Material Senser Carrier Senser Senser Carrier Carrier Carrier Actor Sayer Phenomenon Carrier Carrier Actor Actor Sayer Senser Senser Hear Is Hear Know Is Is Is Will change Told Was known Is Have Go Write Told See Are likely to hear Mental Relational Mental Mental Relational Relational Relational Material Verbal Mental Relational Relational Material Material Verbal Mental Mental XXI 421 428 430 432 438 441-442 442 443 443 443 445 443 449 451 454 458 460 461 467 468 471 472 475 475 477 478 481 491 494 495-495.1 498 499 504 We Anyone This You They These two words They You You „Carve‟ They This This It Number It Hoi An It The answer You You You You You I Hoi an The japanese There It Their pillars This It Carrier Senser Carrier Recipient Goal Existent Actor Actor Senser Actor Carrier Actor Carrier Carrier Goal Carrier Senser Goal Carrier Carrier Senser Sayer Senser Actor Actor Actor Carrier Actor Goal Goal Carrier Carrier XXII Have Hears Is Will get Were made Appeared Made Carved Know Learned Means Carved Will be Is Was built Is Looks Was recognised Did Is Know Will say Hear Come Can see Will call Is Built Is Is made Were carved Is Is Relational Mental Relational Material Material Existential Material Material Mental Material Relational Material Relational Relational Material Relational Mental Material Relational Relational Mental Verbal Mental Material Material Material Relational Material Existential Material Material Relational Relational APPENDIX IV: THEMATIC ANALYSIS Line 1 12 13 14 15 16 29 33 33 33 37 37 45 45 46 47 49 63 63 65 67 71 71 77 78 79 87 95 Theme Before you read You That You You It It We It This So In English We And This So You So We So So You You The stele So You So My first exercise I Việt anh They Type Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical XXIII Markedness Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked 96 98 98 99 103 103 103 104 108 108 108 110 102.1 102.1 102.1 104.1 104.1 110.1 113 117 117 118 123 123 125 125 127 128 130 135 138 140 144 147 There So You You And There So You So Memorialize You The stone stelae You So That So We You You So We The banyan trees in Văn Miếu So It So Grow well So You You You I You The construction of Văn Miếu You XXIV Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked 148 152 152 152 153 156 156 159 159 162 162 163-164 166 166 171 178 178 178 180 180 180 189 193 195 196 201 204 204 205 207 210 210 211 213 So that You I This It So That So The first one So We Thousand of talented men It Chi Văn miếu The answer So It It So The answer Festivals and examinations It There Visitors You I There I You There We You I XXV Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked 213 214 214- 215 219 223 225 225 228 231 236 238 245 247 247 250 250 255 257 259 261 262 263 266 266 268 268 268 274 275 278 278 278 289 291 That There The Temple of Literature We Việt anh So The correct answer It Flourishing You You You This So You I You That Văn miếu Quốc tử giám Thank you This And He So In this lesson You It Thank you The lesson today Before that You You So Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Interpersonal Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Interpersonal Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual XXVI Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked 291 295 295 297 299 301 304 305 306 306 308 310 310 310-311 311 312 312 314 318 321 321.1 323 328 328 329 329 341 341 343 343 343 344 345 You So It There You It That This It You We Number And In Vietnamese We And Number It Merchant And It You Next We And So The people The merchants from all over the world Next The house This It So XXVII Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked 345 346 346 349 351 356-357 359 359 361 361 363 363 369 371 373 375 375 383 386 387 387 389 390 393 393 393 396 397 397 399 402 406 407 411 You First of all Hội An Trading center Hội An The Japanese covered bridge And Tân Kỳ house So We After first time of listening You Hội An Hội An The Japanese covered bridge And Tân Kỳ house You You So Number That And So Number You This exercise So I I It This You We XXVIII Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked 414 416 416 421 422 430 430 432 436 438 439 441 442 442 443 445 445 445 447 451 452 454 458 458 458 460 461 471 471 471 474 474 477 478 I And I We It Thank you This Just So They You These two words You They You Carve‟ So They They This It It It So Number It Hoi An So The answer You So You You And Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Interpersonal Topical Interpersonal Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual Topical Topical Textual XXIX Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked 478 481 484 484 487 487 490 494 494 495 498 498 499 499 500 502 504 504 506 507 I Hoi an It Thank you Thank you So The japanese There Thank you It Their pillars And Thank you This You You You It Thank you Thank you Topical Topical Topical Interpersonal Interpersonal Textual Topical Topical Interpersonal Topical Topical Textual Interpersonal Topical Topical Topical Topical Topical Interpersonal Interpersonal XXX Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Unmarked Marked Marked