Nuclear engineering handbook ( TQL )

Nuclear Engineering Handbook Mechanical Engineering Series Frank Kreith & Roop Mahajan - Series Editors Computer Techniques in Vibration Clarence W de Silva Distributed Generation: The Power Paradigm for the New Millennium Anne-Marie Borbely & Jan F Kreider Elastic Waves in Composite Media and Structures: With Applications to Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation Subhendu K Datta and Arvind H Shah Elastoplasticity Theor y Vlado A Lubarda Energy Audit of Building Systems: An Engineering Approach Moncef Krarti Energy Converstion D Yogi Goswami and Frank Kreith Energy Management and Conser vation Handbook Frank Kreith and D Yogi Goswami Finite Element Method Using MATLAB, 2nd Edition Young W Kwon & Hyochoong Bang Fluid Power Circuits and Controls: Fundamentals and Applications John S Cundiff Fundamentals of Environmental Discharge Modeling Lorin R Davis Handbook of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Frank Kreith and D Yogi Goswami Heat Transfer in Single and Multiphase Systems Greg F Naterer Introduction to Precision Machine Design and Error Assessment Samir Mekid Introductor y Finite Element Method Chandrakant S Desai & Tribikram Kundu Intelligent Transportation Systems: New Principles and Architectures Sumit Ghosh & Tony Lee Machine Elements: Life and Design Boris M Klebanov, David M Barlam, and Frederic E Nystrom Mathematical & Physical Modeling of Materials Processing Operations Olusegun Johnson Ilegbusi, Manabu Iguchi & Walter E Wahnsiedler Mechanics of Composite Materials Autar K Kaw Mechanics of Fatigue Vladimir V Bolotin Mechanism Design: Enumeration of Kinematic Structures According to Function Lung-Wen Tsai Mechatronic Systems: Devices, Design, Control, Operation and Monitoring Clarence W de Silva MEMS: Applications Mohamed Gad-el-Hak MEMS: Design and Fabrication Mohamed Gad-el-Hak The MEMS Handbook, Second Edition Mohamed Gad-el-Hak MEMS: Introduction and Fundamentals Mohamed Gad-el-Hak Multiphase Flow Handbook Clayton T Crowe Nanotechnology: Understanding Small Systems Ben Rogers, Sumita Pennathur, and Jesse Adams Nuclear Engineering Handbook Kenneth D Kok Optomechatronics: Fusion of Optical and Mechatronic Engineering Hyungsuck Cho Practical Inverse Analysis in Engineering David M Trujillo & Henry R Busby Pressure Vessels: Design and Practice Somnath Chattopadhyay Principles of Solid Mechanics Rowland Richards, Jr Thermodynamics for Engineers Kau-Fui Wong Vibration Damping, Control, and Design Clarence W de Silva Vibration and Shock Handbook Clarence W de Silva Viscoelastic Solids Roderic S Lakes Nuclear Engineering Handbook Edited by Kenneth D Kok Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-5390-6 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint Except as permitted under U.S Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any 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Kok, Kenneth D II Title III Series TK9151.N834 2009 621.48 dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com 2009014909 Contents Preface .ix Acknowledgments xiii Editor .xv Contributors xvii Section I  Introduction to Section 1: Nuclear Power Reactors Historical Development of Nuclear Power .3 Kenneth D Kok Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) Richard Schreiber Boiler Water Reactors (BWRs) 83 Kevin Theriault Heavy Water Reactors 141 Alistair I Miller, John Luxat, Edward G Price, Romney B Duffey, and Paul J Fehrenbach High-Temperature Gas Cooled Reactors 197 Arkal Shenoy and Chris Ellis Generation IV Technologies 227 Edwin A Harvego and Richard R Schultz Section II  Introduction to Section 2: Nuclear Fuel Cycle Nuclear Fuel Resources 245 Stephen W Kidd Uranium Enrichment 265 Nathan H (Nate) Hurt and William J Wilcox, Jr Nuclear Fuel Fabrication 279 Kenneth D Kok 10 Spent Fuel Storage 293 Kristopher W Cummings 11 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing 315 Patricia Paviet-Hartmann, Bob Benedict, and Michael J Lineberry vii viii Contents 12 Waste Disposal: Transuranic Waste, High-Level Waste and Spent Nuclear Fuel, and Low-Level Radioactive Waste 367 Murthy Devarakonda and Robert D Baird 13 Radioactive Materials Transportation 403 Kurt Colborn 14 Decontamination and Decommissioning: “The Act of D&D”— “The Art of Balance” 431 Cidney Voth 15 HWR Fuel Cycles 475 Paul J Fehrenbach and Alistair I Miller Section iii Introduction to Section 3: Related Engineering and Analytical Processes 16 Risk Assessment and Safety Analysis for Commercial Nuclear Reactors 525 Yehia F Khalil 17 Nuclear Safety of Government Owned, Contractor Operated Nuclear (GOCO) Facilities .543 Arlen R Schade 18 Neutronics 575 Ronald E Pevey 19 Radiation Protection 609 Matthew Arno 20 Heat Transfer and Thermal Hydraulic Analysis 641 Shripad T Revankar 21 Thermodynamics/Power Cycles 713 Yasuo Koizumi 22 Economics of Nuclear Power 727 Jay F Kunze Index 751 Preface Purpose The purpose of this Handbook is to provide an introduction to nuclear power reactors, the nuclear fuel cycle, and associated analysis tools, to a broad audience including engineers, engineering and science students, their teachers and mentors, science and technology journalists, and interested members of the general public Nuclear engineering encompasses all the engineering disciplines which are applied in the design, licensing, construction, and operation of nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants, nuclear fuel cycle facilities, and finally the decontamination and decommissioning of these facilities at the end of their useful operating life The Handbook examines many of these aspects in its three sections Overview The nuclear industry in the United States (U.S.) grew out of the Manhattan Project, which was the large science and engineering effort during WWII that led to the development and use of the atomic bomb Even today, the heritage continues to cast a shadow over the nuclear industry The goal of the Manhattan Project was the