Steam Generators for Nuclear Power Plants Related titles Nuclear Power Plant Safety and Mechanical Integrity: Design and Operability of Mechanical Systems, Equipment and Supporting Structures (ISBN 978-0-12-417248-7) Nuclear Corrosion Science and Engineering (ISBN 978-1-84569-765-5) Nuclear Corrosion Modeling: The Nature of CRUD (ISBN 978-1-85617-802-0) Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Steam Generators for Nuclear Power Plants Edited by Jovica Riznic An imprint of Elsevier Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom © 2017 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without 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have a professional responsibility To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-0-08-100894-2 (print) ISBN: 978-0-08-100928-4 (online) For information on all Woodhead publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Joe Hayton Acquisition Editor: Maria Convey Editorial Project Manager: Ashlie Jackman Production Project Manager: Omer Mukthar Cover Designer: Greg Harris Typeset by SPi Global, India Contents List of contributors Preface Part One Design and manufacturing Introduction to steam generators—from Heron of Alexandria to nuclear power plants: Brief history and literature survey J Riznic 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Brief history of steam generation 1.3 Splitting of the atom and emergence of nuclear power: Atoms join water and steam 1.4 Unique features of different steam generators 1.5 Steam generators literature survey References Further reading xi xiii 3 11 16 27 31 33 Nuclear steam generator design J.C Smith 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Specifications 2.3 Tube bundle 2.4 Overall steam generator layout 2.5 Circulation 2.6 Other elements of the circulation system 2.7 Feedwater inlet 2.8 Pressure boundary design 2.9 Conclusions 35 Steam generator manufacturing J.C Smith 3.1 Introduction, manufacturers 3.2 Manufacturing scheduling 3.3 Main sub-assemblies 3.4 Major assemblies 3.5 Final assembly and preparation for shipment 55 35 35 36 40 41 46 49 50 53 55 58 60 68 73 vi Contents 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Stress reliefs Inspection and testing Shipment Conclusions Thermalhydraulics, circulation, and steam-water separation in nuclear steam generators S Laroche 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Recirculating steam generators 4.3 Once-through steam generators Acknowledgments References 77 78 79 80 81 81 81 101 104 104 WWER steam generators L Papp, J Vacek 5.1 Description of WWER steam generators 5.2 SGs degradation 5.3 WWER SGs modifications 5.4 Integrity of heat exchange tubes References 107 Part Two Operation and maintenance 125 Steam-water cycle chemistry relevant to nuclear steam generators A Drexler 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Water chemistry treatments 6.3 Additional water chemistry measures for high SG performance 6.4 Water chemistry monitoring and control program 6.5 Summary References Corrosion problems affecting steam generator tubes in commercial water-cooled nuclear power plants J.A Gorman 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Primary side stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) 7.3 Denting References Environmental degradations in PWR steam generators I de Curieres Acronyms 8.1 Introduction 107 107 113 117 124 127 127 134 138 149 150 151 155 155 162 165 178 183 183 183 Contents 8.2 8.3 8.4 10 11 12 vii Primary side environmental effects Secondary side environmental effects Conclusions References Corrosion product transport and fouling in nuclear steam generators C.W Turner, K Khumsa-Ang 9.1 Introduction 9.2 SG design and the effect of fouling on performance degradation 9.3 Corrosion product transport 9.4 Fouling of nuclear SGs—plant experience 9.5 Fouling mechanisms—fundamental studies and modeling 9.6 Mitigating fouling of nuclear SGs—field studies 9.7 Summary and conclusions References Hideout, hideout return and crevice chemistry in nuclear steam generators C.W Turner, M Huang, A McKay 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Hideout and hideout return in flow-restricted regions 10.3 Chemistry environment in flow-restricted regions 10.4 Plant hideout return studies 10.5 Summary and conclusions References 184 194 207 207 215 215 216 221 239 250 257 262 263 273 273 274 291 303 315 317 Deposit accumulation in PWR steam generators Robert D Varrin, Jr 11.1 Overview 11.2 Deposit characterization 11.3 Deposit