Sách Handbook của Hiệp hội kiểm tra không phá hủy Mỹ viết tổng quan về kỹ thuật kiểm tra không phá hủy (NDT) dùng để kiểm tra chất lượng mối hàn, chất lượng sản phẩm và rất nhiều ứng dụng phổ biến khác nữa. Đây là cuốn sách viết tổng quan mở đầu cho serie sách về NDT chi tiết về từng phương pháp.
3OV_Cover_3OV Cover 6/14/12 11:08 AM Page NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING HANDBOOK NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Third Edition HANDBOOK Nondestructive Testing Overview Third Edition • Volume 10 Volume 10 Nondestructive Testing Overview Technical Editor Gary L Workman Editor Patrick O Moore ® 41 D 19 NDE FOU ® American Society for Nondestructive Testing ISBN 978-1-57117-187-0 41 D 19 NDE FOU American Society for Nondestructive Testing NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING Third Edition HANDBOOK Volume 10 Nondestructive Testing Overview Technical Editor Gary L Workman Editor Patrick O Moore ® 41 19 NDED FOU American Society for Nondestructive Testing President’s Foreword It is often said that the world is changing at a rapid pace, and this couldn’t be truer than with respect to technology Our profession of nondestructive testing and the means by which the various methods and techniques are applied has seen significant change and new applications in recent years Even as our team of subject matter experts compiled the informative sections of this publication, new and emerging technologies have arisen and are being refined for application in industry It is refreshing to know that we as NDT professionals have a staple resource that we can turn to in answering the day-to-day questions and satisfying the needs of industry The NDT Handbook has been the marquee of resource for our industry The dedication of unselfish volunteers and professionals who step forward makes it possible for publications like this to serve as the benchmark for NDT Our society continues to be a mission based society With the rapidity of technological advance, it is important that publications such as this one truly contribute to making the world a safer place through the advancement of NDT The knowledge herein will be shared by not only the front line technician but also engineers and researchers, by not only those interested in the broad profession but also those in a narrow specialty I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the personnel that served as contributors, editors and reviewers for making this edition possible As you are all aware, ASNT is a volunteer society and the effort that is required to see a result such as this is often challenging The volunteers of ASNT have met this challenge for over a half century, and the names of those who have contributed to the development and continued improvement of the NDT Handbook are etched into the foundation of ASNT The handbooks, their media and arangement in which the information is shared with the NDT community, continue to evolve as fast as the technology that the books record It is our goal to continue to meet the needs of our members in a timely manner Robert Potter ASNT President, 2011-2012 Nondestructive Testing Overview iii Foreword Aims of a Handbook The volume you are holding in your hand is the tenth in the third edition of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook In the beginning of each volume, ASNT has stated the purposes and nature of the NDT Handbook series Handbooks exist in many disciplines of science and technology, and certain features set them apart from other reference works A handbook should ideally provide the basic knowledge necessary for an understanding of the technology, including both scientific principles and means of application The third edition of the NDT Handbook provides this knowledge through method specific volumes The typical reader may be assumed to have completed a few years of college toward a degree in engineering or science and has the background of an elementary physics or mechanics course Additionally, this volume allows for computer based media that enhances all levels of education and training Standards, specifications, recommended practices and inspection procedures are discussed for instructional purposes, but at a level of generalization that is illustrative rather than comprehensive Standards writing bodies take great pains to ensure that their iv Nondestructive Testing Overview documents are definitive in wording and technical accuracy People writing contracts or procedures should consult the actual standards when appropriate The NDT Handbook is widely used for inspector training and qualification, yet its scope serves a broader audience, academic and industrial Noninspectors use it, too Those who design qualifying examinations or study material for them draw on ASNT handbooks as a quick and convenient way of approximating the body of knowledge Committees and individuals who write or anticipate questions are selective in what they draw from any source The parts of a handbook that give scientific background, for instance, may have little bearing on a practical examination except to provide the physical foundation to assist handling of more challenging tasks Other parts of a handbook are specific to a certain industry The NDT Handbook provides a collection of perspectives on its subject to broaden its value and convenience to the nondestructive testing community The present volume is a worthy addition to the third edition The editors, ASNT staff, contributors and reviewers worked together to bring the project to completion For their scholarship and dedication, I thank them all Richard H Bossi Handbook Development Director Preface ASNT’s Nondestructive Testing Handbook continues to include a broad range of techniques and applications, as shown in this final volume of the third edition The primary intention in this NDT Overview volume is to draw on the very extensive and in-depth information contained in the entire edition and to bring together the core information into one volume Thus this volume is able to provide key information to allow scientists and engineers to make the best choices across the range of NDT methods I was chairman of ASNT’s Handbook Development Committee from 1996 through 2007 Those years saw the publication of the first seven volumes of the third edition Hundreds of experts contributed, and it was my privilege to meet the volume coordinators and editors, the finest minds in our technology Many NDT concepts that were primarily research topics for the second edition and some third edition volumes have now matured into well defined applications This volume offers up-to-date techniques for signal processing techniques as well as for a broad range of applications in industries such as welding, energy, petroleum and aerospace The series benefits from international contributions, providing a larger knowledge base for nondestructive testing worldwide This NDT Overview reflects changes in the way inspections are performed because of advances in computer technology These instruments and techniques have improved data collection and analysis, both in the laboratory and in the field These advances in technology also provide improved imaging capability and better verification of measurements with theory This volume represents the work of many in the field who were able to contribute their time and effort to provide latest state-of-the-art information In addition, volunteers were able to review and return comments in short order We are indebted to both groups for bringing this volume to publication We also wish to express our gratitude to ASNT staff for their thoroughness, diligence and timeliness in preparing this volume for publication Gary L Workman Technical Editor Nondestructive Testing Overview v Editor’s Preface The book you are holding is the latest in a series of attempts to something almost impossible: in a single volume to encapsulate the technology of nondestructive testing (NDT) First Edition, 1959 Three years after its founding, the American Industrial Radium and X-Ray Society’s president, Maynard Evans, appointed a Radiographer’s Handbook Committee, authorized to prepare an applications manual for distribution free to members In 1951, the proposed handbook on radiography was folded into plans for an NDT manual covering radiographic, ultrasonic and magnetic methods The change in content echoed the change of society’s name to the Society for Nondestructive Testing In 1955, the Board of Directors agreed to fund work on the Handbook of NDT Robert McMaster was appointed editor The book was expected to contain 500 pages, divided into sections devoted to major fields of nondestructive testing Within each section, separate chapters covering separate methods were to be written by individual authors In 1958, the newly organized Technical Council was given six primary functions, including: “To conduct a continuing review of the Handbook of Nondestructive Testing, directed at the revision of subsequent editions.” The book’s nearly 2000 pages would not fit in a single cover, so it was published in two volumes, in 1959 Second Edition, 1982-1996 The second edition was published in a series of volumes appearing from 1982 to 1996 The capstone was the edition’s tenth volume, NDT Overview NDT Overview was composed almost entirely of material that had appeared in the previous volumes Some references had been updated; some explanations were abridged; and a comprehensive, multimethod glossary was included NDT Overview volume soon found its audience: practitioners and students who needed a comprehensive treatment of all methods These readers would turn to method volumes for details about specialties Third Edition, 1998-2012 The third edition’s NDT Overview improves over the second edition’s in several ways The introduction’s treatment of measurement units is more detailed and comprehensive There is a bibliography of NDT history, 15 pages that list publications, an authoritative place for a technology historian to start References are updated since 1996, just as the third edition has updated the second The method chapters are updated to reflect new techniques and technologies — in particular, advances made possible by digital