MIXED METHODS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Mixed Methods in Ethnographic Research: Historical Perspectives captures the dynamic history and development of mixed methods research in a narrative of personal discovery, growth, and experience Distinguished ethnographer and methodologist Pertti Pelto, who first called for the integration of qualitative and quantitative research methods nearly half a century ago, establishes a direct line between the earliest examples of ethnographic research and the ongoing mixed method discussions in academic institutions throughout the world By bringing together such distinct historical perspectives with his own reflections on mixed methods research, Pelto offers a rare and endlessly enriching account that will satisfy the ever-growing need for a better quality of practical data gathering and give researchers a foundation for promoting mixed methods in the future Pertti J (Bert) Pelto, Ph.D., is Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut, where he played a major role in developing the program in applied medical anthropology He has also served as a consultant for many international health organizations, providing training in mixed methods ethnographic research for community-based applied projects Best known for his groundbreaking book on research methods (Anthropological Research: The Structure of Inquiry, 1970), Professor Pelto was recently (2016) honored by the Society for Applied Anthropology with the establishment of the biennial “Pertti Pelto International Travel Award,” in recognition of his contributions to training in applied field research methods in international contexts DEVELOPING QUALITATIVE INQUIRY Series Editor: Janice Morse University of Utah Books in the Developing Qualitative Inquiry series, written by leaders in qualitative inquiry, address important topics in qualitative methods Targeted to a broad multi-disciplinary readership, the books are intended for mid-level to advanced researchers and advanced students The series forwards the field of qualitative inquiry by describing new methods or developing particular aspects of established methods Other volumes in this series include: Engaging in Narrative Inquiry D Jean Clandinin Engaging in Narrative Inquiries with Children and Youth D Jean Clandinin,Vera Caine, Sean Lessard, Janice Huber Interpretive Description Qualitative Research for Applied Practice, 2nd Edition Sally Thorne Qualitative Ethics in Practice Martin Tolich For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com MIXED METHODS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Historical Perspectives Pertti J Pelto First published 2017 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Taylor & Francis The right of Pertti J Pelto to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record has been requested ISBN: 978-1-62958-206-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-62958-207-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-31522-882-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by diacriTech, Chennai CONTENTS Prefacexiii Acknowledgementsxix Mixed Methods Research in Ethnography, Qualitative and Quantitative1 Ethnography in Earlier Centuries Al-Biruni: A Remarkable Ethnographer 1000 Years Ago Bernardino de Sahagun (1499–1590) Applied Ethnographic Field Work, Cultural Patterns, and Research Methods 7 Applied Field Research: Many Disciplines, Many Players The Histories of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs Are Different in Applied Field Research as Compared to Patterns of Study in Academic Disciplines 10 Disillusionment with Quantitative Surveys 11 The New Interest in “Mixed Methods” in the Social Sciences 12 Conclusions 14 References 16 Mixed Methods in Nineteenth-Century Ethnography 18 A J Sjögren:The First Notable Finnish Linguist–Ethnographer 20 Mathias A Castren 20 Other Nineteenth-Century Finnish Ethnographer–Linguists 24 Vladimir Bogoraz (Waldemar Bogoras): Russian Ethnographer/Linguist/ Revolutionary 27 vi Contents Franz Boas: Promoter of Mixed Methods in North America 29 Concluding Comments 35 References 35 The Developing Discourse of Mixed Methods Research The QUAL versus QUAN Paradigm Debates 38 Many Problems in the Current Mixed Methods “Paradigm Concepts” 42 How Did Qualitative Data Gathering Gain Acceptance in Quantitative-Dominated Research Areas? 44 A New Wave of Mixed Methods 45 QUAN + qual, QUAL → quan: Let’s Get on with the Fun 46 More Complex, Multiple Methods Mixtures (MMM) 47 QUAL + quan and QUAL → quan Designs Are Very Common 48 The Traditions of Publishing Make a Big Difference for Mixing of Methods 50 Summary and Conclusions 51 References 51 37 Culture and Personality Studies: Plenty of Mixed Methods 53 Life in a Mexican Village: A Study by Oscar Lewis and Associates 55 Personality Formation among the Navajo People 59 Acculturation and Culture/Personality Studies 60 Use of Projective Tests in Ethnographic Research 61 The “Newer” Culture and Personality Studies 63 The Instrumental Activities Inventory (Spindler and Spindler) 64 Acculturation, Self-Identification and Personality Adjustment in an Inuit Village 66 Analysis of the Data 67 Farmers and Herdsmen in East Africa: Effects of Ecological Factors on Values, Attitudes, and Psychological Characteristics 68 Quantitative Scale from “Full-Scale Farming to Full-Scale Herding” 70 Discussion and Conclusions 70 References 72 Large Multi-Year, Multi-Site, Multi-Disciplinary Research Projects74 The Hawthorne Study: Mixed Methods in an Early Applied Project 74 Yankee City Series:Volume IV “The Strike: A Social Analysis” 77 The Big Strike 79 Contents vii The Great Mix of Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative 82 The Ethnic Groups in Yankee City 83 “Yankee City” in Historical Perspective: Criticisms and Credits 84 “Public Health as a Career in Medicine”: Another Large-Scale Study 86 Summary and Conclusions 89 References 91 Ecosystems Theory, Adaptation, and New Directions in Research 92 An Early Applied Study of Upgrading Navajo Economy and Health 93 Massive Environmental Change: Ecosystem Effects of a Dam Project 96 Commentary 100 Pigs for the Ancestors: A Focus on Ritual as Ecological Regulator 101 Quantitative Data 102 Qualitative Data: Ethnography of Ritual 102 Discussion and Criticism Sparked by Pigs for the Ancestors 104 Structural Change in Northern Thai Rice Villages 106 Sarmela’s English Language Summary 107 Focus on Agricultural Adaptations in Rural Mexico 109 Discussion and Conclusions 111 References 114 Medical Anthropology and Mixed Methods Research 115 Another Epidemic: Diphtheria Immunization in Thailand 117 Sorcery and Medicine in the Philippines 119 The Sociology of an Indian Hospital Ward 121 The Complex Varieties of Academic and Applied Medical Anthropology 123 Biological and Cultural Adaptations:The Ecological Framework 125 Anthropology and Mental Health: Psychosis