management 11.4 Mechanical cleaning of PWR SGs 11.5 Chemical cleaning of PWR SGs 11.6 Mild cleaning of PWR SGs References 323 Thermal performance degradation and heat-transfer fouling M Kreider, G White 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Quantifying SG heat-transfer fouling 12.3 Industry trends in SG thermal performance 12.4 Causes of thermal performance changes 12.5 Consequences of SG thermal performance loss 12.6 Effects of corrosion deposit removal 12.7 Conclusion References 365 323 334 344 345 351 360 363 365 366 373 378 392 393 396 398 viii 13 14 15 16 Contents Flow-induced vibrations in nuclear steam generators M Hassan 13.1 Flow characteristics 13.2 Tube vibration characteristics 13.3 Excitation mechanisms 13.4 Estimation of tube bundle integrity 13.5 Recent challenges 13.6 Summary References 405 Structural integrity assessment of nuclear steam generator S Majumdar, S Bakhtiari, Z Zeng, C.B Bahn Acronyms Symbols 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Structural integrity prediction models 14.3 Structural integrity of U-bends with flaws 14.4 Application of equivalent rectangular crack method 14.5 Conclusions and recommendations for future research Acknowledgment References 435 Nuclear steam generator inspection and testing T Sollier Acronyms 15.1 Introduction 15.2 ISI techniques and qualification methodology 15.3 In-service inspection 15.4 Water tightness of the tube bundle 15.5 Hydrostatic pressure test 15.6 Future trends for recirculating steam generator maintenance and inspection 15.7 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 471 Nuclear steam generator tube inspection tools L Obrutsky 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Historical perspective 16.3 Inspection tools 16.4 Data analysis 16.5 Technique qualification 16.6 Data management 16.7 Advanced and automatic analysis techniques 405 406 408 421 430 431 431 435 436 436 438 454 459 465 467 467 471 472 472 473 485 487 488 490 490 490 495 495 495 496 503 504 504 505 Contents 16.8 16.9 17 18 ix Inspection requirements and scope Summary/Conclusions Acknowledgments References Nuclear steam generator fitness-for-service assessment L.B Carroll 17.1 Overview 17.2 Repair criteria for steam generator tubes 17.3 Steam generator tube degradation assessment 17.4 Performance criteria for steam generator tubes References Regulatory requirements and considerations for nuclear steam generators E.L Murphy 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Regulatory requirements and considerations for nuclear SGs in the United States 18.3 Regulatory practices and tubing inspection requirements in Canada References Index 506 507 508 508 511 511 511 513 514 522 525 525 525 541 545 549 Index Condensate polishers (CPs), 327, 329 Condensate polishing system (CPS), 136 Condition monitoring assessment (CMA), 517–518, 519f, 534–535, 545 Condition monitoring (CM), SIPC, 437–438 Connors equation, 415, 420, 425 Contact modeling, 424 Cooper, Peter, Copper alloys, 223, 233–234, 262 Copper solvent, 356 CoreStar OMNI-200-TIP, 497, 497f Corner effect, 480–481, 481–482f Corrosion films, on SG tube, 302–303, 316 Corrosion product transport anisokinetic sampling, 237–238 vs feedwater chemistry, 235–236t measurements, 242 mitigation, 233–237 Mossbauer analyses, 225 origin, 221–227 phase composition of, 230t, 232t PLGS, 223–225, 224t, 228–231, 228t, 237 sampling systems, 237–238 during start-up, 228–233 Coupled environment boiling crevice model (CEBCM), 281–282 Crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD) model, 440–442, 442f Creep rupture model, 454, 455f Crevice chemistry, 273–274 calculation of, 292–293 ChemSolv, 292–294, 292np, 294t by direct measurement, 296–299 inferring from experimental/operating data, 299–303 MULTEQ, 292np, 294–296 pH calculation, 309–310 using deterministic models, 291–296 Crevice concentration model, 281–282, 284–285, 287 Crevice solvent, 356 Crud burst, 228–229 Crystal River-3 nuclear power station, 244–245, 290–291 CTOD model See Crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD) model 551 D Damping, 408 Darcy’s law, 278 Dark-field (DF) lighting, 339–340 Data analysis process hideout return, 307–310 SG inspection systems, 503–504 Data management, SG inspection systems, 504–505 Data Quality Verification (DQV), 503, 505 Degradation modes, 495–496, 505–506 Denting Alloy 600MA and Alloy 600SR tubing, 172 Alloy 800NG tubing, 172 consequences, 166–167 corrosion fatigue, 174–176 horizontal steam generators with stabilized