processing and imaging This change is conspicuous in the chapters on the visual, radiographic, ultrasonic and strain measurement methods The glossary in particular is updated and expanded The text in each method chapter is not merely a revision of the second edition NDT Overview but has been completely recreated from third edition files Finally, and more than before, the volume’s content is selected and edited with an eye toward practicality The book can help a Level III who specializes in one method and may be confronted by a new inspection problem to determine what the other methods offer Also, the examinee who studies for general NDT qualification will find much of the body of knowledge here, in one book (Such learners need other resources, of course, in materials science and basic physics.) For these reasons, nearly everyone who practices NDT needs this book It has been an honor to work with Gary Workman on this volume, and a pleasure to collaborate again with the various chapter coordinators Most of them were contributors or editors in creating the original method volumes over the course of 16 years It was also a pleasure to receive help and encouragement from ASNT staff, in particular Timothy Jones (senior manager, publications) for administrative support and Hollis Humphries (technical publications supervisor) for graphics and editing at every stage of production Patrick O Moore NDT Handbook Editor vi Nondestructive Testing Overview Acknowledgments This book is made from the preceding nine volumes of the third edition, and it is impractical to list the hundreds of contributors and reviewers All chapter coordinators and contributors are also reviewers but are listed once, as contributors Handbook Development Committee Michael W Allgaier, Mistras Group Richard H Bossi, Boeing Research and Technology Lisa Brasche, Iowa State University James R Cahill, GE Sensing and Inspection Technologies Robert E Cameron John S Cargill, Aerospace Structural Integrity Nat Y Faransso, KBR Gary Heath, All Tech Inspection Dietmar F Henning, Level III Service Eric v.K Hill, AURA Vector Consulting James W Houf, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Morteza K Jafari, Fugro South Timothy E Jones, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Richard D Lopez, John Deere Technology and Innovation Xavier P.V Maldague, University Laval George A Matzkanin, Texas Research Institute Charles H Mazel, BlueLine NDT Ronnie K Miller, Mistras Group Scott D Miller David G Moore, Sandia National Laboratories Patrick O Moore, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Robert F Plumstead, Municipal Testing Laboratory Frank J Sattler, Sattler Consultants Todd E Sellmer, Washington TRU Solutions Roderic K Stanley, NDE Information Consultants Kenneth A Starry, IVC Technologies Satish S Udpa, Michigan State University Mark F.A Warchol, Texas Research Institute Glenn A Washer, University of Missouri — Columbia Gary L Workman, University of Alabama, Huntsville Contributors Michael W Allgaier, Mistras Group Richard H Bossi, Boeing Research and Technology John K Keve, AREVE Federal Services Timothy E Kinsella, Dassault Falcon Jet Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Richard D Lopez, John Deere Technology and Innovation Xavier P.V Maldague, University Laval Ronnie K Miller, Mistras Group David G Moore, Sandia National Laboratories John W Newman, Laser Technology Eric I Schwartz, Trilion Quality Systems Roderic K Stanley, NDE Information Consultants Kenneth A Starry, IVC Technologies Marvin W Trimm, Savannah River National Laboratory John Tyson II, Trilion Quality Systems Lalita Udpa, Michigan State University Satish S Udpa, Michigan State University Gary L Workman, University of Alabama, Huntsville Reviewers James F Aldridge, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Michael Burch, Mistras Group Robert E Cameron John C Duke, Sr., Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Charles W Eick, Horizon NDT Services Roger W Engelbart, Boeing Aerospace Gregory W Good, Ohio State University Trey Gordon, Boeing Research and Technology Eric v.K Hill, AURA Vector Consulting James W Houf, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Doron Kishoni, Business Solutions USA Ravindran Krishnamurthy, Southern Inspection Services, Chennai, India Charles P Longo, American Society for Nondestructive Testing Eugene A Mechtly, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Steven M Shepard, Thermal Wave Imaging Flynn Spears, Laser Technology Nondestructive Testing Overview vii C Chapter Introduction to Nondestructive Testing Part Nondestructive Testing Part Management of Nondestructive Testing 13 Part Measurement Units for Nondestructive Testing 19 References 30 Chapter Bibliography of Nondestructive Testing History 31 Nondestructive Testing in General 32 Visual Testing 33 Liquid Penetrant Testing 35 Leak Testing 36 Infrared and Thermal Testing 36 Radiographic Testing 38 Electromagnetic Testing 40 Magnetic Testing 43 Ultrasonic Testing 44 Acoustic Emission Testing 45 Chapter Visual Testing Part Introduction to Visual Testing Part Light and Vision Part Images Part Direct Visual Testing Part Indirect Visual Testing Part Visual Testing of Metals Part Visual Acceptance Criteria for Welds References 47 48 49 55 63 69 75 87 94 Chapter Liquid Penetrant Testing 95 Part Elements of Liquid Penetrant Testing 96 Part Liquid Penetrant Testing Processes 104 Part Emulsification and Removal of Excess Surface Liquid Penetrant 110 Part Application and Operation of Developers 117 Part Interpretation of Liquid Penetrant Indications 121 Part Field Techniques for Liquid Penetrant Testing 127 Part Maintenance of Liquid Penetrant Test Systems 131 References 134 viii Nondestructive Testing Overview O N T E N T S Chapter Leak Testing Part Management of Leak Testing Part Selection of Leak Test Techniques Part Bubble Testing Part Mass Spectrometer Helium Leak Testing Part Leak Testing with Halogen Tracer Gases Part Other Techniques of Leak Testing Part Leak Testing of Hermetically Sealed Devices Part Other Applications of Leak Testing References Chapter Infrared and Thermal Testing Part Management of Infrared and Thermal Testing Part Principles of Infrared and Thermal Testing Part Techniques of Infrared and Thermal Testing References Chapter Radiographic Testing Part Radiographic Principles Part Radiation Sources Part Radiographic Imaging Part Radiographic Techniques Part Computed Tomography Part Neutron Radiography Part Radiographic Applications References 135 136 145 153 156 158 163 167 170 173 175 176 178 187 198 199 200 203 215 221 227 230 232 241 Chapter Electromagnetic Testing 243 Part Introduction to Electromagnetic Testing 244 Part Electromagnetic Techniques Other than Eddy Current Testing 246 Part Eddy Current Testing 253 Part Applications of Electromagnetic Testing 263 References 272 eye, 50-52 See also vision diopter unit for, 21, 50–51 eye relief, 66 hyperopic eye, 52 myopic eye, 52 refractive power, 50-52 F farsightedness, 52 fast fourier transform, of vibration signal, 458, 461-462, 463 fatigue cracks, 85, 301, 306 See also cracks; cracks in metals acoustic emission signal, 430 in aerospace applications, eddy current testing, 268, 269 in aircraft, 3, 306 angle beam contact ultrasonic testing, 334 in bolt holes, 269 in composite overwrapped pressure vessels, 447 frictional acoustic emissions, 422 initiated at corrosion pits, 307 initiated by forging laps, 304 initiated by seams, 303 nucleated by stringers, 302 in pressure vessels, 439, 447 quench cracks as sites for, 83 in steel plates, ultrasonic detection, 369 surface wave ultrasonic detection, 344 underwater, in welded offshore structures, 246 in used drill pipe, 308, 309 visible dye liquid penetrant indications, 129 fatigue strength, 306 Federal Aviation Administration, near vision acuity testing, 54 felicity effect, 422, 440 ferromagnetic materials See also magnetic flux leakage testing; magnetic particle testing; metals; steels basic production process, 302 discontinuities in castings, 75 discontinuities in forgings, 77 eddy current testing, 253, 265, 268 electromagnetic acoustic transduction in, 389, 390 heat exchanger tubes, 248, 267, 268 heating caused by induced currents, 185 hysteresis in, 290-291, 292 magnetic characteristics of, 290-292 magnetic domains of, 276, 277, 291, 416 magnetic permeability of, 292 mechanically induced magnetization, 278 metals classified as, 265 movement through earth field, 278 pipe wall, remote field testing, 247-248, 268 secondary processing discontinuities, 83-84 service induced discontinuities, 84-86 tubes in petrochemical industry, 265, 266 ultrasonic testing, with lamb waves, 375 fiber optic borescopes, 69, 70 582 Nondestructive Testing Overview fiber optic light guide, 70, 72 fiber optic sensors, 512 fiber optic strain gages, 512 fiberglass vessels and storage tanks, acoustic emission testing, 422 field of view, 56 borescope, 56 camera, 56-57 magnifier, 66 shearography, 481-483 viewing angle and, 63 filamentary shrinkage, in castings, 234 fillet weld gage, 66, 67, 90, 91-92 fillet welds See also welds components and terminology for, 89 concavity of, 91-92 film badges, 213 film radiography, 221-223 finishing operations, discontinuities from, 83-84, 301, 305-306 Firestone, Floyd Refectoscope patent drawing, 42 historic and historical publications, 34, 44, 45 flakes in forgings, 304 flare gas valve internal leakage, acoustic emission monitoring, 432, 433 flash, 304 flashlights, 65 flaws See discontinuities flow rate measurement, 140-141 fluids compressibility of, 140 defined, 136 fluorescence spectrometry, X-ray, 494 fluorescent coatings, thermosensitive, 187 fluorescent dye, as leak tracer, 164 fluorescent intensifying screens, 221 fluorescent liquid penetrants, 98 advantages, 108 background fluorescence with, 97, 98, 110, 113, 123 brightness and sensitivity of, 101 contamination of surfaces with, 132 contrast of, 123 developers for, 117 examination of indications, 107-108, 121 excessive bleedout of, 122 excessive drying of, 118 in the field, 128, 129 optimum indications with, 122 rinsed under ultraviolet radiation, 111, 113 selection of method with, 108-109 fluorescent magnetic particles, 296, 