production of very highly enriched uranium and very pure plutonium-239 contaminated with a minimum of other plutonium isotopes These were the materials used in the production of atomic weapons Today, excess quantities of these materials are being diluted so that they can be used in nuclear-powered electric generating plants Many see the commercial nuclear power station as a hazard to human life and the environment Part of this is related to the atomic-weapon heritage of the nuclear reactor, and part is related to the reactor accidents that occurred at the Three Mile Island nuclear power station near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, in 1979, and Chernobyl nuclear power station near Kiev in the Ukraine in 1986 The accident at Chernobyl involved Unit-4, a reactor that was a light water cooled, graphite moderated reactor built without a containment vessel The accident produced 56 deaths that have been directly attributed to it, and the potential for increased cancer deaths from those exposed to the radioactive plume that emanated from the reactor site at the time of the accident Since the accident, the remaining three reactors at the station have been shut down, the last one in 2000 The accident at Three Mile Island involved Unit-2, a pressurized water reactor (PWR) built to USNRC license requirements This accident resulted in the loss of the reactor but no deaths and only a minor release of radioactive material The commercial nuclear industry began in the 1950s In 1953, U.S President Dwight D.  Eisenhower addressed the United Nations and gave his famous “Atoms for Peace” speech where he pledged the United States “to find the way by which the miraculous inventiveness of man shall not be dedicated to his death, but consecrated to his life.” President Eisenhower signed the 1954 Atomic Energy Act, which fostered the cooperative development of nuclear energy by the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) and private industry This marked the beginning of the nuclear power program in the U.S ix 755 Index Emergency feedwater system (EFWS), 41–44 Emergency power supply system, 158–159 Engineered safeguards systems, 36–37 cold-leg recirculation mode, 41 component cooling water system (CCWS), 44–45 flow diagram, 45 safeguards and component cooling auxiliary subsystem, 46 emergency feedwater system, 43–44 flow diagram, 42 function of, 41 high-pressure safety injection, 38 safety injection/residual heat removal system, 39 safety injection system (SIS) design, 38 functions of, 37–38 mechanical components of, 40–41 system safeguards, 39–40 Environmental impact statement (EIS), 530 Evolutionary power reactor (EPR), AREVA-NP design, 64 Experimental boiling water reactor (EBWR), Experimental breeder reactor-I (EBR-I), External dosimetry electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs), 625–626 OSL and Film badge, 624 pocket dosimeters, 625–626 TLD badge, 625 F Fast-spectrum gas reactor concepts, 231 Fissile material, 412 Fluid-fueled reactors, Fluoride volatility processes, 327–329; see also Nuclear fuel reprocessing Fort St Vrain reactor design, 201 Fuel assembly, 25 dissolution of, 334 standard cold core geometry (SCCG), in k inf, correlation of, 298 Zircaloy fuel cladding, 26 assembly, component manufacture, 285 alloy manufacture, 286–287 process flow chart, 286 structural components of, 287 costs, 735 assembly, manufacturing of, 737–738 capacity factor, effects of, 740 enriching higher content of U-235, 736–737 fuel per kW hour, cost of, 738–739 nuclear power per kWh, total cost of, 739 spent nuclear fuel, government involvement with, 739–740 uranium, mining and benefaction of, 736 design CANDU 6, 37-element bundle, 478 and Indian 19-element HWR fuel bundle, description of, 479 enrichment of, 27 facility licensing structural components of, 287–289 handling new fuel assemblies, 56 spent fuel, 55–56 Fuel channel technology high-temperature/high-pressure boundary channels with, 166, 168 Bruce B fuel channel assembly, 167 Fugen and Cirene fuel channel, 169 SGHWR fuel and Gentilly-1 fuel channel, 169 high-temperature low-pressure boundary, channels with Atucha fuel channel, 169 low-temperature/moderate-pressure boundary, channels with CVTR, fuel channels of, 170 EL4 fuel channel, 169–170 Niederraichbach and Lucens fuel channel, 170 Fugen reactor, 163 G Gamma-ray compton scattering, 615 emission, 613 pair production, 616 photoelectric effect, 615–616 photon interaction probability in, 614 relative photon interaction probabilities, 615 Gas-cooled reactors (GCRs), 261 direct Brayton cycle, 230 Generation IV goals, achievement of, 230–231 power plants, R and D requirements for, 231 technology base for, 231 Gaseous waste processing, 57; see also Waste processing systems 756 Gas turbine-combined cycle (GT/CC) plants, 746 Gas turbine cycle, 724 system with Brayton, diagram of, 723 Gas-turbine modular helium reactor (GT-MHR) design direct Brayton cycle (gas turbine) PCS, 213 coolant flow, 215 thermal efficiencies, comparison of, 215 environmental characteristics deep-burn capability and, 217, 219 passive radiation and conduction, 217–218 resource consumption and impact, comparison, 218 heat removal system core heat-up temperatures with, 217 radial temperature gradient during, 216 reactor cavity cooling system (RCCS), 215–216 reactor system, 212 annular core cross section at vessel midplane, 213 coated particle design parameters, 214 nominal plant design parameters, 214 shutdown cooling system (SCS), 211 Gas-turbine modular helium reactor (GT-MHR) fuel cycles low-enriched (LEU) and natural uranium (NU) particles, 219 mixed actinide fuel cycles deep-burn MHR (DB-MHR), 220 self-cleaning MHR (SC-MHR), 220–221 thorium fuel cycles HEU/Th fuel cycle, 219–220 LEU/Th (dual particle) fuel cycle, 220 LEU/Th (single particle) fuel cycle, 219–220 GE14 fuel assembly, 289 General heat conduction equation boundary conditions, 651, 653 plane wall geometry, 652 cylindrical and spherical coordinates, 