in East Africa 126 Long-Term Multidisciplinary Research in Selected Study Populations 128 Multiple Research Methods in Complex Ethnography:West Africa 129 An Unusual Category: Combining Ethnography and Quantitative Experiment 131 Intervention: Development and Testing of a Model MCE Program 132 Conclusion 134 References 135 QUAL + qual and QUAL → qual Studies: Common Practices in Ethnography137 Coming of Age in Samoa 1928: Margaret Mead’s Seminal Study 139 A Famous QUAL + QUAL → qual Study: Street Corner Society 142 Getting Started, Learning Field Research 142 viii Contents Components of the Research Methods 143 “Doc,” the Most Famous “Key Informant” in Field Research Literature 144 Sub-Project: Mapping the Social Interactions at the Club 145 Other Examples of Mixed Methods in QUAL Research: Mixed Methods in Linguistic Research 146 QUAL → qual Triangulation 147 James P Spradley: “Grand Tour Interviews” and Other Special Methods 148 Extensive Participation: Sometimes It Is a “Supplemental Method” 150 Concluding Comments 151 References 152 The Development of Quantitative Methods in Ethnographic Research153 British Ethnographers Started Doing Surveys Early in the Twentieth Century 154 An “Experiment” with Survey Research Methods in Africa 157 More Specialized Survey Research “Experiments” 159 Small-Scale Surveys: Other Variations on the Survey Model(s) 161 A Different Kind of Mixed Methods Research: Cultural Analysis of P-3 Pilot Error 161 The Study of High Concordance Domains 164 High versus Low Concordance Domains, and Sampling 165 “Tight” and “Loose” Societies 167 Cultural Consensus and Sample Sizes 168 Cultural Data, Key Informants, and Concordance 169 Summary and Conclusions 170 References 172 10 Food, Diet, and Nutrition Studies 174 Studies of Food Distribution and Dietary Behaviors 174 Pilaga Food Distribution 176 Diet and Hunger in Northern Rhodesia 178 Hunger Months 180 The Monograph as a Classic Mixed Methods Study of Food and Nutrition 181 Diet in the Mexican Town of Tepoztlan 181 A Diet and Nutrition Intervention in South Africa 183 Nutritional Anthropology: Interdisciplinary Mixed Methods Research 186 Contents ix New Achievements in Mixed Methods Diet and Nutrition Studies 187 Research on Vitamin A Deficiency: A Multi-Site, Interdisciplinary Study 192 Hypothetical Scenarios for Getting Data on Night-Blindness and Other Symptoms 193 Multi-Year, Multi-Disciplinary Mixed Methods Study in Central Mexico 194 Major Finding: “Small Is Not Healthy and Happy” 196 Summary and Conclusions 197 References 198 11 The Rise of Community Studies and Ecological Theory: Paradigm Transitions in Finland 200 Hilma N Granqvist: Ethnographic Study of a Palestinian Village, 1925–1931 201 Research in Lapland: Kalle Nickul’s “Discovery” of the Skolt Saami Community 204 Mapping and Other Mixed Methods Research in Suenjel (Kola Peninsula) 205 Kai Donner: Another “Early Modern” Contributor to Paradigm Change 210 Community Studies and Ecological Frameworks: Later Trends in the Twentieth Century 211 Adaptive Strategies in the Åland Islands 213 Community Studies and Ecological Theory in More Recent Finnish Ethnographic Research 214 Concluding Discussion 215 References 215 12 My Explorations in QUAL + quan Research Methodology Doctoral Dissertation Research in Finnish Lapland 218 The Upper Mississippi Research Project 222 Thinking about Research Methods 224 Thinking about Different Kinds of Societies 225 The Snowmobile Revolution:Technology and Social Change 226 Technology and Delocalization 228 Notes on Methodology 230 Varieties of Delocalization: Food and Diet 233 Conclusions: More Recent Developments 235 References 236 218 Two “Histories” of Mixed Methods Research 321 some very old folk wisdom The experienced hunter has more than one type of arrow in his quiver—because there are several different types of potential game The experienced ethnographer has, across the centuries, discovered that every interesting community or special social grouping has many different cultural/ social features, which often require different data-gathering strategies in order to get close to the cultural realities We can get some of the “big picture” from those wonderful, really knowledgeable, key informants The “touristic” data gatherers that Robert Chambers referred to undoubtedly got some interesting information But lurking behind the “general picture,” the experienced ethnographer has always sensed that there were a great many more complex issues and special groups with special activities and somewhat different cultural patterns and relationships to the general social scene In my own ethnographic experience, that first startling revelation was that there was a very large difference between the reindeer herding and management patterns of the small-scale reindeer keepers in forested areas of Suonikylä Skolt Saami, and the families in the open uplands with large herds In many research experiences, ethnographers have seen such revelations as reasons for developing new, innovative data gathering, in order to get detailed information about a previously unexplained cultural feature In much ethnographic research, the very first reason for mixed methods is triangulation, in order to cross-check and be assured that the data are valid and robust The second point, however, is the need to get data from multiple different kinds of subgroups, in which the patterns of activities, and the researcher’s access to them, can easily call for different methodologies In a great many studies concerning health issues and health facilities, for example, there is the need to explore health and illness in family contexts, plus individual experiences; but the data gathering from health providers and clinical and hospital facilities usually requires different methodological approaches Similar contrasts between different research settings are common in school-based education research Data gathering in the school setting is very different from the ways of getting useful descriptive and quantitative information from the school children’s families The main points that I have dealt with in this work are these: Mixed methods of research—the utilization of different data-gathering operations within projects—has a very long and many-sided history That means that some of the language in the MM literature about the recent “invention” of mixed methods seems rather lacking in credibility As Maxwell and other writers have pointed out, there have been mixed methods in many or most fields of natural history research, beginning several centuries ago With some exceptions, the mixed methods research in earlier centuries of ethnographic work has generally involved the mixing of several different 322 Two “Histories” of Mixed Methods Research QUAL approaches, particularly mapping, gathering of cultural and social “customs,” and linguistic analysis My discussions in this book have focused mainly on the slow, steady