ACTION RESEARCH Principles and practice TH I R D EDI TI ON Jean McNiff Action Research Since its first publication, Action Research: Principles and practice has become a key text in its field This new updated edition clearly describes and explains the practices of action research and its underlying values, and introduces important new ideas, including that: • • • all professionals should be reflective practitioners; they should produce their personal theories of practice to show how they are holding themselves accountable for their educational influences in learning; the stories they produce should become a new people’s history of action research, with potential for influencing new futures This new edition has expanded in scope, to contribute to diverse fields including professional development across the sectors and the disciplines It considers the current field, including its problems as well as its considerable hopes and prospects for new thinking and practices Now fully updated, this book contains: • • • a wealth of case study material; new chapters on the educational significance of action research; an overview of methodological and ethical discussion The book is a valuable addition to the literature on research methods in education, nursing and healthcare, and professional education, and contributes to contemporary debates about the generation and dissemination of knowledge and its potential influence for wider social and environmental contexts Practitioners across the professions who are planning action research in their own work settings will find this book a helpful introduction to the subject while those studying on higher degree courses will find it an indispensable resource Jean McNiff is Professor of Educational Research at York St John University, UK She also holds visiting professorial positions at Beijing Normal University and Ningxia Teachers University, People’s Republic of China; the University of Tromsø, Norway; and the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa She has written widely on action research in education Action Research Principles and practice 3rd edition Jean McNiff First published 1988 Second edition published 2002 This third edition published 2013 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2013 Jean McNiff The right of Jean McNiff to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data McNiff, Jean Action research : principles and practice / Jean McNiff Third edition pages cm ISBN 978-0-415-53525-0 (hardback) ISBN 978-0-415-53526-7 (paperback) ISBN 978-0-203-11275-5 (ebook) (print) Action research in education Action research Methodology I Title LB1028.24.M398 2013 370.72 dc23 2012033779 ISBN: 978–0–415–53525–0 (hbk) ISBN: 978–0–415–53526–7 (pbk) ISBN: 978–0–203–11275–5 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo and Gill Sans by Bookcraft Ltd, Stroud, Gloucestershire Contents List of figures vii List of contributors viii Acknowledgements xiii Introduction ParT I What we know? The principles of action research 21 What we know? The principles of action research 23 How we come to know? Linking theory and practice 38 Who has influenced our thinking? Key theorists in action research 54 What we need to know? Exercising educational influence 72 ParT II What we with our knowledge? The practices of action research 87 How we action research? Planning and doing a project 89 Monitoring practice, gathering data, generating evidence, and ethics 104 Practical issues 119 vi Contents ParT III How we share our knowledge? Writing up and making public 131 Testing the validity of knowledge claims 133 Writing and presenting action research reports 145 10 Judging quality and demonstrating impact: The significance of your action research 159 ParT IV How we use our knowledge? Action research for good order 173 11 Action research for personal, social and institutional transformation 175 12 Action research for good order ParT V 188 Hopes and prospects 201 13 Whither action research? 