651 heat diffusion in control volume, 649–650 initial and boundary conditions, 651 Generation II PWR plants, 738 Generation IV International Forum (GIF) for Generation-IV nuclear systems, 228–229 Gentilly-1 pressure tube reactor, 163 Girdler-Sulfide (G-S) bithermal process, 172 G-S plant for, 173 limitations, 173–174 Index Global nuclear enterprise partnership (GNEP) plans, 744 Graphite-moderated sodium-cooled reactor system, Grid assemblies types, 25–26 H Hallam Nuclear Power Facility (HNPF), Head-end treatment, 332–335 Heat transfer and thermal-hydraulic analysis condensation heat transfer, 694, 697 film condensation, 697, 699–700 non-condensable gas, effect of, 700–702 core thermal-hydraulics analysis, 702–703 axial heat distribution in, 703–706 hot channel and burnout, 707–708 thermal-hydraulics codes, 709 two-phase heat transfer, 706–707 fuel and cladding materials, thermal properties of, 655–657 thermal conductivity of UO2, 657 heat transfer to coolant in single phase, 657–658 laminar heat transfer, 659–663 and materials, typical values and ranges of, 659 turbulent heat transfer, 664–670 heat transport in fuel element general heat conduction equation, 649–654 heat transport with phase change boiling heat transfer, 691–693 one-dimensional heat conduction equation large slab with, 654 solid circular cylinder with, 654–655 reactor coolants, 643–644 reactor heat generation fission energy in, 644–645 heat generation during transient, 646–648 heat generation in reactor components, 648–649 volumetric heat generation in, 645–646 two-phase flow, 670–674 choked flow, 684–687 counter current flow and flooding, 678–679 instability, 688–691 models, 679–681 pattern maps, 676–678 pressure drop and pressure gradient, 681–684 regime, 674–676 Index Heat transport auxiliary systems D2O collection system, 151 heat transport purification system, 152 pressure and inventory control system, 151 shutdown cooling system, 151–152 Heat transport system (HTS), 208 characteristics of, 146 Heavy water, 170–171 production ammonia–hydrogen process, 174 bithermal water–hydrogen sulfide process, 172 Girdler-Sulfide (G-S) bithermal process, 170, 172–174 prototype CIRCE plant, stages, 175 separation factors, temperature effect on, 171 water–hydrogen exchange, 174 water distillation, 176 Heavy water reactor (HWR) CANDU X concepts, 188 co-producing hydrogen process, 190 eliminating core melt, 190–192 fuel cycles, 193–195 pressure-tube reactors, SCW coolant technology, 188–189 fuel channel technology channels with high-temperature/high-pressure boundary, 166–169 high-temperature low-pressure boundary, 169 low-temperature/moderate-pressure boundary, 169–170 nuclear safety, 176 basic functions, 177 containment system, function of, 180 heat sink for, 179–180 Indian, double containment design, 182 LOCA, 184–187 multi-unit vacuum system, 181–182 reactor shutdown, 177–179 safety analysis, 182–184 severe accidents, 187–188 shutdown system (SDS), 177 single-unit containment system, 180–181 once-through thorium (OTT) cycle, 502 pressure tube type, 143–144 Carolinas–Virginia tube reactor (CVTR), 161 Cirene reactor, 163 design and operating characteristics, 144–148 757 Gentilly-1 pressure and Fugen reactor, 163 integrated 4-unit CANDU, 160–161 nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 148–160 pressure tube boiling light water coolant, heavy water moderated reactors, 161 steam generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR), 163 pressure vessel, characteristics of, 163 Ågesta and 57-MWe MZFR reactor, 164 Atucha-1, 164 heavy water moderated/gas-cooled reactors, 164–166 technology, 142–143 temperature and pressure parameters, 143–144 Helium reactor technology global foundation, 199 High-head safety injection (HHSI) pumps, 39–41 High-level wastes (HLW), 368 Highly enriched uranium (HEU), 219, 254 High pressure core spray (HPCS) system, 95, 97, 103 High temperature gas cooled reactors (HTGR), 643 BISO/TRISO-coated particle fuel, 200–205 designs, 205–207 modular high temperature gas reactor (MHTGR) steam cycle plant vessels, 207–208 PS/SC-MHR plant description, 208–209 Fort St Vrain reactor design, 201 GT-MHR design direct Brayton cycle (gas turbine) PCS, 213, 215 environmental characteristics, 217–219 heat removal system, 215–217 reactor system, 211–214 GT-MHR fuel cycles mixed actinide fuel cycles, 220 thorium fuel cycles, 219–220 uranium and plutonium fuel cycles, 219 helium reactor technology, broad global foundation of, 199 high-density inner pyrolytic carbon (IPyC) layer, 204 high-density outer pyrolytic carbon (OPyC) layer, 204 MHR next generation potential applications GT-MHR proliferation resistance, 225 non-electric applications, 220–225 758 modular helium reactor (MHR), 209 GT-MHR module, 210–211 Peach Bottom reactor PB-1, 198 isometric view of, 200–202 plants constructed and operated, 199 silicon carbide (SiC) layer, 204 steam cycle/variable cogeneration (SC/C), 202–203 type differences, 205 High-temperature teaching & test reactor (HT3P), 224–225 High temperature thorium fueled reactor (THTR), Highway route-controlled quantities (HRCQ), 428; see also Radioactive materials and spent nuclear fuel, 429 Homogeneous equilibrium model (HEM), 680 Homogenization process, 282 HWR fuel cycle technology data and formulae, 484 flexibility CaNFleX, Canadian and Indian experience, 488 diverse fuels, flexible designs for, 487–488 features leading to, 482–483, 485–486 fuel-cycle path, 486–487 fuel design, 477 CANDU 6, 37-element bundle, 478–479 fuel performance, 479 CANDU 37-element fuel defect experience, 480 load following capability, 481 natural uranium fuel cycle, 476 unit energy costs, 482 uranium utilization, 482 fuel cycle data and formulae, 484 and spent fuel arisings for, 483 Hydrogen, detection and ignition, 77 Index Industry Degraded Core Rule making (IDCOR) program, 533–534 Inspections, tests, analyses, and acceptance criteria (ITAAC), 532 Instrumentation and controls nuclear system protection system, 135–136 