increases in quantitative methods added into the mixtures of QUAL data-gathering foundations of ethnographic and related areas of social sciences research The ways in which various quantitative methods have come into the QUAL realm represent many different pathways I have emphasized the prominence of applied research in issues of health and nutrition, in which the professional researchers from biological, medical, and related fields increasingly teamed up with ethnographic social scientists, in order to strengthen the usefulness and credibility of research results through the mixing of QUAN and QUAL processes, frameworks, and data analysis approaches Whereas the long history of MM from the ethnographic (field research) perspective is mainly the story of gradual increases in quantitative methods in the predominantly qualitative realm of ethnography, the most recent developments, giving rise to explicit use of the term “mixed methods,” is the process in the opposite direction—gradual adoption of increased qualitative approaches in research communities that had been predominantly QUAN-oriented In this chapter I have touched on the fact that there seems to be considerable mythology (misconceptions) in recent writing concerning the nature and contents of the so-called “qualitative” and “quantitative” paradigms There seems to be plenty of room for much more research and review of those concepts and their role in relation to the design and execution of study projects My focus throughout this discussion has been mainly on what I have called “applied ethnographic” (social sciences) research The contrasts between “applied” and “not applied” are a cloudy area, which could be a fertile area for some rethinking It appears, from recent discussions and publications, that the explorations in the realm of mixed methods present a wide-open field of intellectual work In future work, it will be useful to clear up some misconceptions, define more carefully some of the terminology, and also explore more widely the full range of different types of mixed methods that are to be found in the diverse realms of scientific research Concluding Note It is useful to consider that there are “Two Histories of Mixed Methods” in ethnographic and related social science research This book has been primarily devoted to reviewing and understanding some of the dynamics of the long history of mixed methods in ethnographic studies, that began in earlier centuries, but Two “Histories” of Mixed Methods Research 323 developed special features beginning early in the twentieth century Those special features included the slowly increasing experiments with quantitative additions to the earlier, primarily qualitative structuring of applied ethnographic research The “Second History” deals with the past 30 or 40 years, during which the main developments have been the “rediscovery” of the usefulness of qualitative methods in areas of study where quantitative methods had dominated the research designs Although some of these recent developments have included QUAL + quan designs, this recent history is largely QUAN + qual (and QUAN ® qual) in most of the data operations We can anticipate that there will be very interesting new developments in the mixing of methodologies in ensuing years, in part promoted by further developments in the technological realms of computerized data processing, and also arising from new data operations developed by creative social science researchers References Allen , L., J R Backstrand, A Chavez & G H Pelto (1992) People Cannot Live by Tortillas Alone: The Results of the Mexico Nutrition CRSP Final Report to the U.S Agency for International Development University of Connecticut and Instituto Nacional de la Nutricion Salvador Zubiran (Unpublished report, 290 pages) Boone, M S & J J Wood (1992) Computer Applications for Anthropologists Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Brewer, J & A Hunter (1989) Multimethod Research: A Synthesis of Styles Newbury Park, CA: Sage Campbell, D & D W Fiske (1959) Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix Psychological Bulletin 5:3–52 Cassel, J (1955) A comprehensive health program among South African Zulus In Health, Culture and Community: Case Studies of Public Reactions to Health Programs, edited by B D. Paul, 15–42 New York: Russell Sage Cernea, M M (1992) Re-tooling in applied social investigation for development planning: Some methodological issues In RAP, Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes, edited by N S Scrimshaw & G R Gleason, 11–24 Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC) Chambers, R (1992) Rapid but relaxed participatory rural appraisal: Towards applications in health and nutrition In RAP, Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes, edited by N S Scrimshaw & G R Gleason, 295–305 Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC) Chambers, R (1997) Whose Reality Counts? Putting the First Last London: Intermediate Technology Publications Choudhuri, P (2006) Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Experiences of Women in the Health Sector New Delhi: Population Council Health and Population Innovation Fellowship Programme Working Paper No Colson, E (1954) The intensive study of small sample communities In Method and Perspective in Anthropology: Papers in Honor of Wilson D Wallis, edited by R F Spencer, 43–59 Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 324 Two “Histories” of Mixed Methods Research Creswell, J.W, M D Fetters & N.V Ivankova (2004) Designing a mixed methods study in primary care Annals of Family Medicine 2(1):7–12 de Souza, H G & J P Grant (1992) Preface In RAP, Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes, edited by N S Scrimshaw & G R Gleason Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC) Gove, S & G H Pelto (1994) Focused ethnographic studies in the WHO programme for control of acute respiratory infections Medical Anthropology 15(4):409–424 Hammersley, M (1992) What’s Wrong with Ethnography? London and New York: Routledge Kluckhohn, C & D Leighton (1946; revised edition 1962) The Navaho Garden City, NY: The American Museum of Natural History & Anchor Books, Doubleday Kuhnlein, H.V & G H Pelto, editors (1997) Culture, Environment, and Food to Prevent Vitamin A Deficiency Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries Kuhnlein, H.V., P J Pelto, G H Pelto & members of IUNS Committee (1997) Theory and process: The methods In Culture, Environment, and Food to Prevent Vitamin A Deficiency, edited by H V Kuhnlein & G H Pelto, 35–51 Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries Kunitz, S L & J E Levy (1981) Navajos In Ethnicity and Medical Care, edited by A. Harwood, 337–396 Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press LeCompte, M D & J J Schensul (1999) Designing and Conducting Ethnographic Research Volume of Ethnographer’s Toolkit Walnut