stainless steel tubing, 173–174 IGA (see Intergranular attack (IGA)) locations, 165, 202 materials and design features, 166 pitting, 168–169 primary side corrosion, 177 secondary side corrosion, 177–178 secondary side fatigue, 174–176 secondary side IGA/SCC, 173–174 SG tube bundle, 201–203 steam generators affected by, 166–167 at tube support plate, 165f vertical steam generators with Alloy 600TT tubing, 172–173 wastage occurrences, 167–168 wear in horizontal steam generators, 176–177 wear in vertical steam generators, 176 Deposit minimization treatment (DMT), 395 Design-basis accidents (DBAs), 526 Deterministic models, crevice chemistry using, 291–296 Dimethylamine (DMA), 137–138, 257 Dispersant injection, 145–146 Dissolved hydrogen (DH), 190 Distance-amplitude correction (DAC), 474–476 Divider plates channel head and, 483 leakage, 89–90, 386–387 552 DMT See Deposit minimization treatment (DMT) Dodecylamine (DDA), 261 Doosan/Doosan Babcock, 55 DQV See Data Quality Verification (DQV) Drum shell, 64–65, 66f E Eddy current testing (ECT), 117, 117f bobbin probes, 495–496, 499, 500f instruments, 497, 502, 504 nondestructive examination, 459–461, 459–460f tube inspections, SG, 496–502 Edison, Thomas, 10–11 EDS See Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) Electricite de France (EdF), 245 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), 219, 260, 316 ANL simulation and, 453–454, 454f database, 27–31 flaw model, 444–445, 445f hideout return, 299–300, 304 integrity assessment guidelines, 513 observed vs predicted failure temperatures, 455f weakest link model, 463 Electrochemical corrosion potential (ECP), 201, 219 Electro-discharge machining (EDM), 455–458 PTW axial, 443, 444f unstable burst, 440 Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), 342 Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis, 290–291 ENSA, 56 Environmentally assisted cracking (EAC), 205–206 EPRI-Steam Generator Owners Group (EPRI/SGOG) process, 351–354 application, 357–358 copper solvent, 356 corrosion allowances, 353 corrosion monitoring, 353–354 crevice solvent, 356 Index deposit characterization/loading estimates, 354 magnetite solvent, 355 passivation solvent, 356 simplified P&ID for, 357f Equivalent rectangular crack (ERC) method, 459–465 approximation, 462–465, 463f eddy current nondestructive examination, 459–461, 459–460f fractography of SCC, 461–462, 462f ODSCC, 463–464, 464–465f PWSCC, U-bend with, 465 Ethanolamine (ETA), 136–138 Euler-Bernoulli beam, 406–407 Examination Technique Specification Sheets (ETSSs), 504 F FAC See Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC) FEA See Finite-element analysis (FEA) Feedwater distribution system, 116 Feedwater (FW) heaters, 216–217 Bruce B Unit 7, 231–233, 231–232t Bruce B Unit 8, 229–231, 229–230t copper-bearing alloys in, 233–234 corrosion products removed from, 226, 228–229 designs of, 221–223 FAC, 234 PHWRs, 223–225 PWRs, 223–225 FEI See Fluidelastic instability (FEI) FF See Fouling factor (FF) Film-forming amines, 146–147, 146f Filming amines, 260–262 Finite-element analysis (FEA) CTOD model, 441–442 elastic-plastic nonlinear, 448 PTW axial notch, 456–457 Fitness-for-service assessment accident-induced leakage performance criteria, 516 ASME Section III, 521–522, 522t condition monitoring assessment, 517–518, 519f degradation assessment, 513–514 deterministic modeling, 520–521 Index H* criterion, 512 MTFS, 512 ODSCC, voltage based criteria for, 513 operational assessment, 518–520 operational leakage criteria, 515–516 P* and F* criteria, 512 performance criteria, 514–522 probabilistic methods, 521 PWSCC, length criteria, 512 repair criteria, 511–513 requirements, 511 statistical models, 521 structural integrity models, 520–522 structural integrity performance criteria, 515 FIV See Flow-induced vibration (FIV) Flat-bar supports, 423 Flow-accelerated corrosion (FAC), 134, 221, 223np carbon steel, 233–234, 243 C&LAS, 204–205 pressure shell, 477 in steam cycle, 260–261 Flow cell model, 426–429, 426f Flow characteristics, 405–406 Flow-induced vibration (FIV), 221, 366–367 challenges, 430–431 design guidelines, 417–418 excitation mechanisms, 408–420 flow characteristics, 405–406 tube bundle integrity, 421–429 tube vibration characteristics, 406–408 U-bend tube array, 406f Flow-restricted regions chemistry environment, 291–303 ChemSolv, 292–294, 292np, 294t concentration processes, 274–282, 275t, 277f hideout and hideout return, 274–291 MULTEQ, 292np, 294–296 thermal hydraulic and chemical concentration