backup protection, 137–138 bypass and interlocks, 138 engineered safety features and divisional separations, 137 nuclear system isolation function, 136–137 power distribution and annunciation, 137 reactor trip function, 136 plant shutdown average power range monitor (APRM), 135 IRM, 134 local power range monitor (LPRM), 134 source range monitor (SRM), 133–134 plant, startup, 128 reactor startup and operation, 129–130 turbine startup, 130 power operation control rod adjustment, 130 pressure relief function, 132–133 reactor feedwater control system, 133 system control, 131–132 turbine bypass valve, 132 rod control and information (RC&I), 138–139 Instrumentation and control systems, 54–55 Integral fast reactor (IFR) process, 330 Integrated 4-unit CANDU HWRs, 160–161 Intrusive deposits for uranium, 249 Isolation cooling system (ISC), 119 K Korean 17 X 17 optimized fuel assembly (KOFA), 499 I In-containment refueling water storage tank (IRWST), 62, 77 PRHR heat exchanger, 78 AP-1000 passive decay heat removal system, 79 AP-1000 passive safety injection, 80 vents, 78 Indian advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR), 512–513 Indirect double cycle, 715 L Laminar heat transfer external flow, 659, 661 hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers on, 660 internal flows, 661, 663 hydraulic diameter and Nusselt number for, 664 momentum and thermal boundary layers, 662 759 Index Laser isotope separation (LIS), 275; see also Uranium enrichment AVLIS, advantages of, 276 isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX), separation of, 277 laser separation processes, 277–278 Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR), 239 design, 238 Generation IV goals, achievement of, 239 R and D requirements for, 239–240 technology base for, 239 Light water breeder reactor (LWBR), Light-water-moderated reactors, 143 Light water reactor (LWR) plants, 729 Limited work authorization (LWA), 530 Liquid fluidized bed reactor (LFBR), Liquid metal-cooled fast-breeder reactor (LMFBR), Liquid metal-cooled reactors, Liquid Radwaste system (WLS), 62–63 Liquid waste processing, 56–57; see also Waste processing systems Load changing by flow control, 115 Loss of coolant accident (LOCA), 103–104, 145–146 large break, 185–186 methods and tools, 186–187 small break, 184–185 Loss of emergency core cooling (LOECC), 145–146 Low enriched uranium (LEU), 220 Low level radioactive waste (LLRW) classes, 387 physical form and characteristic requirements, 386 requirements, 385–386 definition of, 384–385 disposal in United States disposal compacts authorized by congress, 392–393 operating and proposed commercial, disposal facilities, 393 waste acceptance criteria (WAC), 394 licensing requirements for design requirements, 396 environmental monitoring requirements, 397 facility licensees, 398 financial assurance requirements, 398 operating and closure requirements, 396–397 performance objectives, 394–395 site suitability requirements, 395–396 minimum waste requirements, 387 physical form and characteristic requirements, 386–387 regulations applicable to management of, 385 shipping designated, requirements for information required on uniform manifest, 391–392 transferring of, 389 uniform low-level radioactive waste manifest, 390 waste classification, concentration limits, 389 by long-lived radionuclides, 387 by short-lived radionuclides, 388 Low pressure coolant injection (LPCI), 94, 103–104 Low pressure core spray (LPCS) system, 95, 97, 103–104 Lucens reactor, 165–166 M MAGICMERV, 598–599 normal and contingency states, determination calculational methods, validation of, 604–606 common code systems, 603–604 documented process controls, results translation of, 606–607 fissile nuclides, single parameter limits for uniform aqueous solutions of, 601 metal units, single parameter limits for, 602 uranium-water lattices, slab thickness limit and volume limit for, 602 parameter-driven analysis, 599 contingency analysis table, 600 MHR next generation potential applications GT-MHR proliferation resistance, 225 non-electric applications alumina plant, 220–221 coal gasification, 221–222 coal liquification, 222 H-Coal liquefaction, 222 hydrogen production, 222–223 research/test reactors, 224–225 steel industry, 223–224 synthetic fuels, 224 Mixed wastes and dual regulation, 378–379 760 Modern aqueous reprocessing DIAMide Extraction (DIAMEX) process, 348 flowsheet and results, 349 PUREX process for distribution equilibria in aqueous systems, 344–345 head-end operations in, 332–335 nitric acid recovery, 343–344 off-gas treatment, 340–343 separation and purification, 335–338 solvent degradation, 339–340 waste generation and processing, 338–339 Selective ActiNide EXtraction (SANEX) process, 349 BTP test, flowsheet of, 350 TALSPEAK process, 350–351 TRUEX process, 347 flowsheet, 348 Universal Extraction (UNEX) process, 350 flowsheet, 351 UREX process, 345 flowsheet, 347 uranium and plutonium products, 331 variations in, 346 Molten salt reactor (MSR), 240–241 Generation IV goals, achievement of, 241 R and D requirements for, 241–242 technology base for, 241 N Neutron chain reaction, 575 absorption, 577–578 fission cross section for, 578–579 scattering reaction, 579 distribution knowledge, 580–581 flux deterministic and stochastic methods, advantages and disadvantages of, 581–582, 584 Monte Carlo methods, 582–584 transport equation, 579–580 Neutrons absorption, 617–619 elastic and inelastic scattering, 617–619 sources nuclear instrumentation system neutron detectors and, 27–28 reactor coolant piping and fittings, 28 Niederaichbach reactor, 165 Index Nonregenerative heat exchangers (NRHX), 119 NRC licensed packagings for transportation of TRU waste, 376 Nuclear boiler assembly reactor assembly, 95–96 core shroud, 97–98 reactor vessel, 96–97 steam dryer, 98 reactor water recirculation system and jet pump, 98 assembly, 99–100 control rods drive mechanisms, 104–105 main steam lines, 102–104 and motors, 101 operating principle of, 100–101 