297, 298, 299 fluorescent screens, in radioscopy, 224 fluorocarbon resin inserts, 484, 485 fluting, in formed steel, 78, 79 flux leakage See magnetic flux leakage foam application technique, 153 foam core panels, shearography, 474, 475, 479 focal length (focal distance), 56 camera, 57 magnifier, 66 focal plane arrays, 183, 184 focal point, 55, 56 focal spot, X-ray tube, 204, 215 for microfocus radioscopy, 225 optimum magnification and, 219 Förster, Friedrich, historic publications, 41, 32 forging bursts, 304 forging discontinuities, 75, 77, 78, 301, 303, 304 forging laps, 301, 304 forgings grain size, 337 ultrasonic testing, 338, 348 fovea centralis, 52 fracture, 306 See also cracks frame rate, 61 free machining steels, 302 frequency measurement units of, 28 of vibration signal, 459, 460 frequency range acoustic emission testing, 419 electromagnetic testing, 244 ultrasonic testing, 315, 336-337 fretting noise, 425, 428 friction digs, in rolled steel, 80 friction heating, 176, 185, 186 See also tribology in vibrothermography, 192 friction wear See antifriction bearing wear frictional acoustic emission, 416, 422 fuel tanks See also storage tanks shearography of insulation, 478-479, 489 full-wave direct current, in magnetic particle testing, 294-295 fused circuits, thermal testing of, 176 future usefulness, and nondestructive testing, G gadolinium converter with X-ray film, 230 gage factor, 503, 504-505, 506 gage pressure, 22 gages thickness, ultrasonic, 403-404 for visual examination of welds, 66, 67, 90 gain, in ultrasonic testing, 316, 317, 318 gamma radiography, 215 See also radiographic testing gamma ray sources, 205-208 radiation survey instruments for, 212-213 gamma rays, 200 See also radiation detection and measurement attenuation of, 201-202 shielding thicknesses of lead and concrete, 210-211 Garfield, James, 40 gas cavities in aluminum welds, 237 gas leak detection, airborne acoustic technique, 163 gas leakage rate, units of, 24 gas permeation rate, units of, 24 gas phase dye tracers, 164-165 gas pipeline testing See also pipeline testing electromagnetic acoustic transducers, 394-395 gas porosity in castings See also porosity radiography of, 233, 234 gas quantity, units of, 24 gas voids See also voids n aluminum casting, 23 gauss (unit of magnetic flux density), 27, 290 gearing, vibration analysis of, 468-469 geiger-müller counters, 212-213 geometric unsharpness, 216-217, 219, 220 geosynthetic membranes, leak testing, 170-171 ghost lines, in rolled steel, 78, 79 gigabecquerel (GBq), 26, 27, 208 glass dosimeters, 213 glass-to-epoxy laminate, 351 bonded to aluminum honeycomb, 409 leaky lamb waves in, 410 gnomon, 73 gouges, 301 gouging wear, 86 grain orientation, ultrasonic determination, 387, 494 grain size in metals, and ultrasonic testing, 336-338, 387, 388 graphite phenolic laminate, 361 graphite-to-epoxy laminate, 351 backscattering ultrasonic technique, 360, 361 immersion ultrasonic testing, 352 laser ultrasonic testing, 386 pulse echo ultrasonic testing, 409 gray (Gy), measurement unit, 26, 209 gray scale image, 59 graybody, 181, 183 grinding to remove seams, 303 of surface before liquid penetrant testing, 133 of surface before ultrasonic testing, 348 grinding cracks in metals, 83, 84, 305-306 grinding wear, 85-86 ground penetrating radar, 251-252 pavement testing, 269-271 guided acoustic emissions, 419, 449 guided ultrasonic waves, 375, 376-380 pipe and tube testing, 394, 395 welds in sheet metal coils, 396 H H and D curves See characteristic curves half value layer (HVL) of lead and concrete, 210-211 radiation energy selection and, 220 half-wave direct current, in magnetic particle testing, 293-294 halide torch, 158, 159-160, 162 hall effect detectors, 256, 257-258 of magnetic flux leakage field, 282, 285, 309, 310 halogen detector probe, 159 halogen leak testing techniques, 158-162 hand probe, magnetizing, 289 harmonics, spectral, 461, 462, 463, 465, 466 heat See also infrared and thermal testing abrasive wear with generation of, 85 basic concept of, 179 measurement units of, 24, 179 heat affected zone cracking, 305 heat exchanger tubing, test methods, 248, 267, 268 heat transfer, 25, 179 heat treatment of metals See also annealing; forging discontinuities aluminum alloys, 268 conductivity and, 264 discontinuities caused by, 83-84, 305 electromagnetic monitoring of, 265 types of, 264 ultrasonic test frequency and, 338 ultrasonic test sensitivity and, 337 heated anode halogen vapor detector, 158, 160-161 applications, 161-162 helium mass spectrometer leak testing, 149, 156-157, 163 of hermetically sealed devices, 169 helium tracer gas leak testing, 166 hermetically sealed devices electronic, digital holography of seals, 479 leak testing, 167-169 Herschel, William, 37 hertz (Hz), 28 high speed tests, three-dimensional image correlation, 510-511 high temperature tests accelerometers for, 464 of acoustic emissions, 419 digital image correlation, 509 eddy current technique, 264, 265 with electromagnetic acoustic transducer, 393-394 history of nondestructive testing, bibliography of, 31-46 holographic interferometry advantages, 479 introduction to, 474 limitations, 479-480 measured variables in, 474-475 reference standards, 479 signal-to-noise measurement in, 475 stress loading for, 474, 475 systems for, 478 with vibration excitation, 478, 479, 489 honeycomb structures See also aluminum honeycomb aluminum brazed titanium, 268 shearography, 474, 475, 479, 486, 487, 489 ultrasonic bond testers, 405 Hooke’s law, 505 hot cracking, in welds, 79, 81 hot rods, eddy current testing, 265 hot spots, 176 induced currents leading to, 176, 185 in passive thermography, 190 resistive heating leading to, 194 Hot tears in castings, 75, 76, 235-236, 304 in welds, 81 hot wires, eddy current testing, 264, 265 hue, 21, 58-59 hurter driffield curves See characteristic curves HVL See half value layer (HVL) hydraulic noise, 425 hydrofluoric acid sphere, acoustic emission testing program, 440-446 hydrogen blistering, 441, 443 hydrogen cracking, 85 pickling and, 84 plating and, 84 pressure vessels, 439, 441, 443 welds, 79, 81 hydrogen embrittlement, 84, 306, 422 hydrogen sulfide, leak testing with, 165 hydrophilic emulsifiers, 99, 110, 111, 113, 114-115 contamination with liquid penetrant, 115 procedure steps with, 105-106 hydrostatic leak testing, 162 hydrostatic pressure test of pressure vessel composite overwrapped, 447 fabrication (weld) discontinuities and, 439 hyperopic eye, 52 hysteresis, magnetic, 290-291, 292 I IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard), 263 identification of alloys See alloy identification identification of materials See alloy identification IIW (International Institute of Welding), calibration block, 317, 318-319, 341, 342 illuminance, 21 illumination See also ultraviolet lamp for direct visual testing, 64-65 for indirect visual testing, 69 image intensifiers, radiographic, 224, 225 image processing digital image characteristics in, 58-61, 62 integrity of image and, 60-61 image quality, radiographic, 218-220, 232-233 image quality indicator (IQI), 232-233 imbalance, vibration analysis of, 465, 466 immersion tanks, 44, 349 immersion ultrasonic testing of aluminum plates, 44, 410-411 angle beam, 356-362 of composite materials, 351-355 coupling devices for, 349-351 reflector plate used in, 353 through-transmission technique, 327 impact damage in composites of overwrapped pressure vessels, 447-449 thermal shearography of, 486 ultrasonic detection, 352-353, 354-355 impedance, acoustic See acoustic impedance impedance, electrical, 255 conductivity and, 263, 264 resonance bond tester and, 407 variables producing changes in, 496-497 impedance diagram, 255, 256 signal reverses in, 245 impedance plane, 260, 268 impedance technique, 257 inclusions, Index 583 inclusions in castings, 75, 76, 301, 302 radiography of, 234, 235 inclusions in composites, 333-334, 351-352 inclusions in rolled products, 77 inclusions in welds, 79, 82 cleaning brush bristle, 237, 238 indicators chemical, for leak testing, 165 thermosensitive, 179-180, 187 indirect visual testing, 69-74 See also borescopes defined, 48 designs for maneuvering cameras, 74 illumination for, 69 measurement in, 72-74 types of instruments for, 69-70 indium foil activation transfer to film, 230, 231 induced currents See also eddy current testing in alternating current field measurement, 246-247 hot spots due to, 176, 185 infrared and thermal testing, 5, 9, 175-198 See also emissivity; emissivity variations; infrared thermography; thermography applications, 176, 192-197 historic and historical works on, 36-38 principles, 178-186 specifications for, 176-177 temperature changes in, 184-186 units for, 24-25, 178 infrared and thermal testing techniques, 187-192 active, 183, 190, 191-192, 193, 194 advantages and limitations, 194 contact versus noncontact, 179-180 passive, 183, 190, 193, 194 radiometry for, 20, 21, 182, 183-184, 188-190, 191, 192 thermosensitive indicators, 179-180, 187 infrared cameras, 183-184, 188-190, 191, 192 infrared detector arrays, 183, 184, 189 infrared detectors, 184 infrared microscope, 189-190 infrared radiation, 179, 180 infrared sensitive vidicon tube, 188, 189 infrared thermography See also infrared and thermal testing; infrared and thermal testing techniques defined, 178 discontinuity characteristics in, 190, 191 emissivity and, 180, 182, 183 fundamental equation of, 183 image interpretation in, 186 instrumentation for, 183-184 limitations of, 191 modeling used in, 190 physical basis of, 183 temperature changes in, 184-186 thermography in general and, 179-180 wavelength band selected for, 184 infrared thermography, applications, 192-197 composite materials, 193, 195 leak testing, 165-166, 196, 197 summary of, 176 584 Nondestructive Testing Overview infrastructure applications See also bridges of fiber optic sensors, 512 of ground penetrating radar, 269-271 of infrared thermography, 196, 197 ingots, 75-77, 302-303, 304 See also castings inherent detector, 148 inherent discontinuities, 75, 301, 302-303 inherent tracer, 149 in-house programs, 13, 14 insulation applications of acoustic stress shearography, 478479, 489 of infrared thermography, 176 insulation discontinuities in catalytic cracker