Creek, London, and New Delhi: AltaMira Lewis, J & B Gebrian (2009) No family left behind: The example of community-based pneumonia care in Haiti Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 20:22–30 Maxwell, J A (2015) Expanding the history and range of mixed methods research Journal of Mixed Methods Research 9(1):1–16 Maxwell, J A & D Loomis (2003) Mixed methods design: An alternative approach In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research, edited by A Tashakkori & C Teddlie, 241–272 Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Mitchell, J C (1967) On quantification in social anthropology In The Craft of Social Anthropology, edited by A L Epstein, 17–46 London, New York, Sydney and Toronto: Tavistock Publications Morse, J M & L Niehaus (2009) Mixed Method Design: Principles and Procedures Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press Müller-Wille, L (2014) The Franz Boas Enigma Montreal: Baraka Books Pelto, P J (1970) Anthropological Research:The Structure of Inquiry New York: Harper & Row Pelto, G H & M Armar-Klemensu (2011) Balancing nurturance, cost and time: Complementary feeding in Accra, Ghana Maternal and Child Nutrition 7(Supplement 3): 66–81 Platt, J R (1966) The Step to Man New York and London: John Wiley & Sons Richards, A (1939) Land, Labour and Diet in Northern Rhodesia: An Economic Study of the Bemba Tribe Oxford: International African Institute by Oxford University Press Scrimshaw, N S & G R Gleason, editors (1992) RAP, Rapid Assessment Procedures: Qualitative Methodologies for Planning and Evaluation of Health Related Programmes Boston: International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC) Teddlie, C & A Tashakkori (2009) Foundations of Mixed Methods Research: Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches in the Social and Behavioral Sciences.London: Sage Trotter, R T (1992) Ethnographic data management: A model from a dispersed multi-ethnographer project In Computer Applications for Anthropologists, edited by M S Boone & J J Wood, 51–52 Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing INDEX abduction 49 (see also methodology, inductive, deductive) Abel, Theodora M 56 Åbo Akademi University (Finland) 201 abortion 289, 294-95 Abortion Assessment Project India 295 Abortion in Asia: Local Dilemmas, Global Politics 294 About Quantitative Study of Traditional Materials 214 Abron people (West Africa) 112 acculturation 60-1, 66, 174, 306; methodological definition 224 acculturation and personality studies 66-71 Acta Sociologica 203 acute respiratory infections (ARI) 317 adaptation: and ecological framework 125-126; and ecosystems theory 92-114; strategies 213-14; and technology 228-30 Adaptation in Cultural Evolution: An Approach to Medical Anthropology 112-14 Aeron, A 284 Africa xvi, 11, 45, 92-106, 156-7 (see also East and West Africa) Aga Khan Foundation 296 Agar, Michael 149 Ahlquist, August 24-5 Ahmad, Qeyamuddin 3-6 Ahrensburg, Conrad 86, 142-43 Åland Islands 213 Alaska 71, 253-55 Al-Biruni xiv, 3-7, 296, 302, 306 Alland, Alexander 112-13, 125-6 Allen, Lindsay 195-6, 198 American Anthropological Association 186-7; 224, 226 American Ethnologist 226 American Public Health Association 86 American Sociological Review 90 Anishinaabe 255-7 (see also Ojibwe) Annual Review of Anthropology 245 Anthropological Research:The Structure of Inquiry 1, 38, 221 anthropology (see also culture and personality): applied 7, 13, 45, 74-83, 93, 115, 125, 259, 273-9, 297-305, 314-20; and business 10, 14, 77; cultural 47, 104, 125, 161; industrial 74 medical 112-34, 186-7, 307; and mental health 126-33, 222; nutritional 123, 186-96; physical 30-4, 123, 221; and publishing 50; quantitative methods in 33-4, 134, 156 Anthropology Today 60-1; 116 anthropometric data 33-4; 195, 198, 209-10 Anttila,Veikko 211-12, 215 Arensberg, Conrad 86, 142-3 ARI see acute respiratory infection Armar-Klemensu, M 317 Armelagos, George 124 ARTH (Action Research and Training for Health) India 269 autonomy: and personality 66, 87; local 229 326 Index auxiliary nurse midwives (ANMs) 274-5 Aziz, K M A 299 Aztecs 5-6 Bryman, A 273 Bunzel, Ruth 2, 5, 27-8 BWOR Experiment 75-6 Baba, Marietta 10, 75-7 Babbie 153 Back, Kurt W 90 Baffin Island 29, 148 (see also Inuit) Bang, Drs Abhay and Rani 269, 279-80, 296 Bangalore Omayavara Seva Coota (BOSCO) 287 Bangladesh, research in viii, xvii, xx, 9, 160, 283-5, 295-7 Banton, Michael 212 Barge, Sandhya 275-6, 295 Bariba people (West Africa) 130 Baroda (Vadodara) India 268-72, 280 Baroda Citizen’s Council 269 Barth, Frederick 213 Batchelder, W.H 171 behavior: data gathering on 105, 245; dietary 174; sexual 287; social 112, 125 Bemba people (Zimbabwe) diet 178-80, 233 Benin, West Africa 129 Bennett, John W 92, 104-5, 109-11 Bentley, Margaret (Peggy) 268-9 Bernard, H Russell xx, 32, 48, 85-6, 107, 148, 231, 235-6, 245-6, 253, 265 Bhattacharya, Jogendranath 299 Bhattacharya, Susmita 282-3, 290-1 Bhattacharya, Sutapa 282 bias, Western 64 Biennial Review of Anthropology (Stanford) 117, 224 Bihar 4, BITNET 320 (see also computer) Blaikie, Norman 262-3 Blood people (Canada) 64-6, 306 Blum, Lauren 193 Boas, Franz xiv-xv, 7, 28-35, 139-40, 148, 231, 302-3 Boas Anniversary Volume 303 Bogoraz,Vladimir (Waldemar Bogoras) 27 Bolivia 258 Boone, Margaret 319 Borgatti, S 33 BOSCO Foundation 287-8 breastfeeding Brent, J J 13 Brewer, John 313 Brim, John 235 “Brothels and Brothel Clients in Pune City” 290 Calabresi, R A 55-7 Campbell, Donald T 53, 242-5, 254-5, 260, 264-5, 320 Canadian Arctic 232 Cannell, C F 246 Caribbean Family Planning Survey 160 Cassel, John xvi, 115, 183-6, 197-8, 307 Castren, Mathias A 1, 19-27, 210-11, 302 Caudill, William 68, 116-17 CBO (community-based organizations) 9, 293 Cebu City (Philippines) 119-21 Cebuano Sorcery: Malign Magic in the Philippines 119-21 census card (British Ethnography) 157-9, 250-1, 304 Centre for Health Education Training and Nutritional Awareness (CHETNA) Gujarat 269 Centre for Operations Research and Training (CORT) 275 Cernea, Michael 314-15 Chambers Robert 150, 315-16, 321 Chance, Norman xix, 47, 66-8, 71 Chappat, Janine 59 Chapple, Elliot 86, 142 Chicago Medical Center 131 Chick, Garry E 161 Child, Irvin 53 Child in Need Institute (CINI) 283 childbirth: Fiji 48; India 8, 294; traditional vs modern 130-1 Chile 115 China: cholera epidemic 115-17; nutrition study 192-4 chi-square analysis 68, 108, 221 “Cholera Epidemic in a Chinese Town” 115-17 Choudhuri, Paramita 308-9 Christian Protestant Mission 121 chronic energy deficiency 195 Chukchee people (Siberia) 27-8 class structure:Yankee City 85 classification of error 161-6, 169, 225 Clinical Research Center (Kentucky) 149 cluster analysis 33, 162-4 (see also pile sorting) Codere, Helen 33 “cognitive theory of cultural meaning” 256 Index 327 Collaborative Research Support Program (CRSP) 194-7, 307 colonial powers 11, 21, 96-107, 178 Colson, Elizabeth 96-112, 