recirculation system, vessel arrangement for, 99 safety feature of, 101 valves and piping, 101 Nuclear fuel fabrication, 279 elements assembly of, 290 fuel bundle assembly process, 285 inspection of, 286 fuel module, 290 fuel pellet manufacturing, 280 Oak Ridge gaseous diffusion plant in, 281 powder preparation, 282–283 processing, 283 single fuel pellet prior to insertion into a fuel rod, 283 stacks of, 284 uranium conversion, 281–282 fuel rod fabrication process, 284 process flow chart for, 285 light water reactor, 280 process, 280 Nuclear fuel reprocessing chemistry, 317–318 global status of France, 355–356 India, 358 Japan, 356 Russia, 356–357 United Kingdom, 357–358 United States, 354–355 irradiated nuclear fuel fission product and heavy metal concentration in, 320–321 irradiated oxide nuclear fuel chemical composition and phases, 318–319 light water reactor (LWR), 332 Index modern aqueous reprocessing PUREX process for, 331–344 modern pyrochemical reprocessing, 352 cathode processing, 353 fast reactor fuels, 352–353 head-end steps and electrorefining, 353 HLW forms, 354 metal fuels, refabrication of, 353–354 nonaqueous processes fluoride volatility processes, 327–329 pyroprocessing, 329–331 PUREX process, 316–318 reprocessing methods, evolution of, 319 aqueous processes, 321–322 butex process, 324–325 fission product and, 320–321 PUREX, 326 redox process, 322–324 thorex, 326 uranium and plutonium products, 331 waste disposal and interim storage direct disposal, economics of, 358–359 Nuclear fuel resources conversion, 260, 262 light water reactors (LWRs), 261 milling, 251 mining method ISL mining, 250 thorium resources, 261–262 uranium and depleted uranium, 245–247 deposits, geology of, 248–250 market and prices, 259–260 mining, environmental aspects of, 251–253 uranium production, 253–259 and demand in, 255 highly enriched uranium (HEU), 254 plutonium, 254 uranium, resources, 247 known recoverable resources of, 248 Nuclear power, 728–730 competitive power sources, costs of coal and coal gasification, 745–746 comparative costs of, 748 future economically competitive potential applications of, 748–749 natural gas-fired systems, 746 solar energy, 746–747 wind power and backup power requirement, 747 electric power plants, costs for capacity factor, effects of, 740 761 decontamination and decommissioning, 740–741 fuel costs, 735–740 operating costs, not including fuel, 735 plant construction, 730–735 used plant market, 740 enrichment plants, 742 generation IV plans and (GNEP), 744 parks, underground siting of, 744–745 plant financing, economic infrastructure effects on, 744 and public acceptance, 383–384 public perceptions and radiation health effects, 743–744 radioactive waste storage issues and costs, 743 reprocessing and open fuel cycle, 742–743 smaller reactor systems, 745 superconducting national grid, 745 uranium supply and demand, 742 water availability and cost, 741–742 Nuclear power plant units by nation, reactor startup neutron sources, 27–28 types, Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), 58 Nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 11, 149, 714 balance of plant, 155 feedwater and main steam system, 155–156 fuel and fuel handling system, 148, 150 heat transport auxiliary systems D2O collection system, 151 heat transport pressure and inventory control system, 151 heat transport purification system, 152 shutdown cooling system, 151–152 models, principal operating data for, 11–12 moderator and auxiliary systems, 154–155 modes of operation of, 160 nuclear steam supply system, 11–12 power system station services, 157–159 automatic transfer system, 158 class III and IV power supply, 157 class II power supply, 157–158 class I power supply, 158 emergency power supply system, 158–159 stand-by generators, 158 station battery banks, 158 762 primary heat transport system (PHTS) in, 150 principal suppliers of, 12–13 reactor regulating system, 153–155 station instrumentation and control, 159–160 turbine generator system, 156 O Olympic Dam deposit for uranium, 249 On-power refueling, 485 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) badges, 623 Organic cooled and moderated reactor, P Passive containment cooling water storage tank (PCCWST), 82 Passive core cooling system (PXS), 62 Passive residual heat removal (PRHR) heat exchanger, 78 AP-1000 passive decay heat removal system, 79 AP-1000 passive safety injection, 80 discharge of, 81 Pebble bed concept with helium as coolant, Personal protective equipment (PPE) air-purifying full-face respirator, 637–638 ALARA principles, 622–623 fully-encapsulating suit, 637, 639 Radiation Work Permit (RWP), 637 Plant construction amortizing construction costs, 734 construction costs, amortizing, 734 economy of size, 734–735 experience to date, 730 Callaway 1200 MW-electric PWR plant construction, cost, 731 Callaway nuclear power plant, 732 consumer price index variations, 731, 733 financing, methods of, 733–734 Plasma separation for uranium enrichment, 278 Plutonium, 254 purification, 337 Pocket dosimeters, 625–626 Portsmouth plant, 269 DOE-planned Portsmouth centrifuge plant, conceptual drawing of, 271 Precompaction and granulation process, 282 Pressure drop and pressure gradient, 681 Index HEM model pressure gradient, 682–683 two-phase friction multipliers, 683–684 ratio of, 685 Pressure tube boiling light water coolant, heavy water moderated reactors (BLW-HWM) system, 161–162 Pressure tube type HWR; see also Heavy water reactor (HWR) design and operating characteristics fuel and fuelling characteristics, 145 heat transport system (HTS) and shield tank characteristics, 146 licensing, 147–148 low-pressure moderator, 145–146 reactivity control characteristics, 146–147 as reactor pressure boundary, 144–145 release of radioactivity in environment, system of, 147 shut down, accidents in, 147 shutdown cooling system and safe operation, 147 Pressure vessel Ågesta and 57-MWe MZFR reactor, 164 Atucha-1, 164 characteristics of, 163 