reformer vessel, 186 in twisted pair, 185 integrated circuits See also ball grid array warpage; printed circuit boards infrared thermography, 196-197 radiographic video magnifications, 226 intensifying screens, fluorescent, 221 interference, electromagnetic, 259, 428 interferometry See also holographic interferometry in laser ultrasonics, 383-385, 386 in shearographic optical system, 475, 477 internal conductor magnetization, 286, 287 internal rotary ultrasonic testing, 267, 268 International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS), 263 International Institute of Welding (IIW), calibration block, 317, 318-319, 341, 342 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 17 ISO 9712, 17 ISO 10816, 463 International System of Units (SI), 19, 20 inverse square law radiation dose and, 210 in radiographic imaging, 217-218 ionization chambers, 212, 213 IQI (image quality indicator), 232-233 iridium-192, 206, 207 irradiance in infrared thermography, 183 ultraviolet, 22 isotropic materials, elastically isotropic, 323 J jaeger near point chart, 53-54 jet engines See also aircraft eddy current testing, 269 strain measurement, 509 JPG files, 58 K K absorption edge, 201-202 kaiser effect, 421-422 kaiser principle, 422 kinematic viscosity, 23, 133 Kirchoff’s law, 182, 183 krypton-85 leak testing, hermetically sealed devices, 168-169 L lamb waves, 320, 322, 375 electromagnetic acoustic transduction and, 389, 395 guided, 375, 376, 377-379 leaky, 406, 409-411 thermoelastic, 382 lamellar tearing, in welds, 79, 82 laminated materials See also adhesive bonds; composite materials; delaminations aluminum-epoxy, ultrasonic spectra, 409 continuous wave bond testers, 405 liquid penetrant testing, 96 metal composite, angle beam ultrasonic testing, 361-362 microwave testing, 249 shearography, 474, 475, 479, 486-487 ultrasonic testing of composites, 352-353, 386 laminations, in rolled metal, 77, 302, 303 internal, 301, 303 liquid penetrant testing and, 96 magnetic particle testing and, 303 laminography, 228 lap joint, 88 laps in metals, 77, 78 forging laps, 301, 304 laser profilometry electric power industry, 267, 268 petrochemical industry, 266 laser shearography and holography See holographic interferometry; shearography laser strain monitoring, 474 laser ultrasonics, 381-388 advantages, 381 applications, 385-388 elastic wave generation in, 381-383 limitations, 381 for materials characterization, 387-388 optical detection of ultrasound in, 383385 lead, radiation shielding thicknesses, 210-211 lead screens, radiographic, 221, 222 leak location, 145, 146, 150-152 combined with leakage rate measurement, 151-152 by tracer probe versus detector probe, 147-148, 151 visible indications of, 163-165 leak monitoring with acoustic emissions, 163, 432-436 continuous examples, 434-436 periodic examples, 433-434 leak test sensitivity, 137-139 attainable levels of, 143 of bubble testing, 138-139 choice of method and, 146-147 contamination and, 154 of flow measurements, 141 with fluorescent dyes, 164 limits of various methods, 151, 152 prior bubble testing and, 154 leak testing, 8, 135-173 See also leak location; leakage rate measurement; tracer gases, leak testing calibrated references for, 143-144 costs of, 138, 141, 142, 143 of evacuated systems, 147, 148, 149150, 151 See also vacuum; vacuum systems, leak detection fluid media used in, 145-146 See also liquid leak tracers; tracer gases, leak testing functions of, 136 of geosynthetic membranes, 170-171 of hermetically sealed devices, 167-169 historic and historical works on, 36 need for, 136-137 of petrochemical storage tanks, 170-171 pressure measurements in, 139-140 specifications for, 141-143, 144 standard conditions, 137 of systems leaking to atmospheric pressure, 147-148, 150, 151 three main categories of, 145 units for, 22-24 leak testing methods, 145-146 See also leak testing techniques bubble testing, 138-139, 153-155, 162 decision tree for selection of, 145, 146 with halogen tracer gases, 158-162 helium mass spectrometer, 149, 156-157, 163, 169 hydrostatic, 162 with liquid penetrants, 129-130, 136, 163-164 sensitivity limits of, 151, 152 leak testing solutions, 155 leak testing techniques, 145-146 See also leak testing methods airborne ultrasound detection, 163 residual gas analysis, 163 for testing hermetic devices, 168-169 thermal, 165-166, 196, 197 with visible tracers, 163-165 leak tightness, 141-143 leakage defined, 136 minimum detectable, 139 virtual, 154 leakage rate See also leak test sensitivity acceptable under specification, 142-144 defining small versus large leak, 137 of hermetic seals, 167-168, 169 through pressure boundaries, 139 quantitative description of, 23-24 temperature and, 142 leakage rate measurement See also leak testing combined with leak location, 151-152 flow measurement, 140-141 nuclear power plant, primary containment, 170 open test objects accessible on both sides, 149-150 selecting technique for, 145, 146 with tracer gases, 148-149 leaks acoustic emissions from, 416 calibrated reference leaks, 143-144 conductance of, 139 defined, 136 hydraulic noise associated with, 425 oil clogged, and halogen vapor detector, 160 leaky lamb waves, 406, 409-411 leaky rayleigh waves, 322, 325 lenses, 55-57 magnification by, 66 Lenz’s law, 253 Lester, Horace, 38-40 Libby, Hugo, 260 light See also color entries measurement units for, 20-21 reflection, 49-50 refraction, 49-50, 55 speed of, 21, 25, 26 wavelength range, 49 light sources See illumination linear absorption coefficient, in radiography, 218-219 linear accelerators, 204-205 linear array digital detector systems, 223-224 linear attenuation coefficient, for X-ray or gamma ray beam, 201 lipophilic emulsifiers, 99, 110, 111, 113, 114 contamination with water, 116 procedure steps with, 105 viscosity of, 114 liquation cracking, in welds, 79, 81 liquid crystals, thermosensitive, 180, 187 liquid film application technique, 153, 155 liquid immersion technique, 153, 154 with vacuum, 154 liquid leak tracers, 163-164 liquid oxygen systems, inspection with liquid penetrants, 102, 103 liquid penetrant indications acceptance/rejection criteria, 125-126 bleedback after wiping, 126 contrast of, 109, 110, 117, 121, 123 examination of, 107-108, 121-123 formation and bleeding of, 121 interpretation of, 123-126 specifications covering evaluation of, 125-126 visibility of, 121-123 liquid penetrant testing, 8, 95-134 See also developers, liquid penetrant; emulsifiers atmospheric pollution from, 132 basic process, 96 disadvantages and limitations, 97-98 drain-dwell technique, 110, 114 field techniques, 127-130 hand wipe solvent removal, 99, 100, 107, 128 historic and historical works on, 35-36 maintenance of systems for, 131-132 materials suitable for testing by, 96-97 mechanisms of operation, 107 overremoval of liquid penetrant, 111, 113 postcleaning after, 96, 105, 106 postemulsification processes, 98-99, 105-106, 109, 113-116 precleaning for, 96, 97, 98, 104, 106, 127, 129 qualified/approved materials for, 100-101 removal of excess liquid penetrant, 106-107, 110-116, 128 reprocessing after inadequate removal, 108, 115 safety in, 131-132, 133 selecting as testing method, 97 selection of liquid penetrant and process, 108-109 sensitivity of, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 120 solvent removable process, 99, 100, 106-107, 109, 128-129 surface abrading or finish and, 97, 133 surface conditions in selecting system for, 108-109 ultraviolet lamp used in, 123, 132 ultraviolet radiation in, 98, 111, 113, 121, 123, 128, 132 units of interest in, 22-23, 133 waste materials from, 106 water washable process, 98, 104-105, 109, 110-113 liquid penetrants See also fluorescent liquid penetrants; postemulsifiable liquid penetrants; visible dye liquid penetrants; water washable liquid penetrants classification by dye type, 98 classification by removal method, 98-99 in cold environment, 127 leak testing with, 129-130, 136, 163-164 liquid properties of, 102 major requirements of, 101-102 penetrating ability, 102 qualified/approved, 100-101 requirements for special applications, 102-103 selection of, 108-109 load measuring transducers, 503 lockin thermography, 192, 193, 194 long pulse thermography, 191 longitudinal magnetization, 279-280, 288 longitudinal plane waves, 320-321 See also ultrasonic wave propagation reflection and transmission of, 323-325 loss angle lockin thermography, 192 lumens, 21, 49 luminance, 21 of pixel, 60 luminance contrast, 64 luminous flux, 21, 49 luminous intensity, 20-21 of fluorescent liquid penetrant indications, 101 lux, 21 Index 585 M machine gun projectiles, ultrasonic testing, 398 machine tools, thermological tribology of, 196 machine vision, infrared thermography applications, 192 machining tears in metals, 83, 84, 305 macro lens, 55 magnesium alloys, microshrinkage, radiography of, 235 magnetic domains, 276, 277, 291 acoustic emissions from realignment of, 416 magnetic field intensity hysteresis and, 290-291, 292 permeability and, 292 units, 27 magnetic fields circular, 279, 286, 287 of Earth, 277-278 induced by electric current, 286-287 sources of, 277-278 magnetic flux, 27, 279, 290 circumferential, 286, 287 longitudinal, 287 magnetic flux density, 279, 290 permeability and, 292 units, 27 magnetic flux leakage, 274-275, 279-281 magnetic flux leakage field, 279, 280 in flux leakage testing, 282, 284 intensity of, 280 orientation of discontinuities and, 280-281 of subsurface discontinuities, 275, 280, 284 magnetic flux leakage testing, 244, 274, 282-285 See also magnetic particle testing; magnetic testing coil probes used in, 256-257 hall effect probes used in, 257-258 magnetic flux leakage testing, applications, 263, 307-310 aboveground storage tank floors, 308, 434 corrosion or abrasion, 301 drill pipe, 308-309, 310 electric power industry, 267, 268 heat exchanger tubes, 248, 267, 268 petrochemical industry, 266 pipelines, 307-308 sensors, 285 wire rope, 309-310 magnetic hysteresis, 290-291, 292 magnetic induction See eddy current testing magnetic materials, 277 See also ferromagnetic materials 586 Nondestructive Testing Overview magnetic particle testing, 10-11 See also magnetic testing capabilities of, 275 concluding summary of, 300 continuous test method, 