process in, 275t Flow stress model, 454, 455f Flow velocity-dependent damping, 408 Fluidelastic instability (FEI), 408–409, 413–420 modeling, 425–429 two-phase FEI, 419–420 using flow-cell model, 426f 553 Fouled crevice, 282–287, 283–285f Fouling alternative amines, 257, 258f and BD efficiency, 254–256, 256t deposit loading and distribution, 239–240, 241t effect on SG performance degradation, 218–221 filming amines, 260–262 of horizontal SGs, 249, 249t polymeric dispersants, 258–260 sludge collector process, 261–262 tube bundle, 240–243, 244t, 250–252 tubesheet, 246–249, 246t, 248t, 254 tube-support plate, 220–221, 243–245, 253–254, 253f Fouling factor (FF), 367np advantages, 368–369 calculated for CANDU units, 383 drawbacks/cautions, 369–370 historical changes and trends, 370–372, 371–372f idealized thermal resistance curve, 373–375, 374f industry application, 368–369, 373, 377, 377–378f postoutage transient, 375–377, 376f, 389–390 recirculating SGs, 370–372, 371–372f validation method, 390–392 Fractography, 461–462, 462f Fretting wear, 421–424 Full bundle mechanical cleaning, 348 FW heaters See Feedwater (FW) heaters G General Electric, 14 Gentilly-2 Nuclear Generating Station, 220–221, 237, 240, 242–243, 245 Grover Shoe Factory, 10 Gundrilling, 62 H Hard chemical cleaning (HCC), 391, 393–394 Heated crevices, 274–275 carbon-fiber packed, 280, 283–284, 284f crevice chemistry, 298–299 554 Heated crevices (Continued) deterministic equilibrium models, 299 facility, 298–299 hideout and hideout return, 283f under nucleate boiling, 284–285f packed with diamond dust, 287 sodium accumulation, 285–286 Heat-transfer fouling, 365–367 advantages, 368–369 baseline clean performance level, 373 candidate methods, 367–368 drawbacks/cautions, 369–370 historical changes and trends, 370–372, 371–372f idealized thermal resistance curve, 373–375, 374f industry application, 368–369, 373, 377, 377–378f postoutage transient, 375–377, 376f, 389–390 Heavy water (D2O), 91 Helium test, SGs, 486–487, 486f Hematite, 225–227, 233, 256t Heron of Alexandria, 5–7 Hideout process, 219, 273 flow-restricted regions, 273–291 fouled crevice, 282–287, 283–285f molar ratio index, 299–301 sludge pile and tube deposit, 287–291, 288f, 289t species analyzed in, 305, 305t Hideout return, 273 calculation methodology, 307–308 of contaminants, 308 data evaluation and analysis, 307–310 flow-restricted regions, 273–291 fouled crevice, 282–287, 283–285f general procedure for performing, 305 maximum concentrations observed during, 311t objective of, 303–304 rationale for performing, 304 samples, 305–307, 307t sludge pile and tube deposit, 287–291, 288f, 289t species analyzed in, 305, 305t working within plant shutdown procedures, 304–305 Hideout Return Indicator (HRI), 301 Index High-AVT chemistry See Ammonia and hydrazine only (High-AVT) chemistry High volume bundle flushes (HVBF), 349–350 Homogeneous equilibrium model (HEM), 420 Horizontal steam generator (SG), 217–218, 249, 249t Hydrostatic pressure test, 487–488 I Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL), 453–454, 454–455f IGA See Intergranular attack (IGA) Image analysis, 339 IMGB company, 56 IMPSA company, 56 In-bundle water jet cleaning, 346–348, 347–349f Inductively coupled plasma (ICP), 341–342 Industrial Revolution, 6–7 INEL See Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) Inner-bundle lancing, 144 In-service inspections (ISIs), 459–461, 472 channel head inspection, 483–484, 483f, 484t European qualification methodology, 473 maintenance, 489 nondestructive techniques, 472 performances, 473 qualification methodology, 472–473 small nozzle inspection, 482–483 techniques, 472–473 tube bundle remote visual inspection, 477–478, 479f ultrasonic pressure shell thickness measurement, 477, 477f upper internal visual inspection, 478–479, 480f welds inspection, 474–476, 475f, 475t, 480–481, 481f In situ tube hydrostatic pressure test, 488 Inspection systems, 495 advanced and automatic analysis techniques, 505–506 bobbin probes, 499, 500f CoreStar OMNI-200-TIP, 497, 497f data analysis process, 503–504 Index data management, 504–505 equipment technology, 497 historical perspective, 495–496 independent analysts, 503 Mitsubishi Intelligent probe, 502, 502f motorized rotating pancake coils probe, 499–501 national nuclear regulators, 506 nonentry manipulators, 498–499, 498f plus point probes, 499–501 probe manipulators, 498–499 requirements and scope, 506–507 resolution analyst, 503 rotating probes, 500f, 501 technique qualification, 504 