heavy water moderated, gas-cooled reactors, 164–165 EL4 reactor and Niederaichbach reactor, 165 Lucens reactor, 165–166 Pressurized water reactors (PWRs), 525, 643 fuel assembly, 288 fuel types DUPIC core performance and characteristics, 501 nuclear power plant, nuclear steam supply system (NSSS), 11–12 reactor coolant system (RCS), 13 absorber (BP) rods, distribution of, 15–17 fuel assemblies, 14, 16 nuclear island, layout of, 14 pressurizer, 18–20 reactor coolant pumps, 17–18 rod cluster control (RCC) assemblies, 14–15 steam generators, 18 single indirect cycle, 715 Pressurizer safety and relief valve (PSARV) module, 72 Primary sampling system (PSS), 62 Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA), 533–534 aleatory uncertainty, 540–541 epistemic uncertainty, 541 level-I front-end analysis, 539 Index event tree/fault tree linking, 538 initiating events (IE) categorization, 537 level-II back-end analysis, 537, 539 level-III, 539 methods and tools, use, 539–540 risk, 536 timeline of, 535 PUBG code, 345 Public utility commissions (PUCs), 58 PUREX process for, 331 head-end operations, 332 accountability measurements, 335 receipt and storage, 333 separation from cladding, 334–335 shearing and dissolution, 333–334 nitric acid recovery, 343–344 off-gas treatment solid adsorbents for I-129 capture, summary, 343 wet scrubbing methods for I-129 capture, summary, 342 separation and purification Aqueous part, 335 end products, 338 low-acid flow sheet, 336 post-separation operations, 337 solvent clean-up, 337 waste generation and processing, 339 oxide LWRs spent fuel reprocessing, 338 Pyroprocess, 329; see also Nuclear fuel reprocessing and burner reactor, 331 fuel cycle, 330 integral fast reactor (IFR) process, 330 PYRO-A process, 330 PYRO-B process, 330 Q Quantitative TBP Extraction processes (QUANTEX), 344 Quartz-pebble conglomerate deposits for uranium, 249 R Radiation air sampling data, use of, 631 alpha particles, 610–611 beta particles, 611–612 bioassay measurement, types, 628 whole body counter, 629 Code of Federal Regulations 763 declared-pregnant females and, 619 dose limits, 619–620 general public, 619 as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), 621–622 occupationally exposed individuals, 619 planned special exposures, 621 shielding, 622 time and distance, 622 dosimetry external dose, 623 exposure control engineered controls, 639–640 PPE, 637–638 radiation shielding, 631–637 external dosimetry electronic personal dosimeters (EPDs), 625–626 OSL and film badge, 624 pocket dosimeters, 625–626 TLD badge, 625 gamma-ray and X-rays, 612–616 intake calculation, 628–630 internal dose calculation, 630–631 internal dosimetry, 626–628 neutrons, 617–618 Radiation shielding beta rays, 635 gamma rays, 631–632 buildup, 633 exponential attenuation, 632 geometric attenuation, 632–634 thumb, rules, 634–635 neutrons, 635–636 computer codes, 636–637 macroscopic removal cross sections, 636 radiation penetrability, 632 Radioactive materials, 404–405 activity determination in preparation for packaging selection, 408–409 communications requirements labeling requirements, 427–428 marking requirements, 427 placarding requirements, 428 shipping papers, basic requirements for, 425–427 definition of, 406–407 highway route-controlled quantities (HRCQ), 428 and spent nuclear fuel, 429 international shipments, 429–430 IP and additional packaging guidance fissile materials packaging, 421 764 freight containers, 419–421 IP-2 and IP-3 packagings design requirements, 418 IP-1 packagings, 416–418 pyrophoric class materials, 421 SCO wrap, 419 Type A and Type B general guidance, 416 material and packaging selection, types fissile material, 412 limited quantities of materials, 409–410 low specific activity material, 413–414 packaging and shipping, 415–416 SCO, 414–415 Type A quantity of radioactive material, 410–411 Type B material, 411–412 radioactive materials classification of, 407 exemptions of, 407–408 regulating authorities international atomic energy agency (IAEA), 405 US DOT, 405–406 US NRC packaging regulations, 406 transport methods and specific requirements carrier qualifications, 423 contamination and radiation control, 423–424 exclusive use, 422 incident reporting, 424–425 modal specific requirements, 424 special permits, 424 Transloading, 422–423 Type B notification requirements, 422 Radwaste volume reduction system, 58; see also Waste processing systems Rankine cycle, 642–643, 718–720 basic power reactor schematic arrangement, 643 diagram of, 724 Reactor auxiliary systems, 118–119 closed cooling water system, 120–121 ECCS network operation of, 123–128 emergency equipment cooling system (EECS), 121 fuel building and containment pools cooling and cleanup system RHR system heat exchangers, 120 RCIC system, 122 two turbine control systems, 123 reactor water cleanup (RWC) system, 119–120 Index SBLC system, 121–122 Reactor cavity cooling system (RCCS), 215–216 Reactor containment fan cooler (RCFC) system, 53–54 Reactor coolant pump (RCP), 65–66 cut-away of, 17, 20 design parameters, 67 Reactor coolant system (RCS), 13 absorber (BP) rods, distribution of, 15–17 fuel assemblies, 14 fuel rod parameters, 17 initial fuel load, three regions pattern of, 17 for present generation of reactors, 16 nuclear island, layout of, 14 operations, 20–23 pressurizer, 18–20 primary system pressurizer, 19, 23 reactor coolant pumps, 17–18, 20 cut-away of, 20 reactor vessel, cut-away of, 15 rod cluster control (RCC) assemblies, 14 control rod banks in reactor core, arrangement of, 15 steam generators, 18 cut-away of, 18, 21 principal design data, 18, 22 Reactor core analysis, 584–585 static reactor analysis approach burnup analysis, 588–590 control calculations, 592 finegroup nonresonance cross section creation, 585–586 full reactor analysis, 590–592 pin-cell and lattice analysis, 588 precursors, 593 resonance processing, 586–587 temperature distribution in, 594 tools and data, 594 Reactor core design ABWR core configuration, 107 