299, 300 demagnetization following, 293, 294, 295 as flux leakage detection technique, 282 formation of indications, 281, 287 high sensitivity for fine discontinuities, 300 introduction to, 274-275 limitations of, 275 media for, 296-299 mobile and portable units, 288-289 offshore structures, 266, 267 processes for, 299-300 residual test method, 299-300 of subsurface discontinuities, 275, 280, 293, 299 systems for, 288-289 transducer in, 256 types of magnetizing current for, 293-295 magnetic particle testing, applications billets, 303 cooling cracks, 303 cupping, 303 forging discontinuities, 304 free machining alloys, 302 hydrofluoric acid sphere, 445 laminations, 303 machining tears, 305 service-induced problems, 301, 306-307 stress corrosion cracks, 307 weld discontinuities, 305 magnetic permeability, 292 of magnetic testing particles, 296 magnetic poles, 276 magnetic saturation, 290, 291, 292 in eddy current technique, 248, 265, 268 magnetic testing See also electromagnetic testing; magnetic flux leakage testing; magnetic particle testing historic and historical works on, 40-44 industrial uses of, 274 introduction to, 274 materials suitable for, 265 steps in, 274 units for, 28 magnetization circumferential, 286, 287 longitudinal, 287 multidirectional, 287 magnetostrictive processes, 389 electromagnetic acoustic transduction and, 390 magnetostrictive transducers, 375, 380 magnification, 66 borescope, 71 optimum, of radiographic image, 219 magnifiers, 66 management of nondestructive testing programs, 13-18 manufacturing and fabrication discontinuities, 301, 305-306 martensitic transformation, acoustic emission from, 427 mass attenuation coefficient, for X-ray or gamma ray beam, 201 mass flow rate, 139 See also leakage rate units of, 23-24 mass spectrometer helium leak testing, 149, 156-157, 163 of hermetically sealed devices, 169 master slave technique for noise rejection, 426 matching layers, acoustic, 400, 402 material identification See alloy identification materials, demand for higher quality, maxwell (unit of magnetic flux), 27, 290 McMaster, Robert C., vi, 33 meander coil transducer, 389, 390, 391, 395, 397 measurement indirect, 72-74 precision of, 29 units for, 19-29 mechanically induced magnetization, 278 membranes, geosynthetic, leak testing, 170-171 metal matrix composites, 338 metals See also alloy identification; alloys; castings; conductivity; discontinuities in metals; ferromagnetic materials; heat treatment of metals; steels; welds acoustic parameters, 321-322 artificial aging, 264 conductivity values, 497 grain orientation, 387, 494 grain size, 336-338, 387-388 kaiser effect in, 421-422 microwave testing, 249 primary, electromagnetic testing, 264-265 ultrasonic beam attenuation by scattering, 337-338 ultrasonic stress measurements, 398 metrology, 5, three-dimensional optical, 507-511 ultrasonic, 385 microbolometer arrays, 184 microelectronics See also electronic components; integrated circuits ball grid array warpage, 509-510 microfocus radioscopy, 225, 226 microfocus X-ray sources, 205, 219 microscopes acoustic, 404 infrared, 189-190 stereoscopic, 66 microshrinkage, in castings, 234, 235 microstrain, 505 microstructure, 2, microwave testing, 244, 248-252 ground penetrating radar, 251-252, 269-271 mill scale, acoustic emission from fracturing of, 427 millimeter waves, 248 Minton, Willard C., 44 mirrors, in direct visual testing, 64 misalignment of pipe welds, 360 vibration analysis of, 465, 466-467 misruns, in castings, 236-237 motion blur, 220 mottling quantum mottle, 220 on radiographic image, 237 multibeam satellite pulse observation technique, 368-369 myopic eye, 52 N National Bridge Inventory, 450 National Institute of Standards and Technology, calibration of reference leaks, 143 nearsightedness, 52 neutron imaging plate, 230 neutron radiography, 230-231 neutron sensitive storage phosphor, 230 noise in acoustic emission testing, 420, 421, 425-428 backscattered ultrasonic, and grain size in metals, 387 in electromagnetic testing, 259, 261, 262 in nondestructive testing, 262 nondestructive testing, 2-12 defined, historic and historical works on, 31-46 objectives and attributes, 4-6 program management for, 13-18 purposes, 3-4, 13 reliability of, 18 scope, signal analysis in, 262 signal enhancement in, 262 value, nondestructive testing methods classification of, 4-6 overview of, 7-12 selection of, 15 techniques versus, 2-3 nonrelevant indications, 108 NRC states, for regulation of radiation, 208 nuclear reactor applications eddy current testing, 261 electromagnetic testing, 267 leak testing system, acoustic emissions, 434-435 leakage rate testing, primary containment, 170 liquid penetrants for, 102-103 plant life extension, 13 ultrasonic testing couplants, 347 ultrasonic testing of castings, 338 Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) gamma radiation regulations, 208 maximum permissible radiation dose, 209 nyquist rate, 461 O object discrimination, visual, 52-54 See also resolution of digital image oersted, 27, 290 offshore structures, 265-267 See also underwater structures open circuits, identifying, 176 optical emission spectrometry, 495-496 optical generation of ultrasound See laser ultrasonics optical heterodyning, 383-384, 385 optical strain measurement, 507-511 orange peel discontinuity, 78 overlap of welds, 79, 83, 87-88, 92 overload failures, at quench cracks, 83 overstress cracking, 301, 306 oxides, metallic See corrosion oxides, nonmetallic, in castings, 234 oxygen systems, liquid penetrant inspection of, 102, 103 P pair production, 201, 202 pancake probes, 257, 259, 268 parallax, 72-73 paramagnetic materials, 277 partial vacuum shearography, 475, 487-488 pascal cubic meter, 24 pascal (Pa), 22 pascal second, 22, 133 pavement testing, with ground penetrating radar, 269-271 penetrameters, 232-233 penetrant See liquid penetrant permanent magnets, 277 in magnetic flux leakage testing, 282 permeability, magnetic, 292 of magnetic testing particles, 296 permeation leaks, 144 permeation rate, units of, 24 personnel lift inspection, 422, 437-438 personnel qualification and certification, 15-16 petroleum industry See also chemical industry electromagnetic testing, 265-267 flare gas valve, acoustic emission monitoring, 432, 433 leak testing of storage tanks, 171-172 magnetic detection of abrasive wear, 301 magnetic flux leakage testing, 307-309 thickness gages, 403-404 phase imbalance in electrical systems, 176 phase of vibration signal, 460 phased array ultrasonic testing, 327, 363, 371-372 electromagnetic acoustic, 396 of pipelines, 379-380 of welds, 373-374 phasor, 259-260 phosphor coatings, thermosensitive, 187 phosphors neutron sensitive storage phosphor, 230 photostimulable, for computed radiography, 223 photoconductive detectors, 184 photodisintegration, 201 photoelastic stress analysis, 502, 506 photoelectric detectors, 184 photoelectric effect, 201-202 photoemissive detectors, 184 photography, 55-61 See also cameras photoluminescent glasses, 213 photometric brightness, 21 photometry, 20 measurement units in, 21 photonic detectors, 184 photostimulable storage phosphors, 223 photothermic radiometry, 192 photovoltaic detectors, 184 pickling acoustic emissions of metals during, 427 cracks associated with, 83, 84, 306 piezoelectric exciters, for vibration holography, 489 piezoelectric materials, ultrasonic waves in, 325 piezoelectric transducers, 28, 314-315 accelerometers, 464 in acoustic emission testing, 419 coupling into air, 400 ringing time of, 368 pig with electromagnetic acoustic transducer, 395 for magnetic flux leakage testing, 307-308 pipe, in castings, 75, 76, 302 pipe welds angle beam tests for misalignment, 360 phased array ultrasonic testing, 374 pipeline testing acoustic emissions, 432, 449 electromagnetic acoustic transducers, 394-395 infrared thermography, 196, 197 magnetic flux leakage, petroleum industry, 307-308 ultrasonic guided waves, 379-380, 394, 395 pipes See also tubes pipes, ultrasonic testing bitumen coated, with guided wave, 377-378 dual-element technique, 368 electromagnetic acoustic transducers, 395 time-of-flight diffraction technique, 365 piping, weld porosity in form of, 80 pitch catch ultrasonic testing, 343, 363, 364, 365-367, 369 leaky lamb wave technique, 410-411 pitting corrosion with, 301, 307, 308, 310 eddy current testing, 268 internal rotary ultrasonic testing, 268 magnetic flux leakage testing, 268, 307, 308, 309 of tubes, 268 pixel counting, 72, 73, 74 pixels, 58, 59-60 Planck’s radiation law, 183, 184 plane waves, 320-322 See also ultrasonic wave propagation reflection and transmission of, 322-325 plaque penetrameters, 232-233 Index 587 plastic, carbon fiber reinforced, pulsed thermography of, 193, 195 plastic deformation See also strain measurement acoustic emission from, 417 plastic epoxy, 351 plate See aluminum plate; rolled metal plate waves See lamb waves plating See coatings plating cracks, 83, 84, 306 plus point probes, 257 ply gaps in composites, 352, 353 poise, 22-23, 133 pollution See atmospheric pollution; environmental quality, leak tightness for pond liners See geosynthetic membranes ponding test, of geosynthetic membrane, 171 porosity, units of, 23 porosity in castings, 75, 76 radiography of, 233, 234 porosity in composites, 351, 352 pressure shearography, 488 ultrasonic detection, 332-333, 353, 361 porosity in welds, 79-80, 92, 237-238, 239 postemulsifiable liquid penetrants, 98-99 See also emulsifiers emulsifier action and timing, 113-115 processes with, 105-106 removal of, 113 reprocessing after inadequate removal of, 115 selection of, 109 posture of observer, 63 potential drop technique, 246-247, 498 power of magnifier, 66 power packs, for magnetic particle testing, 288 preamplifier, acoustic emission testing, 418, 419, 423 precision, 29 See also tolerance standards predictive maintenance, 458 presbyopia, 51 pressure in acoustics, 28 in leak testing, 22, 139-140 units of, 22 pressure shearography, 475, 484-485, 488 pressure vessels See also ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code; boilers composite overwrapped, 447-449, 475, 484-485, 486, 488 petrochemical industry, 265 pressure vessels, acoustic emission testing, 416 composite, 422 composite overwrapped, 