T/R array probes, 501–502 ultrasonic testing probes, 502 X-Probe, 501–502, 501f Zetec MIZ-80iD system, 497, 497f Intergranular attack (IGA), 295, 301 Alloy 600, 196–197f Alloy 800NG tubes, 171 Alloy 600SR tube, 170f at French plants, 301 new steam generators, 171 operating experience, 194–199 OTSGs, 170 PHWR Alloy 600 steam generators, 171 state-of-the-art, 199–201 Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC), 170–171, 436–437 ISIs See In-service inspections (ISIs) K Kinetic limits, 276 Korean recirculating steam generator, 21f Kurihara model, 447 KWU/AREVA NP Gmbh process, 358–359, 359f L Larson and Toubro, 56 Leak test technique, helium, 486–487, 486f The Leaver-Weaver model, 416–417 Lepidocrocite, 225–227, 233 Ligament rupture pressure, 438–439 ERC, 462–464, 463f inter-crack axial, 448 555 observed vs predicted, 444f, 451f PTW flaws, 456–457 surface appearance of notches, 439f Live steam, 325–326 Log-mean temperature difference (LMTD), 369 Loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) rarefaction waves, 532 Low potential stress corrosion cracking (LPSCC) See Primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC) M Macroscopic mass-balance model, 280 Magnetite BD efficiency, 255–256, 256t in corrosion product, 225, 225t, 233 deposit profiles of, 243 fouling rate of, 261 preparation, 226–227 solvents, 355 MAN company, 56 Manhattan Project, 11–13 Mass damping parameter (MDP), 417–418 Maximum tolerable flaw size (MTFS), 512, 544 McGuire SGs, 385–386 Mechanical cleaning, 144 advanced in-bundle water jet cleaning, 346–348, 347–349f full bundle, 348 HVBF, 349–350 pressure pulse cleaning, 349 thermal performance, 395 TTS water jet lancing, 345–346, 345–346f UEC, 350–351, 350f water slap cleaning, 349 Methyl-propanol-amine (MPA), 137–138 Mill-annealed Alloy 600, 156, 161–162, 299, 301 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI), 56 Mitsubishi Intelligent probe, 502, 502f Moisture separator drain (MSD), 223–225, 233–237 Moisture separator reheater (MSR), 223, 228–229, 234, 257 Molar ratio control (MRC), 299–301 Molar ratio index (MRI), 299–301 556 Morpholine, 136–138 Mossbauer spectroscopy, 229–231 Motorized rotating pancake coils (MRPCs), 459–460, 460f, 499–501, 507 Mount Vernon, 57 MULTEQ code, 292np, 294–296, 299 Multiple axial flaws, 448–452 failure maps, 450–452, 453f failure models and validating tests, 448–450, 449–450f N New Production Reactor, 156 Nondestructive examination (NDE), 496, 512–514 eddy current testing, 459–461, 460f ODSCC, 463–464, 464–465f role of, 506 Nondestructive testing (NDT) in-service inspection, 473 technology, 489 Nonwetting fluid, 278–279 Normal work rate, 423 Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI) 97-06, 526–527 Nuclear industry, 15, 255, 258 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT), 14 Nuclear power commercial, 13–14 emergence, 11–15 Nuclear Power Demonstration (NPD) reactor, 14 Nuclear-powered submarines, 12–13 Nuclear power plants (NPPs), 3–4 Nuclear reaction, energy from, 12 Nuclear steam generator design ASME code, 50 boiling film temperature, 39, 40f bolted closures, 50–51 broached plate, 47, 47f CANDU steam generators, 36, 46–47 circulation, 41–46, 45–46f feedwater inlet, 49–50 fluid-elastic instability, 48 hydrostatic pressure, 44 integral preheaters, 48–49, 49f lattice grid, 47, 47f layout, 40–41, 41f Index mass flow, 42 natural circulation, 42 pressure boundary design, 50–52, 51–52f recirculating steam generators, 41 Russian reactors, 41 Siemens designs, 48–49 single-phase flow, 42 sizes in PWR and CANDU plants, 53f specifications, 35 steam-water separators, 47–48 stress analysis, 50 temperature diagram, 38f tube bundle, 36–40 tube supports, 42–43, 46–49, 47f, 220–221, 220f turbulent buffeting, 48 two-phase flow, 39, 47 U-bend supports, 48–49 void fraction, 42 vortex shedding, 48 wrapper, 41–42 Nucleate boiling, 127–128, 274, 280–281, 283, 284–285f O Octadecylamine (ODA), 260–261 ODSCC See Outer Diameter Stress Corrosion Cracking (ODSCC) Off-line cleaning, 351, 352f Once-through steam generator (OTSG), 4, 216–217, 218f, 220–221, 243–244, 290, 326f with Alloy 600SR tubing, 161–162 Crystal River plant, 244 flow-affected phenomena, 103 flow paths, 101 heat transfer, 101–103 IGA affecting, 170 primary and secondary fluid flow paths, 102f RSGs vs., 324–327 temperature profile, 103f theoretical approach to solving, 103–104 On-line cleaning, 351 On-line corrosion product, 329f Operational assessment (OA), 437–438, 518–520, 545 Operational leakage performance