core configuration, 108 core thermal-hydraulics, 113 Doppler reactivity, 116 fuel assembly bundle design, 110–111 description of, 108 design basis of, 109–110 fuel channel, 112 fuel rod consists, 109 GE14 fuel assembly, 109 fuel module, 108 nuclear calculations, 114–115 Index operating limits and damage limits, 115 power distribution and axial peaking, 112 reactivity control, 115 ABWR control rods, 110, 117 relative assembly and local power distribution, 113 RHR system LPCI function, 127–128 strain localization, 116 supplementary reactivity control requirements, 118 thermal and hydraulic characteristics, 113–114 xenon stability, 116–117 Reactor core isolation cooling (RCIC) system, 94 Reactor-following-turbine mode, 160 Reactor heat generation heat generation during transient, 646 American Nuclear Society (ANS) standard for decay heat calculation, 648 integrated beta and gamma emission rates, 647 heat generation in reactor components moderator, core elements and, 648 radiation external to core, 649 from radiation within core, 648–649 Reactor Safety Study (WASH-1400 report), 533 Reactor vessel head, safety design rationale, 79 reactor vessel head vent system design parameters, 81 vessel head vent valves and ADS valves, 80 Reactor water cleanup (RWCU) system, 93 Reactor water recirculation system, 98 control rods drive mechanisms, 104–105 fine-motion control rod drive crosssection, 105–106 jet pump assembly of, 99–100 operating principle of, 100–101 recirculation system, vessel arrangement for, 99 safety feature of, 101 main steam lines, 102 safety/relief valves, 103 pumps and motors, 101 reactor core design, 106 ABWR core configuration, 107 control rods, 117–118 core configuration, 108 core thermal-hydraulics, 113 Doppler reactivity, 116 765 fuel assembly, description of, 108–112 fuel module, 108 nuclear calculations, 114–115 operating limits and damage limits, 115 power distribution and axial peaking, 112 reactivity control, 115, 117–118 relative assembly and local power distribution, 113 strain localization, 116 supplementary reactivity control requirements, 118 thermal and hydraulic characteristics, 113–114 xenon stability, 116–117 valves and piping, 101 reactor internal pump (RIP), cross section of, 102 Recycled uranium (RU), 490–491 burning thorium Canadian experience, 502–503 Indian experience, 503–507 nonproliferation and safeguards considerations, 514 thorium fuel cycle options, 507–513 waste management aspects, 513–514 enrichment in HWR, benefits of, 491–493 higher burnup fuel design and, 493–494 Redox process, 322; see also Nuclear fuel reprocessing flowsheet, 323 plant scale performance of, 324 and PUREX process, 324 Refueling water storage tank (RWST) as backup, 30–31 Regenerative cycle, 720–721 diagram of, 720 T–S diagram, 721 Regenerative heat exchanger (RHX), 119 Reheat cycle, 721–723 diagram of system with, 722 Residual heat removal system (RHRS), 62, 94, 103–104; see also Advanced passive reactor; Chemical and volume control system (CVCS) AP-1000 normal residual heat removal system, 75 component data, 76 mechanical subsystems, 33–35 primary function of, 33 safety injection/residual heat removal system in, 34 766 Rod cluster control (RCC) assemblies, 14–15 control rods, 26–27 S Sandstone deposits for uranium, 249 Selective ActiNide EXtraction (SANEX) process, 349 flowsheet, 350 Self-shielded burnable poison, 118 Separation of isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX), 277 Separative work unit (SWU), 267 SEPHIS/MOD4 code, 344–345 Shallow dose equivalent (SDE), 620 Shippingport reactor, Simplified Boiling Water Reactor (SBWR) development program, 89 SIMTEX/QUANTEX code, 344 Slightly enriched uranium (SEU), 490–491 burning thorium, 500–502 Canadian experience, 502–503 Indian experience, 503–507 nonproliferation and safeguards considerations, 514 thorium fuel cycle options, 507–513 waste management aspects, 513–514 enrichment in HWR, benefits of, 491–493 higher burnup fuel design and, 493–494 Indian perspective actinide burning in inert matrix, 500 advanced CANDU reactor, use in, 495–496 DUPIC fuel cycle, 497–498 fuel design, fabrication, and, 498–499 HWR-MOX with, 500 HWR RU use in, 496–497 reactor characteristics, 497 reactor physics assessments, 499–500 mixed natural uranium, 494–495 Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) Generation IV goals, achievement of, 237 R and D requirements for, 236–238 technology base for, 237 Sodium-cooled graphite reactors, Solid adsorbents for I-129 capture, 343 Solid waste processing, 57; see also Waste processing systems Solvent extraction processes having interacting solutes (SEPHIS) code, 344–345 Solvent-refined coal (SRC-II) process, 222 Spent fuel pool cooling system (SFPCS), 300 Spent fuel storage Index canisters, 306 cross-sectional view, 307 criticality safety considerations BWR racks, 298 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 296 PWR flux-trap style racks, 296 PWR non-flux-trap style racks, 297–298 low-density rack design, 294 Nuclear Waste Policy Act (NWPA), 294–295 spent fuel pool (SFP), 293–294 wet storage BWR spent fuel storage racks, 296 material considerations, 301–302 non-flux-trap racks, 296 PWR flux-trap style rack, 295 radiological considerations, 301 structural integrity of, 299–300 thermal hydraulics considerations, 300–301 Spent HWR fuel disposal, 514–515 dry storage of, 515–517 wet storage of, 515 Spheroidization and lubrication process, 282 Standby liquid control (SBLC) system, 94 Station battery banks, 158 Steam condensing, 94 Steam generating heavy water reactor (SGHWR), 163 Steam generator blowdown processing system (SGBPS), 36–37; see also Chemical and volume control system (CVCS) Steam generator system (SGS), 18, 62 design data, 22 fluid instabilities and water hammer phenomena, 71 parameters, 70 requirements, 70 Steam turbine cycle Rankine cycle, 719–720 T-S diagram, 718 regenerative cycle diagram of, 720 T–S diagram, 721 reheat cycle, 721, 723 diagram of system with, 722 