203 Notes 209 References 210 Index 220 List of f igures 3.1 Action–reflection cycle 57 3.2 Sequences of action–reflection cycles 57 3.3 Kurt Lewin’s model of action research as interpreted by Kemmis (1990) 60 3.4 A revised version of Lewin’s model of action research 61 3.5 A generative transformational evolutionary process 66 6.1 An Arabic and Islamic classroom before the action research 116 6.2 The Arabic and Islamic classroom after the action research 117 8.1 Transforming tacit into explicit knowledge 134 List of contributors I wish to thank the following people for contributing case study material to the book Mark Aldrich lives and works in Newtown, Connecticut, US He is the librarian at a maximum security prison and is enrolled at City University of New York in the School of Professional Studies, Applied Theatre Department He writes plays and poetry, and illustrates his own book series (see http://www.marcusartproductions.com) Alison Joy Barton is from Liverpool, England She works at the University of Central Lancashire She is especially interested in traditional baking and bread-making Pip Bruce Ferguson lives in Hamilton, New Zealand She works part-time at the University of Waikato and part-time in consultancy She enjoys her involvement with family, church, reading and music Ingunn Skjesol Bulling is from Namdalseid, Norway She works at the Nord-Trøndelag University College She loves good food, music and being out in the open countryside with her family Vicci Carroll is from Durham, UK She teaches Beauty Therapy at New College Durham while also studying for her Foundation Degree in Training and Work Based Learning at Sunderland University Her main interest is having fun with her two sons She hopes to draw on her own experiences in compulsory and post-compulsory education to help her promote education for all Linda Clifford, a New Zealander, works as the Secondary School Deputy Principal at Deira International School, Dubai She particularly enjoys travel, meeting new people and educational research Linda Darbey has a Master’s in Education from Trinity College Dublin, and is currently working as a Guidance Programme Coordinator in the National Centre for Guidance in Education (NCGE), Ireland Her role Contributors ix in the NCGE is to coordinate the development, implementation and review of the NCGE guidance programme for guidance counsellors working in second-level schools. Eric Deakins is an associate professor of value chain management at the University of Waikato Management School, who happens to be passionate about mentoring practitioner researchers When not motorcycling through the beautiful New Zealand countryside, he designs organisations to be more enjoyable, professional and personally fulfilling Odd Edvardsen is an associate professor and a nursing educator at the University of Tromsø, Norway His main interest has been the practical training of nursing students both in the practical field and in the Faculty of Health Sciences He has also been engaged in international trauma care education and anti-imperialistic solidarity activities for many years Timothy Golden is originally from Edina, Minnesota, US He earned a BA in Communication Studies and an MA in Counseling, both from the University of San Diego Timothy is now a National Certified Counsellor in the United States, and his specialisation is school counselling Geraldine Hayes is from Dublin, Ireland and is a lecturer at St Patrick’s College Drumcondra (a college of Dublin City University) She has extensive teaching experience in both Ireland and the US She currently teaches in the area of special educational needs (SEN), where her main area is autism spectrum disorders (ASD) Her research interests include literacy for children with SEN, educational provision for children with ASD, and the delivery of online distance learning Peter Hyde is from Cork, Ireland He worked as a guidance counsellor for a number of years and is currently Deputy Principal in Deerpark Christian Brothers School, Cork He is married and has three teenage children He is interested in, among other things, theology, spirituality, music and what it means to be a leader in a Catholic school in modernday Ireland Maria James is a senior lecturer in Religious Education and Masters at St Mary’s University College, Twickenham, UK She was the first to be awarded the status of Teaching Fellow within the School of Education She is passionate about all teachers realising their great potential for transformational learning Rita Jentoft is an Associate Professor and teacher of occupational therapists at the University of Tromsø, an Arctic city in the north of Norway She is interested in how technology can enhance learning and practical knowledge in both clinical practice and education Her leisure interests are yoga, winter sports and machine-knitting 212 References Chomsky, N (2000a) Chomsky on MisEducation Lanham, Rowman & Littlefield Chomsky, N (2000b) New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind Cambridge, Cambridge University Press Chomsky, N (2010) Hopes and Prospects London, Hamish Hamilton Chomsky, N and Foucault, M (2006) The Chomsky-Foucault Debate: On Human Nature New York, New Press Clydesdale, T (2009) ‘Wake up and smell the new epistemology’, Chronicle of Higher Education 55(20): B7 Available at http://chronicle.com/weekly/v55/i20/20b00701 htm?utm_source=at&utm_medium=en Coetzee, J M (2004) Elizabeth Costello: Eight Lessons London, Vintage Coffey, T M (2008) The Long Thirst: Prohibition in America 1920–1933 New York, W.W Norton & Co Collier, J (1945) ‘United States Indian administration as a laboratory of ethnic relations’, Social Research 12: 265–303 Collingwood, R G (1939) An Autobiography Oxford, Oxford University Press Collins, J (2010) Bring on the Books for Everybody: How Literary Culture Became Popular Culture Durham, NC, Duke University Press Corey, S (1953) Action Research to Improve School Practices New York, Teachers College Press Cresswell, J (2007) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Crichton, M (2006) Jurassic Park London, Arrow Crichton, M and Preston, R (2012) Micro London, Harper Cyrulnik, B (2009) Resilience: How to Gain Strength from Childhood Adversity London, Penguin Dadds, M (1995) Passionate Enquiry and School Development: A Story about Teacher Action Research London, Falmer Dadds, M and Hart, S (2001) Doing Practitioner Research Differently Abingdon, Routledge Davies, P (1992) ‘Is the universe a machine?’, in N Hall (ed.) 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(2012) Action Research for Sustainable Development in a Turbulent World Bingley, Emerald Index Abrams, D 12, 72, 189 Abu-Mallouh, L 100–1 academics and practitioners: issues of terminology accountability: 79; different perceptions of 76–7, accreditation 78 ‘action’ and ‘research’ 25, 90 action planning 90–6 action research family 54, 208 action research projects 89–103: doing 96–103; focus in 119; planning 89; practical issues 119–30; time management 122 action research: acceptance of 1; and accountability 35, 37; and answers 7; and cognitive revolutions 15; and communicative action (see communicative action); and freedom 11, 126–7, 208; and human betterment 72, 87, 120, 140, 168, 205; and power 9, 11, 32; and outcomes 10-11, 103, 124; and collaborative practices 122; and knowledge creation 1, 10, 67, 87, 89, 182; as intervention 9, 94, 96; as practical theory 19, 50; as