criteria, 534 Index Optical microscopy, 338–340 OTSG See Once-through steam generator (OTSG) Outer diameter stress corrosion cracking (ODSCC), 436–437 in alloy 600, 196–197f in Alloy 690TT tubes, 437 ERC method, 463–464, 464–465f operating experience, 194–199 state-of-the-art, 199–201 U-bends, 437, 454–455 Oxygenated water chemistry, 140–142 Oxygen dosing, 139–142 P Papin, Denis, 7–8 Part-throughwall (PTW) crack axial flaw, 443–445, 444f, 456–458 circumferential flaws, 446–448 internal pressure, tube failure process, 438–439 stability criterion for, 444 Passivation solvent, 356 Patent Law, Pearl Street Station, 10–11 PHWR See Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR) Pitch flow velocity, 405 Pitting horizontal VVER steam generators, 169 vertical PHWR steam generators, 169 vertical PWR steam generators, 168 PLGS See Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station (PLGS) Plus point probes, 499–501, 507 POD See Probability of detection (POD) Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station (PLGS), 223–225, 224t, 228–231, 228t, 237, 240, 242–243, 255–256 Polyacrylic acid (PAA) dispersants, 258–260 Polymeric dispersants, 258–260, 396 Pourbaix diagrams, 302 Power Reactor Information System (PRIS), 3–4, 17t Power spectral density (PSD), 410–411, 411–412t, 412f PPC See Pressure pulse cleaning (PPC) 557 Preheaters axial flow preheaters, 91–92, 92f crossflow preheaters, 93, 93f Preheater thermal plate leakage, 90 Preservice inspection, 474 Pressure boundary design, nuclear SG, 50–52, 51–52f Pressure pulse cleaning (PPC), 349 Pressurized heavy water reactor (PHWR), 4, 159–161 Alloy 600 steam generators, IGA affecting, 171 CANDU, 24–26, 26f, 221–223, 222f, 243 case studies, 310–312, 312–313f pitting in, 169 PWRs and, 223–225, 225t Pressurized water reactor (PWR), 4, 134, 221–223, 222np, 238, 323, 365–366 advanced in-bundle water jet cleaning, 346–348, 347–349f Alloy 600MA tubes, 156 Alloy 600TT tubes, 157 Alloy 690TT tubes, 158 Alloy 600 tubes, 436–437 AVT water chemistry, 159t boiling regimes for secondary fluid, 87f B&W advanced series, 22f and BWR, 233 calcium and sulfate return, 315f case studies, 313–314, 314–315f chemical cleaning, 351 consequences of deposit accumulation, 334, 335f corrosion modes, 157f, 158–159t deposit formation, 330 deposit precursor source term, 324f, 327–329, 328t EPRI/SGOG process, 351–354, 357–358, 357f EPRI/SGOG solvents, 355–356 full bundle, 348 high-temperature iron step chemistry, 359–360 HVBF, 349–350 KWU/AREVA NP Gmbh process, 358–359, 359f of KWU/Siemens/AREVA type with Alloy 800NG tubing, 161 during main steam line break, 452, 453f 558 Pressurized water reactor (PWR) (Continued) mechanical cleaning, 345–351 mild cleaning, 360–362, 360f nonpreheat unit, 155–156 during normal operation, 440–452 off-line cleaning, 351, 352f once-through steam generators, 20–22 on-line cleaning, 351 organics and gases, 334 OTSGs with Alloy 600SR tubing, 161–162 particulate impurities, 330–331, 332–334f PHWR and, 223–225, 225t pitting in, 168 during power operation, 225t preheater, 155–156 pressure pulse cleaning, 349 primary fluid, 81–82, 82f primary-side scale layers, 382–383 recirculating, 19f RSGs vs OTSGs, 324–327 secondary fluid, 83–86, 83f secondary side deposits, 323, 334–344 soluble impurities, 332–334 solvent chemistries, 354–355 with stainless steel tubes, 156 TTS water jet lancing, 345–346, 345–346f tube deposit thermal resistance, 379, 379f UEC, 350–351, 350f vertical steam generators, 16–20, 155–159 VVER, 23–24, 23f, 162 waste processing, 362–363 water slap cleaning, 349 Western-style, 324 Primary head sub-assembly, 62–64, 63f Primary water stress corrosion cracking (PWSCC), 21–22, 156, 160f, 436–437 in Alloy 690TT tubes, 437 component-scale modeling, 191–192 conditions required for occurrence, 164 consequences, 164–165 damage modeling, 189–190 engineering basic tools, 190 internal oxidation model, 190 partition plates, 185–186 safety nozzles welds, 188–189 SG tube bundles in alloy 600, 184–185 shot-peening process, 188–189 steam generator bowl drains, 186–187 Index steam generators affected and locations affected by, 163–164 U-bends with, 437, 454–455, 465 Probability of detection (POD), 119, 502, 504, 506 Probe-drive technology, 496 PWR See Pressurized water reactor (PWR) Q Qualified Data Analyst (QDA) testing program, 503–504 Quasistatic model, 413 Quasisteady flow equation, 425–426 Quasisteady model, 415–416 R Reactor inlet header temperature (RIHT), 365, 386–387, 392 Recirculating steam