154-9 Columbus, Christopher Coming of Age in Samoa 139-42 “Coming Revolutions: Methods for Rural Development Research” 44 Committee of Industrial Physiology (Harvard) 86 community development 92 community health xi; Bangladesh 9, 134, 268-9, 280; South Asia 37; North America 45 community studies: mixed methods use in Åland Islands 213-14;Yankee City 77-89 community-based organizations (CBO) comparative method 200-4 Computer Bulletin Board System (CBBS) 320 computers xviii, 8, 14-15, 230-6, 270-4; research software 105, 318-20 concordance domains: high 146-7, 162-72; low 248 Consensus Modeling 111, 169, 256 constructivism 40, 45, 318 Cook, P H 62 Cook, Thomas 38-40, 43 core ethnographic method 7, 139, 151-2 Cornell Medical Index (CMI) 66-7 Cornell University 221, 225 Cornell University Field Project (India) 146 “Cornerville” 142-45, 151 (see also Street Corner Society) corporate structure 220-1 Council for Social Development (India) 282 Council on Nutritional Anthropology (CNA) 186 Creed-Kanashiro, H 194 Creswell, J W 42-3, 134, 153, 311 cultural competence 169, 256 cultural concordance 167-70 (see also tight and loose) cultural consensus 168-71; theory 255-7 cultural model 255-6 Culture and Ecology Project 68-70 culture and personality studies xv, 53-72, 78, 87, 134, 219-21, 224, 240, 243, 306-7 “Culture, Personality and Society” 60 D’Andrade, Roy 256 Darwin, Charles 43-4, 112 data analysis (see also triangulation): content 253, 308; mixed methods 225, 236, 255-73; quantitative 162, 164 data gathering (see also interviewing): card sorting 162-4; collection; 23, 27, 138, 195; dietary intake xvi, 105, 174-98, 233, 240; and error 84, 313; health 66, 93-113; HIV/AIDs 310-11; households 8, 110, 188, 205-11, 222-3, 230-5; linguistics 32; mapping 148, 231, 205; recording interviews 14, 146, 202, 230; self-monitoring cards 282 data gathering guidelines nutrition 192 Davis, W.G 106 de Souza, H G 314 deductive see methodology, paradigms Deepak Charitable Trust Baroda, India 269 delocalization 108, 228; food and diet 233-7 demographics 11, 105, 125, 155, 289 Denzin, Norman K 244, 255, 261, 264, 312 descriptive expansion, and mixed methods research designs 239-41 Dettwyler, Katherine 190-2 DeWalt, Billie R 109-11, 150 DeWalt, Kathleen M 150, 259 diabetes 255-7 Dictionary of Canadian Biography 31 Die Sürjänen ein historisch-statistischphilologischer Versuch 20 diet see nutrition diphtheria immunization 117-18 direct observation: of dietary behaviors xiv, 5, 24, 62, 75-7, 82, 138, 192, 236, 265; and psychological tests in anthropological fieldwork 62 “Disease in Ancient Nubia” 124 Doc (Street Corner Society) 144 Donner, Kai 210 Doob, Leonard 53 Driver, H E 214 Dubois, Cora 187 Duggal, R 295 East Africa: 68-71, psychosis in 126-7 ecological research models 113 ecological theory 96, 107-13, 200-17 The Ecological Transition: Cultural Anthropology and Human Adaptation 92, 104, 109, 213 “Ecology and Epidemiology of Disease” 124 economic exploitation 2, 11, 76-82 Economic Man theory 76 ecosystems theory 92-114 328 Index Edgerton, Robert 69-71 Edwards, W.F 1, 87 Eisenberg, Merrill 234 emic data 213 Encyclopedia Britannica 238, 241 environmental determinism 111 Epstein, A.L 156 Eskimo see Inuit Estlander, B 18-24 ethnic groups in Yankee City 83 ethnicity scale 131 Ethnographer’s Toolkit 313 The Ethnographic Interview 148 ethnographic research (see also Finnish ethnography): applied 7, 13-15, 305, 309-13, 322-3; British xvi, 21, 25, 154-8, 210; constructivist 42; definition 1-2; and geography 1-2, 7, 19, 29-30, 302-3; nineteenth century 7, 11, 15, 18-35, 111, 151, 166, 183, 197-201, 303; public health 115, 86-7, 90, 115-17, 124-5, 134, 183, 269, 280-5; quantitative xv-xvi, 8-12, 15, 32-4, 39-43 Ethnological Society (North America) 18 etic and emic perspectives 213-14 evolution of human behavior 112-13 factor analysis see consensus modeling family planning 160-1, 274-6, 294 farming 69-70, 106, 184, 234 Fetters, M D 311 field data reliability see triangulation field research: applied 7-15, 45, 74-7, 93, 113-17, 124-9, 187, 197, 259, 273-9, 282, 307-19; geographic 1, 2, 7, 14, 18-22, 29-30, 70, 201, 209, 297; linguistic xiv, 3, 18-29, 33, 138, 147, 152, 165-6, 200, 215, 302-3, 313 field research design 15 Finnish Ethnography xiv-xix, 1, 18-26, 29, 35, 106-8, 147, 200-20, 227, 233-4, 302 Finnish Literature Society 17-19, 211 Finno-Ugrian Society 25 Finno-Ugrian studies 19, 22 Finno-Ugric languages 33, 201, 215, 302 Firth, Raymond 156, 212 Fiske, Donald W 242-5, 254-5, 260, 264-5, 320 Fleuret, Anne 188-90 Florentine Codex 147-8, 151 focus group: discussions (FGD) 147-51, 251, 287-9 Focused Ethnographic Studies (FES) 290, 316 Foin, T C 106 folklore 2, 18, 25, 28 food see nutrition Food and Hunger in Alor (Dubois) 187 Ford Foundation (South Asia) xiii, 268-70, 274, 278, 285-6, 297 Foster, George xix, 117, 212 Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization (UK) Franciscan Order Frankenhaeuser, A 202 The Franz Boas Enigma 303 free listing 148, 193, 272-3, 289 Freed, Stanley 93 Freeman, L C 85-6 Freud, S 54-5, 60, 68, 72 game behavior 162 Garro, Linda 255-7 Gates Foundation Gelfand, Michelle 167-8 genetically modified foods 234 George W Neilson Foundation 222 Gerlach, Luther xix, 223 Gifford, E.W 214 Gittelsohn, Joel 269-70, 274 Glaser, Barney 39 Gleason, Gary 314 Goetz, Judith P 259 Golder, Thomas B 161 Goldschmidt, Walter 68, 126 Goodall, Jane 301 Goodenough, Ward 171 Grand Tour Interviews 148-50 Granqvist, Hilma N 201-4, 210, 214 Grant, J P 314 gray literature 297, 308-9 Great Depression 76-8 Green, Edward 170, 172 Greene, Jennifer 239, 262-4 growth data in child nutrition 191-6, 307 Guatemala, modern and traditional medicine 175; schooling and language study 48-9 Guba, E 42-3 Gujarat (India) 268-9, 280, 286, 296 Gujarat Institute of Development Research (Ahmedabad) 274 Gumperz, John J 46-7, 152 Guttman Scale 111, 229-30 Gwembe Valley (Zambia) 96-101 Index 329 Haiti, health research in 316 Hallowell, A Irving 61-3, 68 Hammersley, Martyn 41-3, 312, 318 Handbook of Methods in Cultural Anthropology 47, 169, 236 Handwerker, Penn 33, 169-70 Hanks, Lucian and Jane 117-18 Harvard University 76-7, 86, 142-3 Hawthorne Effect (Observer Effect) 74 Hawthorne Works Study xv, 74-7 health (see also HIV/AIDS): and adaptation 112; maternal and child 8-9, 183-98, 246; and nutrition 174-6, 183-98, 233-4; reproductive 170, 214, 268-80; research, multi-disciplinary in 10-13, 71, 123 health behaviors: informant reports 246, 256, 278, 291-3,317; Navajo 93, 117, 128-9, 307, 112, 170 health beliefs: hot and cold 45, 174-5; 119-24, 130, 134, 183; semen loss 278, 292 health care decision-making 8, 45, 113; modern vs traditional 117, 119-30, 34, 151, 183, 274 health care resources 112-17, 149 Health, Culture and Community 115, 117 health programs in India 121-3, 268; men’s sexual 291-3; rural services 280; sex workers 282-91; women’s health 270-97 health workers 