Sulfur-Iodine (S-I) thermochemical watersplitting cycle, 223 Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) Generation IV goals, achievement of, 235 plant design, 234–235 R and D requirements for, 235–236 767 Index Supercritical water (SCW) HTS coolant, 188 Suppression pool cooling, 94 Surficial deposits for uranium, 249 T TALSPEAK process, 350–351 Thermal-hydraulic stability, 115 Thermal power plant flow diagram of, 716 Thermal-spectrum gas reactor concepts, 231 Thermodynamic cycle, 713 first law of, 714 nuclear power plant, thermal cycle of, 725–726 P–V and T–S diagrams for, 716 theoretical-thermal cycle, 716–717 thermal energy and work conversion cycles combined cycle, 724–725 gas turbine cycle, 723–724 steam turbine cycle, 718–723 ThermoLuminescent Dosimeter (TLD) badges, 623 Thorex, 326; see also Nuclear fuel reprocessing chemical flowsheet, 327 Thorium resources, 261–262 transmutation-decay chains, 589 Transloading, 422–423 Transuranic (TRU) wastes, 368 case study, 369 construction, 374–375 contact-handled (CH), 371 DOE TRU waste sites, 370 economic impacts and cultural issues, 382 HLW, 379 proposed repository for, 380 LLRW classes of, 385–387 definition of, 384–385 disposal in United States, 392–394 licensing requirements for, 394–398 minimum waste requirements, 387 physical form and characteristic requirements, 387 shipping designated, requirements for, 389–392 waste classification, 387–389 nuclear power and public acceptance, 383–384 regulatory process and approvals licensing, 377–378 mixed wastes and, 378–379 transportation, 375–377 remote-handled (RH), 371 siting, 372–373 stakeholder conflicts, legal resolutions, 382 technical soundness, demonstration of, 381–382 WIPP operational status, historical decisions for, 371 repository, need for, 383 stakeholders, 372 withdrawal, 373–374 TRISO coated fuel particle, 204 arrangement in hexagonal fuel elements, 206 spherical fuel elements, 206–207 coating system, 225 fuel temperature capability, 204–205 Tritium extraction, 175–176 TRUEX process, 347 flowsheet, 348 TRUPACT-II design, 376 Turbine-following-reactor mode, 160 Turbulent heat transfer external flow, 664–665 fluid friction analogy based turbulent heat transfer relations, 667 instantaneous turbulent velocity, 666–667 heat transfer correlations, 670 for nonmetallic fluids, 671–672 internal flow, 667–669 Two-fluid model, 680–681 U United States Department of Transportation (US DOT) Regulations, 404 Universal Extraction (UNEX) process, 350 flowsheet, 351 Uranium; see also Nuclear fuel resources and depleted uranium, 245–247 deposits, geology of, 248–250 Eta value for, 579 market and prices, 259–260 mining, environmental aspects of, 251–253 natural uranium, 246 production, 253–259 highly enriched uranium (HEU), 254 plutonium, 254 Western World uranium production and demand in, 255 purification, 337 768 resources, 247 recoverable resources of, 248 total cross section for, 577 transmutation-decay chains, 589 Uranium enrichment, 265 aerodynamic separation methods, 278 chemical exchange in, 278 electromagnetic isotope separation, 267–268 evolution of, 266 gas centrifuge, 273 AVLIS process, development of, 272 configuration of, 275 cutaway drawing of, 274 process, 273 gaseous diffusion, 268 Portsmouth plant, 269 process, 270, 272 stage arrangement, 271 grades of, 267 and heavy water production, 143 laser isotope separation (LIS), 275 AVLIS, advantages of, 276 isotopes by laser excitation (SILEX), separation of, 277 laser separation processes, 277–278 plasma separation, 278 separative work unit (SWU), 267 thermal diffusion process, 267 Uranium hexafluoride (UF6), 270 UREX process, 345–346 flowsheet, 347 US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US NRC) reactor licensing process and combined license (COL) process, 528–529, 531 design certification, 532–533 early site permit (ESP) process, 531–532 new reactors licensing application, 528 public hearings during, 527 relationships among, 526–529 two-step licensing process, 529–531 V Vein deposits for uranium, 249 Very-high-temperature reactor (VHTR), 231–233 Generation IV goals, achievement of, 233 graphite-moderated helium-cooled with, 233 R and D requirements for, 233 Index Volcanic deposits for uranium, 249 Voloxidation process, 341 Volume control tank (VCT), 29–30 W Waste isolation pilot plant (WIPP) cultural issues, 382 economic impacts, 382 operational status, historical decisions for, 371 public acceptance for, 383 stakeholders, 372 legal resolutions, 382 technical soundness, 381–382 WIPP Land Withdrawal Act, 377–378 Waste processing systems gaseous waste processing, 57 liquid waste processing, 56–57 Radwaste, volume reduction, 58 solid waste processing, 57 Westinghouse NSSS models, 11–12 data for, 12 Westinghouse PWR plant primary and secondary loop, 24 radioactivity, confinement of, 25 tertiary loop, 24–25 Wet scrubbing methods for I-129 capture, 342 Wet storage; see also Spent fuel storage BWR spent fuel storage racks, 296 material considerations, 301–302 non-flux-trap racks, 296 PWR flux-trap style rack, 295 radiological considerations, 301 structural integrity of, 299–300 thermal hydraulics considerations, 300–301 X Xenon override capability, 114 stability, 115 X-rays, 613 Z Zircaloy, alloy of zirconium used for reactor fuel cladding, 26, 285-287, can cause hydrogen production in an accident, 77 ... 600 920 (6 3) 132 (3 35. 3) F 93A1 7000 29 (7 3. 7) 27.5 (6 9. 9) 121 12 (3 65. 8) 2785 900 960 (6 6) 157 (3 98. 8) F 93A1 7000 29 (7 3. 7) 27.5 (6 9. 9) 157 12 (3 65. 8) 3425 1150 1000 (6 9) 173 (4 39. 4) F 93A1... 1150 1000 (6 9) 173 (4 39. 4) F 93A1 7000 29 (7 3. 7) 27.5 (6 9. 9) 193 12 (3 65. 8) 3819 1280 1100 (7 6) 173 (4 39. 4) H 93A1 9000 29 (7 3. 7) 27.5 (6 9. 9) 193 14 (4 26. 7) 16 × 16 17 × 17 17 × 17 17 × 17 2.4 ... (3 65.8 cm) 0.360 in (0 .914 cm) 0.0225 in (0 .0572 cm) Zircaloy-4 0.0062 in (0 .0157 cm) 0.3088 in (0 .7844 cm) 0.496 in (1 .260 cm) 17 × 17 264 50,952 2.5.4  Coolant Pumps Reactor coolant pumps (Figure