generator (RSG), 216, 219–221, 240, 325f, 366, 384 at Bruce A plant, 244 design and manufacturing, evolution in, 488–489 fluid temperature variations in, 368f fouling behavior, 252, 255–256 fouling factor, 370–372, 371–372f with integral preheater, 217f vs OTSGs, 324–327 separation equipment, 384–385 Recirculation ratio (RR), 86 Regulatory requirements and considerations, for nuclear SGs, 525–541 accident leakage performance criteria, 533–534 in Canada, 541–545 condition monitoring assessment, 534–535 inservice inspection, 536–539 NRC regulations, 525–526 operational leakage performance criteria, 534 primary-to-secondary leakage, monitoring, 539 steam generator performance criteria, 529–534 steam generator tube integrity, 539–541 structural integrity performance criteria, 529–533 Index TS (see Technical specifications (TS)) tube-plugging criteria, 535–536 Remote visual inspection, 477–478, 479f The Requirements of a Perfect Steam Boiler (Babcock and Wilcox), RIHT See Reactor inlet header temperature (RIHT) RSG See Recirculating steam generator (RSG) Rutherford, Ernest, 11–12 S Savery, Thomas, 5–6 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 342, 343f SCC See Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) SCOPUS database, 4, 27–28, 29f Secondary shell assembly, 64, 65f Secondary side deposits, PWR SGs characterization, 334–335 EDS, 342 formation, 323 ICP analysis, 341–342 management, 344 optical microscopy and image analysis, 338–340, 340–341f reasons for, 352 RSGs vs OTSGs, 324–327 sample collection, 335–343, 336f SEM, 342, 343f visual observations, 337, 338–339f XRD, 342–343, 344f SGHWR See Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor (SGHWR) SGTR See Steam generator tube rupture (SGTR) Shanghai Nuclear Electric power Co., 55 Shippingport, 156 Single axial flaws, 440–445, 441f U-bends failure, models for, 455–458 Single circumferential flaws, 445–448 SIPC See Structural integrity performance criteria (SIPC) Sludge collector process, 261–262 Sludge lancing, 345–346 Sludge pile, 273, 287–291, 288f, 289t Small nozzle, in-service inspection, 482–483 559 Soft chemical cleaning, 360f, 394–395 ASCA, 394–395 DMT, 395 long-term effects, 395 Solubility-superheat ratio, 315 Spanish Almaraz Unit 2, 437 Spanish SG tube, 437 Steam boiler explosions, 9–10 Steam engine, 5–8 Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor (SGHWR), 238, 238np Steam generators (SGs), 3–4 accident leakage performance criteria, 533–534 APR 1400, 20 bowl drains, 186–187 circulation, thermalhydraulics for (see Thermalhydraulics, for steam generators circulation) corrosion products release, 192–193 drum/separator assembly, 74f drum shell, 64–65, 66f features of, 16–26 filet and flush seal welds, 72, 72f final assembly and preparation for shipment, 73–77, 75f forgings, 78 history of, 5–11 inspection and testing, 78–79 Korean recirculating steam generator, 21f literature survey, 27–31 magnetic particle, 78–79 major assemblies, 68–73 manufacturers, 55–58 material purchasing, 59–60 “no yield” criterion, 530–531 objectives, 57 operational leakage performance criteria, 534 patents, 29–31, 30f plate, 78 pressure boundary welds, 78–79 pressure vessel, 58 primary head sub-assembly, 62–64, 63f QA requirements, 57–58 radiographic examination, 73 RT examination, 78–79, 79f safety-critical roles, 215 “safety factor of three” criterion, 530–531 560 Steam generators (SGs) (Continued) scheduling, 58–60 secondary shell assembly, 64 separator sub-assembly, 66–67, 67f shipment, 79–80 stress reliefs, 77–78 structural integrity performance criteria, 529–533 tubesheet/thick shell assembly, 60–62, 61f tube supports and shrouds, 67, 68f tubing, 71f, 78 U-bend support, 72 welding process, 60–64, 72–73, 78–79 Steam generator tube rupture (SGTR), 438 Steam Generator Tube Testing Project (SGTTP), 544–545 Steam locomotive, 8–9 Steam-water cycle chemistry alternative amines, 136–138 ammonia and hydrazine only, 134–136, 135t calculated iron solubility, 139f chemical cleaning, 144–145 condensate polishing system, 136 conservation specifications, 143f control by additives, 145–147 copper-alloy plants, 130–131 degradation mechanism, 127–130 denting, 128 dispersant injection, 145–146 dissociat constants, 133f distribution coefficients, 133f Fe ion corrosion, 131f film-forming amines, 146–147, 146f flow-accelerated corrosion, 131, 132f guidelines, 149 high-pressure feedwater heater, 140, 140f historical evolution, 134 long-term feedwater iron concentration, 136f mechanical cleaning, 144 minimization