practical theology 19; as problem-solving 35; as professional learning 1, 155; as theory generation 50; attitudes towards 205, 207; changes in the field 2; compartmentalization of 6; contexts for 24-25; dangers and threats to 5-11; definitions of 6-7, 23; different forms of 34, 205; for good order 188, 205; for sale 10; for social change 96, 120, 141, 175–187; hopes and prospects 2-5, 201–8; influences on 2; interpretive approaches 34; interdisciplinary nature of 1; legitimacy of 1; principles of 23–37; problematics of 1, 54, 126; situatedness of 124; struggle for recognition of 1; used for profit 9; values of 24; world-wide take-up action: different kinds of 94; for social change 96; taking it 94–5 Adelman, C 59, 65 Agyris, C and Schön, D (1995) 14 Aldrich, M 193–6, 199 Alexander, R 180 Alford, F 78 Anderson, G L and Herr, K 81 Apple, M 80 appreciative inquiry 72 Arendt, H 12, 78, 166, 176 ‘art of presence’ 193 Ayling, D Bakhtin, M 35 Ball, A and Tyson, C 191 Ball, S 33 Barenboim, D 8; and Said, E 8-9 Barrow, J 123 Barry, S 193 Barton, A 139 Bassey, M 45, 48, 114 Bateson, G 13, 15, 134 Bateson, M C 29 Bayat, A 79, 193 beginnings 12–13, 96, 125–6, 176 Bergson, H 12 Berlin, I 10, 13, 73, 126, 160, 190 Bernstein, R 163 Berry, W 30-1, 176 Bertoft, H (1996) 15 Biesta, G et al 156 Bohm, D 7, 45, 67, 167, 189; and Peat 168, 189, 204 Bolt, R 205 Bourdieu, P 35, 64–5, 80, 154, 160 Boyer, E 3-4 Brown, J.S and Duguid, P Browning 79 Bruce Ferguson, P 171–2; see also Ferguson Buber, M 28, 30, 39, 43, 167 Bulling, I S 25 Butler, J 29–30 Byron, G 126 Calderisi, R 102 Capone, A 13, 76, 93, 125, 160, 168 Capone, D 170 Capra, F 14, 15; et al 31 Carr, W and Kemmis, S 9, 45, 48, 56, 62, 72, 126 Carroll, V 121 case study: as body of knowledge 78; research 48; centre and non-centre 42, 120 change, nature of 35, 50, 120–21; different conceptualisations of 54 chaos and complexity 14-15 Chomsky, N 4, 11, 15, 29, 32–4, 65; 74, 78, 79–80, 84, 134, 178, 180; and Plato’s problem 12; debate with Foucault 11-13 claim to knowledge 89–90, 130, 135, 140 (see also knowledge claim) Clifford, L 112, 115–17 Clydesdale, T 143 Coetzee, J M 102 Coffey, T M 160 cognitive revolutions 15; third 178–80 Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN) 60, 62 Collier, J 56 Collingwood, R 125 Collins, J 178 colonization 181, 196 commodification of knowledge 47; see also knowledge communicative action 16, 44, 170, 191 communities: of support 84; of practice 177 conceptual: models 32, 35, 56–7, 76, 204; as reality 50, 63–4, 204–5; frameworks 50 Index 221 conflict, need for 74 contradictions of values 49 control of others’ thinking 80–1, 180, 205, 208 Corey, S 57 Cresswell, J 48 Crichton, M 135, 177; and Preston, R 85 criteria and standards: definitions 145; for judging quality 160–1 criteria: as living criteria and standards of judgement); of empirical research (replicability, generalizability and objectivity) 46; of action research 67, 76, 137: see also Values: new forms in judging academic quality 143 critical friends and colleagues 23, 95, 105, 123, 137 critical theoretic approaches 49–50 critical: literacies 50; pedagogies 50 critique of personal thinking 18, 23, 35, 77, 95, 136–7, 153; for influence 78, 80 curriculum: objectives and process views 59 Cyrulnik, B 156 Dadds, M and Hart, S 142 Darbey, L 185–6 data: analyzing 111–12; archive 112; and generating evidence 95; gathering 94; interpreting 112 Davies, P 45 Dawkins, R 46 dcological approaches to research 45 Deakins, E 56, 67–9 Deleuze, G 189 Derrida, J 139 Descartes, R 45–6 destabilization, moral and intellectual 83–4 Dewey, J 50, 56, 65, 140, 143, 161 dialogue: and critique 17, 80; as a standard of judgement 140, 163; as encounter 30–1, 179; spaces for 13, 125, 175–6 diaries, logs and journals 106, 108, 155 Dick, B disconfirming data 111 ‘doing good’ 102 Donn, G and Al Manthri, Y 47 E-language and I-language 34 E-theories and I-theories 34–6, 40–1, 59, 72, 180; I-enquiries 136 222 Index Ebbutt, D and Elliott, J 59 ecological approaches 13, 63 educational influence 79 educational research 24 Edvardsen, O 183, 185, 197–9 Eisner, E 150 Elliott, J 19, 59–62, 65 emergence 14-15, 29, 66, 189 empirical research 45–7 employability 181 Engström, Y 125 epistemic responsibility 5, 18 epistemological: issues in action research 28–30, 38; shifts 2, 45 epistemology: challenging dominant forms 32–3; definition 27; types of 40–2; ethical issues 112–14, 124, 168; and the natural order 189; issues of anonymity 113; ethnographic research 48; negotiating and securing permissions 113; Everett, D 66, 154 evidence base, need for 3, 23, 25, 133, 136 evidence: generating it 95 explanatory adequacy 140, 148: see also validity explanatory frameworks, need for externalist perspectives 34 Ferguson, P 5, 93–4, 170–2 Feynman, R 31, 180, 189 first, second and third order action research 49, 55 forms of representation: multimedia 150; texts 178 Foucault, M 33, 84, 176, 180; and disciplinary power 33; and parrhesia 78, 166; see also parrhesia; truth and power 142 Francis, B 161 Frankfurt School 49 Frankl, V 31 freedom 11, 13, 15; and knowledge 74; of speech 137 Freire, P 171 Frenk, J., Chen, L and Associates 75 Friedman, M 13, 200 Fromm, E 12, 85, 166 Fukuyama, F 154 Furlong, J and Oancea, A 138 Gardner, H 16, 178 gathering data 94, 105–114; qualitative forms 107–10; quantitative forms 106–7; multimedia methods 110; see also data Gauthier, M 203 generative transformational processes 14-15, 18, 65-7, 134–5; dynamics of influence 15; see also emergence Gibbons, M et al 2, 76 Glavey, C 143–4 Goethe, J W 15, 96 golden thread of research story 91, 94, 147–9 Golden, T 162 ‘good’: aiming for it 103; making judgements about it 36, 75, 125, 159, 170; order 173 Goodson, I 50; et al 156 grand narratives Gray, J 12-13, 28, 137 Habermas, J 13, 30, 44, 62, 124, 126, 141, 164: criteria in communicative action 141, 168; system and lifeworld 163–4, 176 habitus 154, 160 Hampshire, S 74, 83 happy endings 126 Hargreaves, A 9, 40, 44 Harland, T and Pickering, N 76 Higgins, A 64 Hitchcock, G and Hughes, D 45 Hoover, J E 125, 160 hope: 82, 140, 197; as a criterion for social research 140 Horton, M and Freire, P 126 Hoyle, E 58; and John, P 58 human interests (technical, practical, emancipatory, relational) 44; dialogical 45; and order 190 human nature: its realization 11-12, 14, 168; as justification for choice of values 168 Hume, J 121 Hyde, P 105, 186–7 ‘I’: and ‘we’ 8; ego-centred forms 8; in relationship 8, 45 ‘I-It’ and ‘I-Thou’ relationships: 28, 38–9, 43; 120 I-forms of theory 34 ‘I-me’ and ‘I-we’ 43 identity: and literature 196; manufacturing or creating 7; negotiating 30; situatedness of 24 Ignatieff, M 13 illuminative evaluation 48 Ilyenkov, E 34, 65 ‘impact’ 161 improving learning and practices 23-24, 73 individuals’ capacities for: creativity 7, 10, 12, 27-9, 79; learning 12, 79, 81; moral choices 12; relationship 12 influence: for relationships 35, 78; for social good 191 intellectuals: responsibility of 8, 11, 178 Internet and web usage 139 interpretive research 47–9 intersubjective agreement 44, 164 James, A et al 14 James, G 48 James, M 82–3, 165–6 Jenkins, H 178 Jenkins, R 63 Jentoft, R 115 Johnson, S 47 Kauffman, S 72 Kemmis, S (2009) 18, 59–60, 62–3; and McTaggart 63, 93; and Smith 63 Khayelitsha 97–100, 193 Kiberd, D 196 Knowledge 40; and action 175; and freedom 74, 175; and power 180; and social transformation 74, 83, 87, 173; and technology 178–180; and theory 32; for sale 9, 40, 208; import and export of 102, 196; personal forms 29 – see also personal knowledge; shared nature of 2, 83, 96; situated nature of 2, 83; tacit 