447-449 noise in, 425 spheres, 439-446 pressure vessels, shearography, 475, 484485, 486, 488 pressure vessels, ultrasonic testing dual-element, 368 multibeam satellite pulse observation technique, 368-369 time-of-flight diffraction, 365 pressure waves, 320 See also ultrasonic wave propagation Prevost’s law of exchanges, 182 588 Nondestructive Testing Overview primary colors, 50 primary processing discontinuities, 77, 301, 303-304 printed circuit boards See also integrated circuits stereoscopic microscope inspection of, 66 probe leak test, of geosynthetic membrane, 170, 171 probes See also transducers coil probes, 256-257, 267 eddy current testing, 254, 255-258 electromagnetic testing, 254, 255-258, 267 nondestructive testing, 256 ultrasonic, 314-315 procedures, 14-15 prods, magnetizing, 289 profilometry See laser profilometry program management, nondestructive testing, 13-18 projection microfocus radioscopy, 225, 226 pulse echo contact ultrasonic testing, 329-340 See also ultrasonic testing applications, 331-335 beam attenuation by scattering, 337-338 instrumentation, 329-330 introduction to, 329 limitations, 363 mechanical scanning, 335-336 position encoding, 335-336 procedures, 330-331 pulse echo ultrasonic testing, discontinuities of adhesive bonds, 408, 409 automated discrimination of, 332-333 back surface reflections and, 332 common types observed, 333-334 dead zone and, 331 frequency selection and, 336-337, 338-339 geometry of, and signal amplitude, 340 grain size and detection of, 337-338 near field signal and, 335, 337 orientation of, and signal amplitude, 339 signals of, 331-332 size of, 334-335, 339 transducer diameter and, 337 pulsed phase thermography, 192 pulsed thermography, 191, 193, 194 of carbon fiber reinforced plastic, 193, 195 pump bearing, vibration analysis, 465 push cameras, 74 pyroelectric detectors, 184 pyrometry, 180, 183, 188 Q QPL-AMS-2644, 100-101 qualification of personnel, 15-16 quality, quality factor, 209 quantum infrared detectors, 184 quantum mottle, 220 quasilongitudinal wave mode, 323 quasistatic electromagnetic field, 244 quasitransverse wave mode, 323 quench cracks, 83-84, 301, 305 R rad (radiation absorbed dose), 26, 208-209 radar See ground penetrating radar radian (rad), 27 radiant flux, 49 radiation See electromagnetic radiation; radioactivity radiation detection and measurement, 211214 general considerations, 211-212 integrating instruments, 211 personnel dosimetry, 213-214 quantities and units, 26-27, 208-210 rate instruments, 211-212 survey instruments, 212-213 radiation dose permissible levels, 209-210, 212 units, 26-27, 208-209 radiation safety, 208, 210-211 radiative heat transfer, 179 radioactive objects, neutron radiography of, 230, 231 radioactivity, 205-206 unit of, 26, 208 radiograph, defined, 215 radiographic testing, 9-10, 199-242 See also contrast in radiographic imaging enlargement in, 216, 217, 219, 220 geometric principles of, 215-218, 220 geometric unsharpness in, 216-217 historic and historical works on, 38-40 historical origin of, 200 image quality, 218-220, 221 introduction to, 215 radiation energy selection, 220 smallest observable defect, 219 units for, 25-27 radiographic testing, applications, 232-239 image quality indicators for, 232-233 metal castings, 233-237 offshore structures, 266 summary of, 215 welds, 237-239 radiographic testing, techniques, 221-226 backscatter, 226 computed tomography, 227-229 digital detectors, 223-224 film radiography, 221-223 neutron radiography, 230-231 radioscopy, 224-225, 226 reverse geometry radiography, 225-226 radioisotopes for leak testing of hermetically sealed devices, 168-169 for radiography, 206-207 radiology See radiography radiometers, 183-184, 188-190 radiometry, 20 photothermic, 192 time resolved infrared, 191 units in, 21 of variable emissivity surfaces, 182 radionuclide, disintegration rate of, 208 radioscopy, 215, 224-225, 226 motion blur and, 220 railroad applications conductance testing, 41, 247 electromagnetic acoustic, 396-397 rail testing, historical publications on, 41, 43 RAW file format, 59 rayleigh angle, 322 rayleigh (surface acoustic) waves, 320, 322 in angle beam ultrasonic testing, 341, 344 at critical angle, 325 electromagnetic acoustic transducers and, 389, 395, 397 guided, 376 laser generated, 386 leaky, 322, 325 railroad wheel application, 397 thermoelastic, 382 unusual types of, 325 real time radiography See radioscopy real time radiometry, 188 Recommended Practice No SNT-TC-1A, 15-17, 316 shearography in, 474 reference standards See also calibration; ultrasonic testing reference standards alloy identification, 493-494 eddy current testing, 244-245, 264 holographic interferometry, 485 indirect measurement, 72, 74 leak testing, 143-144 photograph of, included in archive, 61 porosity in steel welds, 239 shearography, 481, 482-483, 485 reflection of light, 49-50 of microwaves in coaxial line, 250 of ultrasonic waves, 320, 321, 322-325 reflective backgrounds, 63, 65 reflectivity, 182 apparent temperature changes and, 185 Reflectoscope, 42 refraction, 49-50, 55 Snell’s law of, 323-324, 341, 356 refractive power diopter unit for, 21, 50-51 of eye, 50-51, 52 refractory composites, ultrasonic testing, 338 refrigerant-22, 158 refrigerant-134a, 158 refrigeration and air conditioning systems, leak detection, 147, 160, 161 relative exposure, radiographic, 222, 223 reliability of test results, 18 reluctance, 292 rem, 26, 209 remanence, 290, 291 remote field testing, 247-248, 259 heat exchanger tubes, 267, 268 petrochemical industry, 266 remote visual testing See indirect visual testing remote X-ray video systems, 225 resampling of digital image, 59 residual gas analyzer (RGA), 163 residual magnetism, 290, 291, 292 resins dry interface, infrared thermography of, 195-196 fluorocarbon inserts, 484, 485 resistance strain gaging, 502-506, 508 resistivity, 263-264 strain dependence of, 503 units, 28, 263 resistivity testing, 247, 498 resolution of digital image, 59-60 resolving power of magnifier, 66 resonance modes of anomalies, in vibration shearography, 489 resonance region of vibration spectrum, 462 resonance tests of adhesive bonds, 407 retentivity, magnetic, 277, 290, 292 of magnetic testing particles, 296-297 of test object, 299, 300 retinal illuminance, 21 reverse geometry radiography, 225-226 right hand rule, 286, 287 rigid borescopes, 69, 70 ringdown counts, in acoustic emission testing, 429, 430, 431 ringing technique, in ultrasonic spectroscopy, 409 risk based investigation, of steel corrosion in concrete, 452-453 robotic inspections, 70 See also crawlers; pig radioscopy in, 224 robotic probe positioners, in nuclear industry, 261, 267 roentgen (R), 26, 27, 208, 209 rolled metal aluminum sheet, optical strain measurement, 508 discontinuities in, 77-78, 80, 303 discontinuities in welds of, 395-396 rosette strain gage, 503, 504, 506 S S scans, ultrasonic, 371, 372-373 SAE AMS 2644, 101 safety cost cutting and, leak tightness for, 142 in liquid penetrant testing, 131-132, 133 in nondestructive testing, 17-18 public demands for, with radiation, 208, 210-211 safety equipment, in liquid penetrant test areas, 131-132 safety factor, modern reductions in, 3-4 sampling, sand inclusions, 234 saturation eddy current technique, 248, 265, 268 scabs, 304 scaling of digital image, 59 scanning radiometers, 183-184 scanning radiometry, 188 scattered radiation compton scattering, 202 image quality and, 219, 220 in reverse geometry radiography, 225-226 shielding for, 210-211 techniques for reduction of, 219 scattering of ultrasonic beam, 337-338 backscattering techniques, 360-362 scholte wave, 325 scintillation counters, 213 seams, 301, 303 See also weld seams in pipe, B-scan imaging of, 359 in rolled metal, 77, 302, 303 search unit, ultrasonic, 314-315 secondary colors, 50 secondary processing discontinuities, 83-84, 301, 305-306 sectorial scanning, ultrasonic, 371, 372-373 seebeck technique See thermoelectric technique segregation, in cast ingots, 75, 77 selenium-75, 207 self-emulsifiable liquid penetrants See water washable liquid penetrants sensitivity See also leak test sensitivity acoustic emission testing, 420 eddy current probes, 257 liquid penetrant testing, 101, 107, 108, 109, 110, 120 remote field testing, 248 sensitometric curves, 222-223 separations, 4, See also delaminations service companies, 13, 14 service-related discontinuities in metals, 8486, 301, 306-307 shadow measurement technique, 72, 73-74 shadows, and discontinuity detectability, 65 shear strain, optical measurement, 509, 510 shear waves See transverse plane waves shearography, 473-490 advantages, 478-479 calibration, 484 camera focusing, 483-484 field of view, 481-483 fixturing of test object, 481 introduction to, 474 limitations, 479 measured variables in, 474-475 partial vacuum, 475, 487-488 pressure loading for, 475, 484-485, 488 reference standards, 481, 482-483, 485 signal-to-noise measurement in, 475 steps in setup for, 481 stress loading techniques, 474, 475, 484-485, 486-489 systems for, 475-478 thermal, 475, 482, 484-485, 486-487 training and certification for, 474 vibration loading for, 475, 489 shielding, radiation, 210-211 image quality and, 219 ships, fractured crankshaft, ultrasonic testing, 44 shrinkage, in castings, 234 shrinkage cracks, in castings, 304 SI (International System of Units), 19, 20 sievert, 26-27, 209 signal enhancement, in nondestructive testing, 262 signal processing in acoustic emission testing, 419 in eddy current testing, 260-262 in nondestructive testing, 262 of pulse echo ultrasound signal, 330331, 408-409 in vibration analysis, 463 signal-to-noise ratio, 259, 260, 262 in shearography, 475 signature analysis, 5, silica aerogel, impedance of, 402 silicon carbide abrasive wheels, ultrasonic crack detection, 365-366 size reduction, stress increase due to, 3, skin effect, 264, 293, 294 slabs, 302, 303 Index 589 slag inclusions in welds, 79, 82 radiography of, 238 slag removal in weld inspection, 90, 91 in welding, 89, 426 slivers, in rolled steel, 80 smart pigs, 307-308 smeared metal, etched for liquid penetrant testing, 97, 104 smoke bombs, in leak testing, 165 snellen chart, 53 snellen fraction, 52 snellen letters, 54 snellen near point chart, 54 Snell’s law, 323-324, 