274-8, 291, 308 Hehe people (Tanganyika) 68-9, 126-7 Hellitzer-Allen, Deborah 147 Helsinki 209, 218; University of 19, 24, 201, 203-5, 210, 219 Henry, Jules and Zunia 61-3, 175-8 Henry, William 53-4 herding 68-70, 165; reindeer 19, 22, 107, 205-9, 219-32, 241, 321 hermeneutics 45, 317 hierarchical clustering 162-5 Hinduism xiv, 3-5, 279, 296-7, 302, 306 Historia General HIV/AIDS research xiii, xvii, 8, 37; interdisciplinary 307-8; methodology 310-11; sex workers and 282-8; 291; women’s reproductive health and 293-6 holistic description 204, 253, 306 homogeneity, in culture 64, 171, 226 Hsu, F.L.K 115-17 Human Ecology 92 human ecology 112-13 “The Human Ecology of Big Projects” 99-100 Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) 71 Hunter, Albert 313 Hutterites 167, 226 hypothesis testing 38, 48, 90, 161; single method 255; 305, 311 Ianni, F 45 Ibn Battuta 6-7 India (see also health programs) 214-15, 225; history xiv-xx, 3-7, 8, 146, 168, 192, 268 India Today 286 Indian Journal of Social Work 285 individual experience data and cultural data 169 Individualism in Skolt Lapp Society 220 inductive research methods 2, 14, 39-42 Industrial Anthropology 74 informant accuracy see triangulation informants 5, 23-32, 47, 78-82, 139, 146, 159, 163, 172, 194; “Doc” 144; key 23, 26, 108-9, 156, 162, 169-70, 192, 206, 227; reliability 248-50, 260 Ingold, Timothy 230 Institute of Inter-American Affairs 117 Instituto Nacional de la Nutricion Salvador Zubiran, Mexico 194 Instituto Nacional Indigenista, Mexico 148 Instrumental Activities Inventory (IAI) 64-6 interdisciplinary research 123, 128, 134, 184, 186, 190, 192, 196, 287, 306 International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR B) 9, 283, 296 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), Cairo 276 International Development Research Center (IDRC) 11 International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) 278 International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries (INFDC) 314 intervention programs community health 117; India 289, 296; nutrition 317; South African 183-6, 197 interviews (see also informants): 24-hour recall 186-7; and group discussion methods 251-2; in-depth 47, 138, 147, 160, 170, 192, 270, 284, 289-97; open ended 82, 87-90, 138, 153, 287, 309, 318; reliability of 248-50 intra-culture variation 61-5, 71, 146, 171, 226, 257 330 Index Inuit 29-30, 66-8 investigator triangulation 244, 259-61 Ipsos MORI, UK market research 10 Ivankova, N.V 311 Ivory Coast, health research in 112, 125 Jackson, S 168 Jagruthi NGO 287-8 Jawaharlal Institute for Post-Graduate Medical Education and Research (JIPMER) 269 Jerome, Norge W 187 Jesup North Pacific Expedition 28-31 Jick, Todd D 252-3 Jochelson,Vladimir 28 Johns Hopkins School of Public Health 269, 278 Johnson, Jeffrey 47-51 Joshi, Archana xx, 286 Journal of Criminal Justice Education 13 Journal of Mixed Methods Research viii, 12, 37 Jyvaskyla, Finland 211-12 The Kalevala 18 Kamba people (Kenya) 68-9, 126-7 Kannisto, Artturi 26 Kariba Dam (Zambia) 96-101, 112 “Kariba Dam Project: Resettlement and Local Initiative” 97 Karjalainen, K.F 25 Kelly, Phyllis 150 Khan, M.E xx, 8-9, 284 Khan, Shivananda 306 Khanna, Renu xx, 280-1 Khanti people 24-6 Killworth, Peter 245 King Edward Memorial Hospital Research Centre, Pune, India 278 Kirkpatrick, Joanna 121-3 Kitabu’l Hind Klimek, S 214 Kluckhohn, Clyde 59-60, 93-5, 304 Koenig, Michael 276-8 Kola Peninsula (Lapland) 205-6 Kolkata, India 282-3, 293, 308 Komi people see Zyryan Kraska, P B 13 Kroeber, A.L 31, 214 Kuhn, Thomas 40 Kuhnlein, Harriet 192-3, 307-8 !Kung 226 Kunitz, Stephen 128-9, 307 Kwakiutl people (British Columbia, North America) 31-3, 148 labels, qualitative and quantitative: xv, 15, 37, 46-9, 70, 133, 197, 292, 307, 317; usage table 38 Laderman, Carol 45 Lambert, William xix, 53 The Lancet 279 Land, Labor and Diet in Northern Rhodesia 187, 304 Landy, David 123-6 language (see also linguistics): concordance in 165-9; Indian caste differences in 146-7, 157; kinship terminology 138, 167; and learning competence study in 49; local, in data-gathering 5, 7, 14, 21, 31-5, 123, 127, 138, 155, 202, 231, 256, 260, 297, 303, 306 local variation, 240, 297, 302 in scholarship 20-1, 25, 209-10, 214 LeCompte, Margaret D 259, 313 Leighton, Dorothea 59, 93-5, 304 Levy, J E 128-9, 307 Lewis, Oscar 55-6, 59-62, 181-3 Lhungdim, Hemkhothang 290 Lieban, Richard W 119-21 Life in a Mexican Village 55 Lincoln,Y S 42, 312 linguistic research 5, 18, 19-31, 210, 302-3; socio 146-52 Lininger, C A 154 Listening to Women Talk about Their Health 270-2, 279 listing, as data gathering method 148, 162-4, 188, 193, 195, 205-6; free listing 193, 272-3, Livestock Reduction Program see Navajo The Living and the Dead: A Study in the Symbolic Life of Americans 83 local food movement 234-5 Logan, M H 45, 175 Lönnrot, Elias 18, 21 Loomis, D 318 “loose” vs “tight” societies 167-71, 225-6 Low, J O 78-82 Lowie, Robert xix, 2, 29-31 Lundberg, G 41 Luts, Arven 19 Maharashtra (India) 269, 277-9, 296 Malawi, focus groups in 251-2 Mali nutrition studies 190-1 Index 331 Malinowski, Bronislaw 143, 202-4 malnutrition 184-6, 190-5 Maloney, Clarence K 284, 297 Malthus, Thomas R 105 Management and the Worker 77 Mansi people (Siberia) 24-6 mapping (see also social mapping): Boas and 30, 303; household 109-10; in interviewing 231; Lapland 204-9, 231; as research tool 7, 26, 240, 297, 310, 322; sex work, India 283-90, 293, 297; social networks 145-50 maternal and child health care see health Maxwell, Joseph A 61-2, 131-2, 301, 318, 321 Mayo, Elton 75, 77, 85, 142 McElroy, A 113 McNabb, Steven 253-5 Mead, Margaret xvi, 2, 66, 139-41 measurement (see also triangulation, quantitative data gathering): and error 241-2, 244; food consumption xvi, 105, 188, 307; physiological 32, 34, 191, 205; statistical 133 Medical Anthropology in Ecological Perspective 113 Medical Care Evaluation (MCE) 131-3 medical regimens (see also health care decision-making): modern 115-18; traditional 45-50, 115-34, 175 Menominee people (North America) 64-8, 306 Mensh, Ivan 62-3 mental health 66, 71, 116, 126-8, 222 (see also culture and personality) Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) Bangalore 269 methodology: deductive research 13, 39-40, 46, 49, 77, 197, 305, 310-11; inductive research 2, 14, 39-42 Methods Camp 236 Mexico 5, 6; economic adaptation in 109, 148-50, 181; nutrition study 194-7 Miller, Frank xix, 223 Minnesota 221-3, 232 Minturn, Leigh 53 Mitchell, Clyde 212 Mitchell, J.C 156-7,159, 304 mixed methods (see also paradigm debates): in health research 8-13, 45, 71, 123, 134, 151, 307, 321; recent popularity 134, 322-3 mixed methods labeling see labels modal personality 61-8, 306 modeling ecological 106 modernization 108-11, 156-60, 229 Modernization in a Mexican Ejido: A Study in Economic Adaptation 109 Moor, Annalies 204 Morse, Janice ii, x, 37, 41; label system 46-51, 134, 