4; types of 2-4; knowledge claim: see claim to knowledge Krashen, S 15 Kristeva, J 8, 167 Kuhn, T 1, 39 Lankshear, C and Knobel, M 47, 50, 153, 168 Lave, J and Wenger, E (1991) Lawson, A 79 learning from experience 82 Index 223 legitimacy 139, 142–3, 165, 175 levels of adequacy 33 Lewin, K 10, 56–7, 60 Lewin, M 14 Libag, J 29 ‘Life is a Miracle’ 31 lifelong learning Lilla, M Lingfield Report (DFES) 180–1 living systems 13-14, 66 living values in practice 25 living: theory 50, 65; theories 34 logics: forms of 7, 27, 41–2; dialectical 42; dialogical 42; propositional 42; relational 42, 170: links with practice 38 Lyons, J 33 Lyotard, J.-F 17, 32-3, 40 MacDonald, A 13 MacDonald, B and Walker, R 59 Macdonald, B J 30 Machiavelli, N 163 MacIntyre, A 99 Macintyre, C 163 MacLure, M 196 Macmurray, J 8, 167 making public: 87, 131; importance of texts 140 Malgas, Z 98–0 Marx, K 33, 35 Maslow, A 12 Mason, J 124 McIntosh, E McKernan, J 56, 60, 62 McLaren, P 50 McNiff, J 7, 10, 25, 34, 43, 67, 90, 100, 141, 164, 171; and McCourt, M 101; and Whitehead, J 90, 95, 105, 114, 124, 137, 149, 164 McPhillips T and Hayes, G 57, 67, 69–71 Mellor, N 134 Memmi, A 126 Meredith, M 108 methodology: definition 27; relevance in action research 30–1 Mgweto, A 99–100 Midgley, M 76 Miller, R 56 mis-education 80 Mitroff, I and Linstone, H Mode and Mode types of knowledge 224 Index models: problematics of 32-3, 35 monitoring: action 94, 104–118; and keeping records 104; what other people are doing 105–6; what you are doing 105 moral accountability 37, 45 Murad, M 197 Murdoch, I 126 Naidoo, A 43 narrative inquiry 72 narratives of practice 35, 140–2, 148–9 natality 12, 166 National Centre for Guidance in Education (NCGE), Ireland 185–7 natural order 10, 13-14, 199: ethical nature of 15, 189 Nesbo, J 41 Ness, E 13 new scholarship Newby, M 135 Noff ke, S 1, 56, 191; and Somekh, B 1, 55, 62 Nonaka, I and Takeuchi, H 9, 44 Norbye, B 183 O’Brien, J 191–2, 199 O’Reilly, P 152 official knowledge 80, 161 ontological positioning 54; see also researcher positionality ontology: definition 27; relevance in action research 27–8 order (arrangement): 173, 187 order (types and groupings): environmental 18, 191, 203; imperialist 190; implicate 67, 189; natural 18, 67, 173, 175, 189, 204; personal 190–1, 203; social 18, 173 originality of mind 80 other-centredness as criterion 67, 167 Pandolfo, A 30 paradigms: definition 39, 45; shifts 1; three-paradigm approach 45 Parlett, M and Hamilton, D 48 parrhesia 78, 146, 170 Pastor Niemöller 79 Patton, M Q 134 Pearson, J 81 people’s history 56, 173, 196; of action research 193 personal (tacit) knowledge 29–30, 34, 40–1, 134–6 Piaget, J 12 plagiarism 113–14, 153 plurality: judging it 25, 159–172; definitions of 159–61; see also relationships Polanyi, M 29, 40, 72, 82, 133, 143, 155 politics and power 38–9, 48–9, 67, 126–7, 163, 189 Popper, K 35, 74 Positionality: see researcher positionality power, exercise of 32 practitioners: as agents 47, 175; generating theory 1, 47 Pressfield, S 204, 208 Pring, R professional doctorates professionalism 58; and accountability 76 proofreading, need for 153 publishing, new directions in 139, 178 Putnam, R 28 Qatar, work in 100–2 Rawson, M 148, 156–7; and Richter, T. 156; and Rose, M 156 Reason, P and Bradbury, H 49, 55; and Rowan, J 11, 123 reflective practice 5, 134 relationships, and influence 35; focus on 14, 176; in research 38, 42; with work and practice 31 Renowden, J 77 research issue: identification of 92 research question: changes in 93, 120; identifying 114; types of 92 research reports: and performance 151; content 146–8; focus on communication 151–3; form and structure 148–9; forms of representation (including multimedia) 150 research: as knowledge production 89; design 38; reasons and purposes 26; situatedness of 49–50 