341, 356 SNT-TC-1A See Recommended Practice No SNT-TC-1A solid angle, units of, 19 solid state bonding, noise due to, 428 solidification cracking, in welds, 79, 81 solvent removable liquid penetrant process, 99, 100, 106-107, 109 advantages in the field, 128-129 sorting applications See alloy identification sound See also acoustic emission; ultrasonic wave propagation attenuation in air, 400-401 propagation in air, 400-401 spark testing of alloys, 499 of geosynthetic membrane, 171 special process, 16 specifications angle beam immersion ultrasonic testing, 359 infrared and thermal testing, 176-177 leak testing, 141-143, 144 liquid penetrant testing, 125-126 metal materials, 492 nondestructive testing, 15-17 ultrasonic testing, 314-315 spectral radiance, 183 spectral radiators, 181 spectrometry optical emission, 495-496 X-ray fluorescence, 494 spectroscopy, ultrasonic, 408-409 spectrum, electromagnetic, 5, 7, 49, 179, 200 spectrum, vibrational, 458, 461-463, 465-466 specular reflection, 49 spherical porosity, in welds, 80 spherical pressure vessels, acoustic emission testing, 439-446 sponge shrinkage, in castings, 234, 235 stainless steel radiographic mottling, 237 stress corrosion cracks, 386, 387 standard temperature and pressure, 24 standards See also reference standards acoustic emission testing, 447 nondestructive testing, 15, 16, 17 standoff See delay line, at ultrasonic transducer starring arrays, 184 static leak testing, 148, 150 steam generator tubing, 267 steel mills, moving electromagnetic acoustic transducers in, 395-396 590 Nondestructive Testing Overview steel reinforcement bridge deck, 270 bridge structures, 450 steel welds, radiography of incomplete penetration, 237, 238 lack of fusion, 237, 238 porosity, 237-238, 239 steels See also austenitic steels; carbon steel; ferromagnetic materials acceptance/rejection specifications, 301 in bridges, 450 discontinuities, 301-304 eddy current testing, 264 free machining, 302 gas voids in, 234 grain size, 337, 387-388 inspection for discontinuities, 75 magnetic hysteresis, 290-291, 292 magnetic testing, 274 martensitic transformation, acoustic emission from, 427 production of, 302 in reinforced concrete, corrosion, 450, 451-453 ultrasonic testing, 337, 338 ultrasonic testing at high temperature, 394 ultrasonic testing for fatigue cracks, 369 X-ray film radiography, 221, 222 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 180-181, 182 step heating thermography, 191, 193, 194 stereo measurement, 72-73, 74 stereoscopic microscopes, 66 sticker (underwelded spot weld), 428 stonely waves, 376 storage tanks See also fuel tanks aboveground floors of, 308, 433-434 electromagnetic acoustic transducer testing, 395 fiberglass, acoustic emission testing, 422 petrochemical, leak testing, 171-172 straightening cracks, 84, 305 strain gage transducers, 503 strain measurement applications, 508, 509-511 fiber optic sensors, 512 introduction to, 502-503 photoelastic stress analysis, 502, 506 resistance gages, 502-506, 508 three-dimensional image correlation, 507-511 stress, 5, acoustic emissions associated with, 1112, 418, 422 bond strength and, 406 calculated from strain gage measurement, 505 defined, 502 in metals, ultrasonic measurements of, 398 modern demands on machines and, 3-4 overstress cracking, 301, 306 units of, 22 stress analysis, 502, 503 stress corrosion cracking, 85, 307 hydrogen assisted, 441 laser ultrasonic detection, 386, 387 of pressure vessels, 439 stress loading techniques, in shearography, 474, 475, 484-485, 486-489 stress wave factor, for ultrasound in composites, 366 stress waves See acoustic emission stringers, in rolled metal, 77, 302 Structural Welding Code, 78 structure, 4-5, subject contrast, in radiographic imaging, 218-219 subsurface discontinuities in metals, 275, 280, 284, 293, 299 subsurface media, microwave testing of, 249 super video graphics array, 58 surface methods of nondestructive testing, surface waves See rayleigh (surface acoustic) waves synchronous vibration, 465, 466, 467 synthetic aperture focusing technique, 363 system contrast, in radiographic imaging, 218 T T joint, 88 radiography of, 236 tandem transducer technique, ultrasonic, 365-366 tanks See fuel tanks; storage tanks tap testing of adhesive bonds, 406-407 task lighting, 65 techniques of nondestructive testing, 2-3 selection of, 15 telemetric instrument, 70 telephoto lens, 57 temperature basic concept of, 179 measurement with electromagnetic acoustic transducer, 394 units of, 25, 179 temperature changes in thermography, 184-186 apparent, 185 interpretation of, 186 real causes of, 185-186 temperature indicating media, 179-180, 187 tenth value layer (TVL), of lead and concrete, 210-211 tesla (T), 27, 28, 290 test procedures, 14-15 test specifications, 15-17 See also specifications thermal capacitance, 185 thermal concepts, 179-183 thermal conductance, 25 thermal conductivity, 25 thermal conductivity leak testing, 166 thermal detectors, 184 thermal leak testing techniques, 165-166, 196, 197 thermal resistance, 25 thermal shearography, 475, 482, 484-485, 486-487 thermal testing See infrared and thermal testing; infrared thermography thermocouples, 184 thermoelastic waves See laser ultrasonics thermoelectric technique, 493, 494, 498 thermograms, 178, 183 thermography, 179-180 See also infrared and thermal testing; infrared thermography thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs), 213-214 thermopiles, 184 thermosensitive indicators, 179-180, 187 thickness gages, ultrasonic, 403-404 thickness impedance curve, 245 thickness measurement of coatings, 260, 268, 269 thickness testing, ultrasonic, 314 with electromagnetic acoustic transducer, 391-392 gages for, 403-404 laser techniques for, 385 with through-transmission technique, 328, 364 with two transducers, 368 three-dimensional image correlation, 507-511 three-dimensional reconstruction computed tomographic, 229 multiple-transducer ultrasonic, 369-370 three-phase full-wave direct current, in magnetic particle testing, 294-295 through-boundary techniques, through-transmission ultrasonic testing, 327-328, 363-364 of adhesive bonds, 408 with water jets, 350 thulium-170, 206, 207 TIF files, 58 time block of vibration, 458, 461 time delay interferometry, 384 time resolved infrared radiometry, 191 time-of-flight diffraction ultrasonic technique, 364-365, 369 hydrofluoric acid sphere application, 444 titanium alloys, aerospace applications, 268 tolerance standards, 68 See also precision tomography classical body scan, 227 computed, 227-229 tomosynthesis, 228 toxic substances, workplace safety with, 18 tracer gases, leak testing of calibrated leak, 144 categories of, 151 dye tracers, 164-165 halogen compounds, 158 leakage rate measurement with, 148-149 thermal conductivities of, 166 tracer probe leak testing methods, 146, 148, 151 with helium, 156 using thermal conductivity, 166 track etch imaging, 230, 231 transducer shoes, ultrasonic testing, 345-346 transducers See also piezoelectric transducers; probes; ultrasonic transducers in acoustic emission testing, 418, 419, 420, 423 load measuring, 503 in nondestructive testing, 256 strain gage, 503 for vibration analysis, 464 transmission factor, 21 transmissivity, 182 apparent temperature changes and, 185 transmit-receive technique, 257 transmittance, 21 transverse horizontal waves, 323, 325, 390, 392-393 transverse plane waves, 320, 321-322 See also ultrasonic wave propagation in angle beam ultrasonic testing, 341-342 reflection and transmission of, 323-325 travel time mode conversion, 369 trending analysis, 463, 466 triangulation, 72, 73 computed tomography and, 227 triboelectric technique, 499 tribology, infrared thermography in, 194-196 troland (Td), 21 tubes See also pipes tubes, electromagnetic testing See also remote field testing differential eddy current probe for, 254 electric power industry, 267, 268 normalized impedance diagram for, 256 petrochemical industry, 265, 266 steel, testing at production speeds, 264 tubes, heat exchanger, 248, 267, 268 tubes, seamless steel discontinuities, 396 thickness measurement, 385, 388, 392, 394 tubes, shearography of composites, 488 tubes, steam generator, 267 tubes, ultrasonic testing angle beam contact technique, 342 angle beam immersion technique, 356-359 composite materials, 353-355 electromagnetic acoustic transducer, 392, 395, 396 lamb waves in, 375 laser thickness gaging, 385, 388 seamless steel, thickness measurement, 385, 388, 392, 394 turbine blade, computed tomographic evaluation, 229 turbine disks, pitch catch ultrasonic testing, 364 turbines, wind, optical strain measurement, 510 TVL (tenth value layer), of lead and concrete, 210-211 U ultrasonic displacement optical mapping of, 385 on transducer, 28 ultrasonic leak detection, airborne, 163 ultrasonic leak testing, of geosynthetic membranes, 171 ultrasonic spectroscopy, of adhesive bonds, 408-409 ultrasonic testing, 5, 11, 313-414 See also composite materials, ultrasonic testing; electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT); phased array ultrasonic testing; pulse echo contact ultrasonic testing acoustic microscopes, 404 of adhesive bonds, 406-411 advantages, 314 angle beam contact testing, 334, 341-344 angle beam immersion testing, 356-362 A-scan, B-scan, and C-scan techniques, 326-327 See also specific techniques automated, 332-333, 405 backscattering technique, 360-362 beam attenuation by scattering in, 337-338 calibration, 316-319, 341, 342 categories of techniques, 314 continuous wave bond testers, 405 coupling media and techniques for, 345-348 frequencies used for, 315, 336-337 with guided waves, 375, 376-380, 394, 395 historic and historical works on, 42-44 immersion coupling for, 349-355 interpretation of, 315 limitations, 314 multiple-transducer techniques, 343, 363-370, 410-411 near field zone in, 335, 337, 346 optical (laser) techniques, 381-388 reliability, 315 selection of, 314 specifications, 314-315 standards, 315-316 surface preparation of test object, 347, 348 thickness gages, 403-404 through-transmission technique, 327-328, 350, 363-364, 408 units for, 28-29 ultrasonic testing, applications grain orientation, 387, 494 heat exchanger tubes, 248, 267, 268 high temperature, 346, 347 hydrofluoric acid