137, 273, 312 Moshnikoff, Jouni xix, 206, 208-9, 231 Moyer, B S 232 Müller-Wille, Ludger 29-30, 107, 231-2, 303 multidimensional scaling (MDS) 163 multi-disciplinary study see interdisciplinary multi-site research 15, 70, 74, 126, 192-7, 281, 283, 290, 297, 307, 319-20 Murdock, George 214 Muslim Heritage Muslim research 3, 6, 147, 203 Mutch, James 30, 303 Nag, Moni 269, 285 Naroll, Raoul 214 National Institute for Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS) 269 National Institute of Health 86 Native American studies 21, 31-2, 48-68, 93-4, 109, 116, 129, 138, 147, 171, 222, 260-2 Nature of Anthropology 224 Navajo: health studies 93, 117, 128-9, 307; Livestock Reduction Program 93-5, 111, 304; personality studies 57-60 Nenets (Samoyed) people 21-3, 210 NGO (non-government organizations) 9, 160, 269, 271, 276, 279-80, 287-91, 296 (see also publishing) Nickul, Karl (Kalle) xix, 201, 204-10, 214, 218 Niehaus, Linda 37, 41, 46, 48-9, 134, 137, 312 Niger,Vitamin A research in 193 night blindness 194 Niiranen, Timo 1-2, 18-20, 24-5 North Carolina University School of Public Health 86 Northern Wars (1809) 21 nutrition xvi, 174-8, 197; assessment 186, 240; intake data 102, 105, 174, 179; prehistoric 144 nutrition surveys: Tanzania 188-90; Tepoztlan 181-2 nutritional anthropology 123, 134, 186-91 332 Index Observer Effect see Hawthorne Effect Ojibwa 61, 68, 255 (see also Anishinaabe) Olson, R 77 onomastics 20 Opler, Morris 146 oral traditions 27, 30 Origin of Species 43 Orlansky, Harold 77-8, 85 Orr, Margaret 45 Otomi community (Mexico) 148 P-3 Pilot Error 161-9, 172 Pachauri, Saroj xx, 269, 276-7 paleoanthropology 24 paleopathology 123-4 Palestine 170, 201-4 “paradigm debates” 13, 38-45, 90, 317 paradigm transition 201-3, 214 Paredes, Anthony J 222 Parsons, Talcott 212 participant observation 26, 62, 122, 12931, 138, 143, 191, 201, 203, 210, 258-9, 270, 318 participatory mapping see social mapping Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 315 Patel, Pallavi 270, 272 Patton, M Q 244 Paul, Benjamin 115-17, 183 Pederson, Duncan 11 pellagra 184-6 Pelto, Gretel H 48, 107, 171, 226, 234-5, 317 Pelto, P J 48, 107, 171, 225-6, 229, 232, 234-5, 295 Pentikainen, Juha 210 personality cultural variations 58-61, 64-72 personality testing 53, 55, 60-72, 221, 243, 306 Philippines: health practices 119-21; vitamin A deficiency study 192 Phillips, Bernard S 86-90 phonographic recording in data-gathering 25, 210 photography as research tool 26, 108, 138, 202-4 physical environment in quantitative data xv, 19, 45, 62, 93, 96, 172 Pigs for the Ancestors 101-4 Pilaga people (Argentina) 62, 175-8 pile sorting 162-3, 193, 272-3, 292 pilot error study 161-9 Plains Indian 116 Platt, John R 318 Poggie, John J 249-50, 265 Pokot (Kenya) 68-9, 126-7 Polela Health Centre (South Africa) 115, 183-6 Polo, Marco Pondicherry (India) 269 POPREG 105 (see also computer) Population Council India 8-9, 274-6; SE Asia 308 population studies 109-10, 124-5, 211-12, 274-6, 308; Pigs for the Ancestors 101-6 Portrait of a Palestinian Village 203 positive deviants (nutritional status) 192 positivism: anti 40, 42, 44; criticism of 38; post 40, 318; vs constructionism 44-5 post-modernism 44 pregnancy see reproductive health Primary Health Center (PHC) 275, 295 Problems in Methodology 224 projective tests 55, 60-2, 71-2, 126, 306 proto-ethnography 2, psychoanalysis 54 psychological anthropology 53, 63, 134, 224 psychological research triangulation 320 psychological testing 53, 56, 63, 67-8, 87, 252 psychological theory 55-60 psychosis, East Africa 126-7 Public Health as a Career in Medicine study 86-90 public health projects 86-90, 115; Bangladesh 197; qualitative research in 45; 115, 170, 270, 311-12 publishing: gray literature 297; health 50; mixed methods and 13, 16, 37-8, 50, 239; by non-government organizations 308 Pune, Maharashtra 277-8, 290, 293 qual methods see labels, data gathering qual vs quan see paradigm debates qualitative research design 137-52 quan methods see labels quantitative data-gathering: disillusionment with 11-12; physical environment xv, 19, 45, 62, 93, 96, 172; surveys 8-10, 153, 159, 170, 222-3, 243, 249-50, 270, 277-9, 287, 294-7, 308; questionnaires 10, 12, 44, 48, 67, 76, 87-89, 132-33, 146, 156, 239, 254, 277, 279, 287, 315-16 Quinn, Naomi 256 Index 333 Ramachandar, Lakshmi xx, 275-6, 294-5 Ramakrishna, Jayashree xx, 288-9 Rapid Assessment Procedures (RAP) 274, 314-15 Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) 150, 315 Rappaport, Roy 101-6 Räsänen, Matti 19, 26 Red Lake Reservation 222 Redfield, Robert 181 Reese Hospital 131 Refiguring Anthropology 33 Reichardt, Charles 38-40, 43 reindeer herding see herding reliability, key informant 168, 248-50 (see also triangulation) reproductive health (see also health): and AIDS 293-7; in India 268-92; in Malawi 251; in Puerto Rico 160-1; in West Africa 129-35 Reproductive Health Matters 294 research design: characteristics of 14, 39, 47-8, 77, 111, 134, 166, 214, 309-10; history of ethnographic 13, 89, 134, 304-6, 323; labeling xiii-xv, 38, 46; for large-scale projects 197; quan/qual 168 “Research Design and Research Strategies” 47 Research Design in Anthropology: Paradigms and Pragmatics in the Testing of Hypotheses 42 Rhodes, Robert 44 Rhodesia 178, 187 Rhodes-Livingstone Institute 156 Richards, Audrey xvi, 178-81, 187, 233, 304, 307 Richards, Julia 48-9 Rivers, W.H.R 156, 279 Roberts, John M xix, 161-71 Roethlisberger, Fritz J 77 role play in data-gathering 88, 149, 243 Romney, A Kimball 168, 255 Rorschach Test 55-71, 26, 225, 306 Ross, James Roy, P 281 Rural Community Health Program 280 Rural Health Motivators (RHM) 170 Russian Academy of Sciences 20, 22, 24, 27, 302 Russian Empire 21, 22, 200, 215 Russian ethnography 27 Russian Geographical Society 19, 22, 302 Ryan, Gerry 32, 48 Saami people (Lapland) 19-26, 204-10, 218-20, 225-33, 241, 321 Säävälä, Minna xix, 214-15 Sachau, Edward 3-4 Sahagun, Bernardino de 5-7, 148, 223 Sahagun, Ciudad 223 SAHAJ NGO (India) 280 Sailer, Lee 245 Sakaranaho, Tuula 202, 204 Saliba, G Salinas, Jesus 48 Salmen, Lawrence F 257-8 salvage ethnography 21-2, 138 Sambaa child nutrition 190 Samoa xvi, 62, 139-42 Samoyed see Nenets sample sizes, variation in 41, 108-9, 121, 153, 165-71 sample survey 8, 126, 139, 153-61 sampling see concordance domains, cultural consensus Samuels, Michael 105 Sanskrit 3-5, 302 Sargent, Carolyn 129-31 Sarmela, Matti xix, 106-9 Saskatchewan 153 scale construction 111; testing in psychology 242-3; U-statistics clustering 162-3 Scanlon, K S 196 Schefferus, Johannes 19 Schema Theory 255-7 Schensul, Jean J 259-60, 313 Schensul, Stephen L 222-3, 286, 291, 298 Schwab, William B 158 Scotch, Norman 17 Scrimshaw, Nevin 314 Scudder, Thayer 96-101, 112 Sebei (Uganda) 68-9, 126-7 Seger, Karen 203 Seligman, C G 60 Senapati, S.K 282-3 Sevettijarvi 205, 218, 227-30 SEWA Rural (Society for Education, Welfare and Action) Jhagadia