researcher positionality 27-8, 36, 40, 46–7, 54, 114, 124 responsibility of academics/intellectuals 58, 66, 78–9, responsibility of practitioners 82 Ridley, M 12, 189 Riel, M 150 rigour: academic 138; literary 139; methodological 91, 96, 140 Rizvi, P 35 Robson, C 124 Rorty, R 13, 140, 161 Rudduck, J and Hopkins, D 59 Russell, B 79 Rutishauser Ramm, B 156 Ryle, G 40 Sacks, J 28, 167 SACMEQ 2010 70 Said, E 8, 12, 18, 36, 79, 126, 153, 168, 178; and beginnings 125; Orientalism Sanford, N 58 Schön, D 2-4, 30, 33, 135, 145 Schrödinger, E 123 Schwab, J J 58 Seabright, R 127–30 self-critique 17, 18, 28 Sen, A 11, 74 Senge, P 68 Sennett, R 28 significance of research 148, 176, 190 Sinclair, A 84–5, 191 social order 13, 18; creating good social orders 28 social reproduction 81 social sciences: and theory 32; assumptions of 10, 92; methods of 10, 23 socio-political: implications for practitioners 32; intent 27 Somekh, B 60, 62; and Lewin, C 62 Sontag, S 79 Sowell, T 175, 189 speaking for oneself 28, 78, 122, 175–6 (or not 48) Spinoza, B de 15, 189 St Mary’s University College 5, 76–85, 96 Stenhouse, L 25, 58–9, 65, 145 Stockdale, T 125 Stokes, I 206–7 Stringer, E 48 Sun Tzu 163 surprise, inevitability of 64 systemic approaches, importance of 105, 121, 189, 204 Index 225 Taylor, P 76 teacher as researcher movement 58 Thayer-Bacon, B 42 theories in the literature 149 theories: challenging dominant forms of 33; different forms of 32, 34; living dynamic forms 16, 65; of education 8; personal forms 32, 71, 77; practical 4, 47, 65 Thomas, G 140 Thoresen, A.-L 183–4 Thorgeirsdóttir, H 125 topology: of epistemological landscapes 4; of professional landscapes 3; levelling out of triangulation 48, 106, 157 Tromsø Mine Victim Resource Centre 197 typologies: of knowledge 40–2; of human interests 44–5; of research 45–50 uncertainty, need for 64; in knowing 73–4, 135 University of Tromsø 5, 182 validation groups 95, 105, 123, 137 validity tests: 136; academic validation 138; peer validation 137–9; professional validation 139; self-validation 136–7 validity tests, types of: methodological, social, textual 140; peer 167; personal 166; social 167; communicative 167–8 validity: testing it 18, 32, 46, 64, 87, 131, 133–44; criteria 76 values: as living criteria and standards of judgement 95, 112, 122, 137, 140, 164; as virtues 14, 19, 82, 170; conflicts of 94; differences in 28, 93; denial in practices 35, 49; justification for 25, 168; identification of 93; living them in practice 25, 28, 36, 73, 82, 95; respect for 102 Van Breda, G 134 Vico, G 12 Villumsen, A M 37, 115 voice, different kinds in writing 147 Von Bertananffy, L 13 Wade, P 97 Waldrop, M 14 Waters, J 182 226 Index Watson, T 163 Web 1.0 and Web 2.0 16, 178, 182; Web 3.0 179 Wenger, E 2, 42, 167, 177 Wheatley, M 14 Whitehead, J 34, 50, 64–5, Wickham, J 143 Winter, R 29, 141, 153, 167 Wood, L 52–3 Woods, M 205 workbased learning writing reports 145–158; see also research reports writing: as a practice 146; as an object of study 145; as political activism 163; learning to it 151–3 Yin, R 48 York St John University 5, 170, 183 Yovel, J 189 Yuan, E 161 Zinn, H 27, 49, 56, 193 ZITEP 69–71 Zophoníasdóttir, S 122 Zuber-Skerritt, O 14 ... at http://www.jeanmcniff.com /action_ research_ principles_ and_ practice/ Part I What we know? The principles of action research This Part introduces ideas relevant to action research and the field... ‘Collaborative Action Research? ??, ‘Contextual Action Research? ??, ‘Radical Action Research? ?? ‘Self Study’, ‘Autoethnography’ – and so on and so forth; and they all come with capital letters, and become... Tromsø, Norway; and the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa She has written widely on action research in education Action Research Principles and practice 3rd edition Jean McNiff