sphere, 443, 444, 445 of laser techniques, 385-388 materials characterization, 387-388 offshore structures, 266 petrochemical industry, 266 of pulse echo contact techniques, 331-335 Index 591 ultrasonic testing reference standards See also calibration blocks for ultrasonic testing for longitudinal cracks in tubing, 357, 358 reference reflectors, 316-319, 334, 335, 339 ultrasonic transducers, 314-315 See also electromagnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT) air coupled, 400-402 in angle beam testing, 341 boot attachment to, 351 coupling media and techniques for, 345-348 dead zone of, 331, 368, 370 delay lines at, 346, 367, 403 diameter of, effects related to, 337 dual-element, 367-368 impedance matching layers of, 400, 402 to induce guided waves, 379 magnetostrictive, 375, 380 malfunction of, optical detection, 385 multiple, 343, 363-370, 410-411 in pulse echo mode, 329-330 ringing to couplant coated surface, 348 wheel type of, 350-351 ultrasonic wave attenuation measurement of, 388 by scattering, 337-338 ultrasonic wave propagation, 320-325 See also lamb waves; rayleigh (surface acoustic) waves; sound in anisotropic materials, 323, 325, 392-393 continuous wave phase comparison, 404-405 creeping waves, 368 dispersion in, 375, 377-379, 405, 410-411 guided, 375, 376-380 introduction to, 320 material properties and, 321-322 phase velocity versus group velocity, 377, 405 reflection and transmission of, 320, 321, 322-325 stress-induced velocity shift, 398 transverse horizontal waves, 323, 325, 390, 392-393 velocity measurements, laser-based, 387 wave modes in, 320-323 ultraviolet lamp dust accumulation in, 132 intensity checks of, 132 placement of, 123 ultraviolet radiation in liquid penetrant testing, 98, 111, 113, 121, 123, 128, 132 in magnetic particle testing, 298, 299 units of measurement, 22 unbonds, 406 See also adhesive bonds; disbonds 592 Nondestructive Testing Overview underbead cracking, of welds, 81 undercut, of welds, 79, 82-83, 90, 92, 93 underwater structures, 265-267 alternating current field measurement, 246 fatigue cracks in welds, 246 potential drop technique, 247 units of measure, 19-29 acoustic emission testing, 28-29 electromagnetic testing, 27-28 infrared and thermal testing, 24-25, 178 International System of (SI), 19, 20 leak testing, 22-24 liquid penetrant testing, 22-23, 133 magnetic testing, 28 radiation, 26-27, 208-210 radiographic testing, 25-27 ultrasonic testing, 28-29 visual testing, 20-21 unsharpness geometric, 216-217, 219, 220 of image detector, 219 object movement and, 220 V vacuum hard, 167 partial, in shearography, 475, 487-488 practical definition of, for leak testing, 137 ultrasonic testing in, 397-398 vacuum box See vacuum technique for bubble testing vacuum gage, 148, 149 vacuum systems, leak detection See also leak testing: of evacuated systems halogen technique, 161 thermal conductivity technique, 166 vacuum technique for bubble testing, 154, 155 of geosynthetic membranes, 170-171 valve blockage, infrared thermography of, 176 valve leakage flare gas valve, acoustic emission monitoring, 432, 433 infrared thermography, 176 velocity interferometry, 384, 385 velocity transducers, 464 vessels See fiberglass vessels and storage tanks, acoustic emission testing; pressure vessels vibration analysis, 457-471 basic procedure, 458-459 frequency range, 459 implementation, 464-469 interpretation of data, 465-466 summary, 470 theory, 460-463 transducers, 464 value of, 458 vibration analysis, applications antifriction bearing wear, 468 coupling wear, 467 gearing, 468-469 imbalance, 465, 466 misalignment, 465, 466-467 vibration holography, 478, 479, 489 vibration shearography, 475, 489 vibrational response, in optical strain studies, 510 vibrothermography, 192, 193, 194 video, 61 video borescopes, 69-70, 71-72 video cameras, in radioscopic imaging, 224, 225 video of computer display, 58 video probe, 69-70, 71-72 video radiometry, 188 video scope See video probe viewing angle borescope, 71 in direct visual testing, 63-64 virgin curve of ferromagnetic material, 290, 291, 292 viscosity, units of, 22-23, 133 visible dye liquid penetrants, 98 advantages, 108 contrast of indications, 121, 123 developers for, 117 examination of indications, 107, 108 in the field, 127, 128-129 selection of dye, 109 selection of method with, 109 vision acuity, 52 annual examination of, 16-17 digital photograph and, 62 vision acuity testing, 52-54 visual testing, 7-8, 47-94 See also digital photography; direct visual testing; eye; vision; indirect visual testing advantages, 48 of bridges, 450, 451 defined, 48 five basic elements of, 69 historic and historical works on, 33-35 introduction to, 48 limitations, 48 of metals, 75-86 selection of, 48 units for, 20-21 voids, See also gas cavities in aluminum welds; pipe, in castings; porosity in aluminum casting, 233 in bridge deck, 270 in composites, pressure shearography, 488 in composites, ultrasonic detection, 353 ground penetrating radar technique, 251-252 radiography of, 215, 233 volume, units of, 22, 24 volume computed tomography, 229 volumetric methods, W warping of ball grid array, 509-510 cracks caused by straightening of, 84, 305 by heat treatment, 84 simple visual test for, 48 water jet devices, 350, 353 water washable liquid penetrants, 98, 104105, 109, 110-113 waterfall display of spectral data, 462 wave propagation See ultrasonic wave propagation wave speed of light, 21, 25, 26 wave speed of ultrasonic waves, 320, 321-322 for guided versus bulk waves, 376 waveguides See guided acoustic emissions; guided ultrasonic waves wavelength, 21 color and, 50 of visible light, 49 wave speed and, 320 wavelet shrinkage denoising, 262 wavelet transform analysis of thermograms, 192 wear, 85-86 abrasive, 85, 301 of antifriction bearings, 468 coupling wear, 467 in used drill pipe, 309 of wire rope, 310 weber (Wb), 27, 28, 290 weight reduction, stress increase due to, 3, weld gages, 66, 67, 90 weld seams, halogen leak testing, 159 welding grounding and, 426 noise associated with, 426-427, 428 welds basic processes for forming, 89-90 complete penetration, 88 joint configurations with, 88-89 partial penetration, 88-89, 236, 237-238 terminology for, 89 welds, discontinuities, 78-83, 92-93, 304-305 classification of, 87 concavity, 91-92 dimensional, 87-88 hydrogen assisted stress corrosion cracking, 441 lack of fusion, 79, 81-82, 237, 238, 304-305 lack of penetration, 79, 82, 93, 304-305 overlap, 79, 83, 87-88, 92 radiography of, 237-239 underwater fatigue cracks, 246 ungraded conditions, 237, 238 welds, electromagnetic testing alternating current field measurement, 246 in marine environments, 246, 265-267 through paint on ferritic welds, 267 welds, liquid penetrant testing, 108 welds, radiographic testing, 237-239 partial penetration joint designs, 236, 237 plaque image quality indicator, 232 welds, ultrasonic testing angle beam technique, 342-343, 360 delta technique, 366-367 dual-element technique, 368 electromagnetic acoustic transducers, 392-393, 396, 397-398 multiple-transducer, 369 phased array, 373-374 time-of-flight diffraction, 365, 369 in vacuum, 397-398 welds, visual testing, 78, 88, 90-91 equipment for, 66-67, 90 specifications in drawings and, 90, 91 surface preparation for, 90-91 test conditions, 91 testing procedure, 91 wheatstone bridge circuit, 505-506 wheel transducers, 350-351 white balance camera setting, 59 white developer See developers, liquid penetrant Wien’s displacement law, 181 wind turbines, optical strain measurement, 510 wire image quality indicator, 232-233 wire rope, magnetic flux leakage testing, 309-310 wormhole, in weld, 80 X X-ray digital radiography, 223-224 X-ray exposure charts, 221-222 X-ray film radiography, 221-223 X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, 226, 495 X-ray sources electron linear accelerators, 204-205 generators, 203-204 microfocus, 205 radiation survey instruments for, 212-213 tubes, 200-201, 203-204 tubes for radioscopy, 224 X-ray spectra, 203 X-rays, 200 See also electromagnetic spectrum; radiographic testing attenuation of, 201-202 shielding thicknesses of lead and concrete, 210-211 Y yokes, magnetizing, 289 Z zoom, digital, 57 zoom, optical, 56-57 zoom cameras, 74 zoom lens, 55, 57, 58 Index 593 Figure Acknowledgments Chapter Chapter Figure — ASME International, New York, NY Figure — AMF Tuboscope, Houston, TX (A.E Crouch, 1985) Figures 11-13 — Source Production and Equipment Company, Saint Rose, LA Figure 12 — X-Rite, Grandville, MI Figure 14 — Thermo Eberline, Santa Fe, NM Figures 16-17 — Landauer, Glenwood, IL Figures 17-22, 24-26 — CareStream, Rochester, NY (Eastman Kodak, 1959, 1985, 2004) Figure 23 — Agfa Pantak Seifert, Ahrensburg, Germany Chapter Figures 1-4, — Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, NY Figures 15-18 — General Electric, Skaneateles Falls, NY Figure 25 — KD Marketing, Danaher Tool Group, Sparks, MD Figures 35-39 — General Electric, Skaneateles Falls, NY Figures 46-52 — American Iron and Steel Institute, Warrendale, PA Figures 57-58 — American Welding Society, Miami, FL Figures 59-70, 72-74 — Electric Power Research Institute, Charlotte, NC Chapter Figure 17 — Honeywell, Microswitch Division, Richardson, TX Chapter Figure 34 — Magnaflux Division of ITL, Glenview, IL (Magnaflux Corporation, Chicago, IL, 1986) Chapter Chapter 10 Figures 15-16, 21 — Chicago Bridge and Iron, Houston, TX (Charles N Sherlock, 1997) Figure 18 — UE Systems, Elmsford, NY Figure 19 — Spectronics, Westbury, NY Figure 20 — E Vernon Hill, Benicia, CA Figure 22 — Leak Location Services, San Antonio, TX Figures 20-21 — Boeing Aerospace, Seattle, WA (D.J Hagemaier, Douglas Aircraft, Long Beach, CA, 1991) Chapter Chapter 12 Figures 10-12 — Adapted from Elsevier Science Publishers, Oxford, United Kingdom (X.P.V Maldague, 2002) Figure 21 — Rexnord Industries, Milwaukee, WI Chapter 11 Figure 13 — ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA Chapter 14 Figures 2-3, — ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA (1995) 594 Nondestructive Testing Overview e R d a e M NDT Handbook CD-ROM User Instructions User Instructions for this CD-ROM This CD-ROM publication reproduces a volume of 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