Gujarat 269, 280-1, 296 sex workers, India 282-97 “Sexual Aspects of AIDS/STD Prevention in India” 285 “Sexual Behaviors of Street Boys and Male Sex Workers Bangalore” 287 Sexual Harassment in the Workplace: Experiences of Women in the Health Sector 308 334 Index shamanism 19, 25, 210 Shambaa people (Tanzania) 188-90 Siberia ethnographic research in xiv, 2, 20-35, 52, 201, 210, 215, 233, 302 Simmons, Ozzie 115 Sirelius, U.T 25 Sjögren, Anders Johan 20, 22, 25 Skill-Building Modules (SBM) 289 Skolt see Saami “Small Is Unhappy”196 Smith, Derek 232 Smith, Lorne 232 Smithsonian Institution of Social Anthropology 117 snowmobile 107, 219, 226-34 Snowmobile Revolution:Technology and Social Change 226 social hierarchy 82 social mapping 216-18 (see also mapping) social personality card 78 Social Research: Strategy and Tactics 86 social support component 289 Social Systems of a Modern Factory 83 Social Systems of American Ethnic groups 83 Société d’ethnologie 18 Society for Education Action and Research in Community Health (SEARCH) 269, 279 Society for Education, Welfare and Action (SEWA) 269 Society for Medical Anthropology 117 Society for the Anthropology of Food and Nutrition 186 socio-cultural data, in nutrition study 195 “Socio-economic and Sexual Security of Young Women Garment Workers: A Case Study in Bangladesh” 284 socio-economic index,Yankee City 305 Socioeconomic Status (SES) 111, 182 socio-economic stratification 171 Sodhi, Geeta M 289 Sokolova, Z P 19, 21-7 sorcery 119-27 South Africa Diet and Nutrition intervention 183 South Asia xiii-xiv, xvii, 9, 11, 115, 213, 268-97, 307, 313 (see also health programs, HIV/AIDS research) Spain, David 235 Spindler, Louise and Spindler, George 64-72 Spiro, Melford 61-3 Spradley, James P 148-52 Srinivas, M.N 279 statistical analysis (see also consensus modeling, factor analysis) 15, 33-44, 53, 67-71, 82, 108, 111, 131-3, 162-71, 195, 202, 214, 224, 255-60 statistics: chi square 108; measurement of agreement 163-4, 169, 250, 257 Status System of a Modern Community 83 sterilization camps India 274-6 Steward, Julian 212-13 Storå, Nils 213 Strauss, Anselm 39 Strauss, Claudia 256 Street Corner Society xvi, 142-51, 240 Striihitakarini, Mumbai (NGO) 269 The Strike: A Social Analysis 77-8, 86 Structural Change in Local Culture: A Report from Northern Thailand Rice Villages 106-8, 214 Structure of Scientific Revolutions 40 Study of Man:The Jews of Yankee City 85 Stycos, J Mayone 159-61 Suenjelsijd 204-9 (see also Lapland) Suolinna, Kirsti 200-4 survey (see also quantitative data gathering) 108, 110, 131, 153, 158-9, 166, 209, 305; British census 154-9; occupation 86-8; refusal rates 160; small-scale 161 Sverloff, Artto xix, 218, 227-31 Swanson, Eleanor 150 SWASTHYA (NGO) 289-90 Swaziland 170 Symposium on Nutritional Anthropology 187 taboos, dietary 116, 174, 185 Tamil Nadu 294-5 Tanzania, diet study 188-90 Tashakkori, Abbas 12, 37-40, 42-7, 74, 134, 154, 244, 273, 310-12, 318 Tata Institute for Social Sciences 269, 285 Taylor, Frederick 76 Technical Assistance Programs 269-79, 285-7, 293 technology: 8, 15, 81, 94, 107; computer 236, 319-20; and delocalization 228-32; economic differentiation 229-30 Technology and Social Change 107 Teddlie, Charles 12, 37-40, 42-47, 74, 134, 154, 244, 273, 310-12, 318 Teit, James 31 Temascalscingo 109, 150, 194 Tepoztlan 55-62, 181-2 Tewatia, S K 281-2 Thailand 106-8, 117-18, 214-15 Index 335 Thaiss, Gustav 153, 167 Thematic Apperception Tests (TATs) 55, 61, 63-4, 71, 87, 225, 306 Theory of Culture Change:The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution 213 Thomas, D H 33-4 Tiedenaisia 202 “tight” and “loose” societies 168, 171 Tlingit people (Pacific Northwest) 31 The Todas 279 Tonga people (Zambia) 97-101, 112, 154-6, 251 Townsend, P K 113 training workshops 268-74 Transaction 226 transect walk 150 Trends in Finnish Ethnology 211-13 triangulation: and complementarity 239, 257; congruence 248; criticisms of 262-4; definitions 238-45; examples 257; hypothesis testing 70; informant accuracy 245-50; and multiple research methods 253-60; qualitative 147, 151-3, 260-2; theory 255-7 Trotter, Robert 259-60, 319-20 Tsembaga people (New Guinea) 101-6 Tucson, Arizona food sources 234-5 UNICEF 296, 314 United Nations University 314 United States Agency for International Development (USAID) 274, 296 United States Bureau of Indian Affairs 21 University of California-Berkeley xix, 31, 219 University of California, Los Angeles 126 University of Connecticut i, 194-5, 268 University of Florida, Gainesville 236 University of Minnesota xix, 221 University of Tartu (Estonia) 19 Unobtrusive Measures: Nonreactive Research in the Social Sciences 243, 264 Upper Mississippi Research Project 222 Uppsala, University of (Sweden) 19 Ural-Altaic language group 20, 26-7 urban/rural studies 49, 67, 107-9 US Navy 162 US Public Health Services 86 USAID 274, 296 Uttar Pradesh (India) 8, 290 vaginal discharge 272, 279-82 variability see intra-cultural Vayda, Andrew 101, 104 Verma, Ravi xx, 278, 286-94 Visaria, Leela 274-5 Vitamin A deficiency 192-4 Wallace, Anthony 54-5, 63-4, 71-2 Warner, W Lloyd 75-86 Warwick, D P 154 Wax, Murray 260-3 Wax, Rosalie 147-8, 260-3 Webb, Eugene J 243-4, 255, 264 Weller, Susan 268-71 West Africa 112, 125, 129-31, 157-60 Westermarck, Edvard 200-3 Western Identification Index 67-8 What’s Wrong with Ethnography? 41, 312 White, L T 168, 226 WHO see World Health Organization Whyte, William F xvi, 142-5, 151, 240 Wickwire 31 Wikipedia 6, 19, 28, 75, 212 wild foods consumption 188-90, 240, 254 wildlife, technology and 232 Wilson, Geoffrey 156, 189 Winter War (Finland) 205 “Women’s Perceptions of White Vaginal Discharge: Ethnographic Data from Rural Maharashtra” 279 “Women’s Productive Work and Child Development in Haryana Villages” 281 Women’s Reproductive Health in the Time of AIDs 293 Wood, John J 319 workshops see training World Bank 258, 273, 276, 314-15 World Columbian Exhibition 31 World Health Organization (WHO) 11, 273, 316 World Population Conference 276 Wozniak, Danielle 169, 71 Yale University 71 Yankee City Study xv, 77-89, 137, 143, 305 Yevsevyev, Timofey 26 Yoruba 157-8 Young, Frank and Ruth 248-9, 265 Zambia 97-8 Zeitlin, Marian 192 Znaniecki, F 41 Zulu people 183-6, 197 Zyryan (Komi) people Russia 20, 26 ... qualitative inquiry by describing new methods or developing particular aspects of established methods Other volumes in this series include: Engaging in Narrative Inquiry D Jean Clandinin Engaging in Narrative... activities in training the newer generation of ethnographic researchers in effective mixed methods projects The final set of materials in this book? ?in Chapters 13, 14 and 15—are intended to link the historical. . .MIXED METHODS IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Mixed Methods in Ethnographic Research: Historical Perspectives captures the dynamic history and development of mixed methods research in a narrative