of impurities, 147–149 NPP Isar Unit 2, 140, 141f nucleate boiling site, 127–128, 128f objective, 127 oxygen dosing, 139–142 oxygen injection, 140–142 pH-value, 130–133 Index plant layup and start-up, optimization, 142–143 quatrefoil tube support structure, 129f reheater condensate, 140, 141f removal, 143–145 SG clogging, 129, 130f SG fouling, 129 surveillance, 149–150 transport, 142f tube denting mechanism, 147f VGB guideline, 149 Steam-water separation, 90 Stephenson, George, Stevens, John Cox, Stiffness-controlled instability, 425 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) fractography of, 461–462, 462f inspection systems, steam generator, 496, 499, 501–502 surface appearance, 459f typical, 452f Stress reliefs, 77–78 Strouhal periodicity, 408–410 Structural damping, 408 Structural integrity, 520–522 condition monitoring, 437–438 multiple axial flaws, 448–452, 449f, 453f operation assessment, 437–438 prediction models, 438–454 severe accident transients, 452–454 single axial flaws, 440–445, 441f, 455–458 single circumferential flaws, 445–448 U-bends with flaws, 454–458, 457–458f Structural integrity performance criteria (SIPC), 437–438, 506–507, 529–533 Surface-active agents, 252, 258–262 filming amines, 260–262 polymeric dispersants, 258–260 T Technical specifications (TS), 526 alternate plugging criteria, 536 condition monitoring assessment, 534–535 conditions of, 527–528 evolution, 526–527 inservice inspection, 536–539 Index steam generator performance criteria, 529–534 steam generator program, 528–529 tube-plugging criteria, 535–536 Tesla, Nikola, 10–11 Thermal concentration process, 274–277 Thermalhydraulics, for steam generators circulation axial flow preheaters, 91–92, 92f carryover and carryunder, 91 cavitation erosion, 94 crossflow preheaters, 93, 93f divider plate leakage, 89–90 fatigue, 95 flow-accelerated corrosion, 95–96 flow-induced vibrations, 95 fouling, 88–89 heat transfer, 86–90 high concentration rate, 94 high fouling rates, 93 preheater thermal plate leakage, 90 primary fluid and, 81–82, 91 secondary fluid and, 83–86 sludge accumulation on tubesheet, 94 steam-water separation, 90 theoretical approach to solving, 96–101 tube plugging, 90 water level oscillations, 94–95 Thermalhydraulics, OTSGs flow-affected phenomena, 103 flow paths, 101 heat transfer, 101–103 primary and secondary fluid flow paths, 102f temperature profile, 103f theoretical approach to solving, 103–104 Thermally treated (TT) condition, 156–159 Thermal performance degradation, 219 broached tube support plate flow holes, 384–386 CANDU units, 386–387 clean performance level, 388 consequences loss, 392–393 definition, 365 hard chemical cleaning, 393–394 heat-transfer behavior (see Heat-transfer fouling) idealized thermal resistance curve, 373–375, 374f 561 industry experience, 377, 377–378f mechanical cleaning techniques, 395 objectives, 366 plant instrument measurement errors, 388–389 polymeric dispersant addition, 396 postoutage transients, 375–377, 376f, 389–390 preheater baffle plate fouling/flow distribution, 387 primary-side cleaning, 396 SG outlet nozzles/downstream piping, 385–386 soft chemical cleaning, 394–395 spatial distribution of fouling layers, 389, 390f steam separation equipment, 384–385 tube deposit layers, 378–383, 379–381f validation of FF method, 390–392 Thermal sleeve, welds inspection, 480–481, 481–482f Thermodynamic limit, 280–281, 284–287 Thermophoresis, 238np Throughwall (TW) rectangular cracks axial flaws, 440–442, 441–442f, 456 circumferential flaws, 445–446 Time domain modeling, 424–429 Title 10 of the Code of Federal Regulations (10 CFR), 525 Top-of-tubesheet (TTS) dot-mapped images, 343f sludge pile patterns, 334f water jet lancing, 345–346, 345–346f Transmit/receive (T/R) array probes, 501–502 Trojan NPP, 302 Tube bundle denting, 201–203 EAC, 205–206 fouling, 240–243, 244t, 250–252 integrity, estimation, 421–429 ODSCC/IGA, operating experience, 194–199 ODSCC/IGA, state-of-the-art, 199–201 wastage, 203–204 water tightness, 485–487 Tube deposits in free span, 249 sludge pile on, 273, 287–291, 288f, 289t 562 Tube deposits (Continued) spatial distribution, 389, 390f thermal performance changes, 378–383, 379–381f Tube fouling, 88–89 Tube plugging, 90, 535–536 Tubesheet fouling, 246–249, 246t, 248t, 254 Tubesheet lancing, 144 Tubesheet/thick shell assembly, 60–62, 61f Tube structural integrity, 409–410 Tube/support interaction, 423–424 Tube support plates (TSPs), 18–19, 216–217 blockage rates, 245, 333f broached-hole designs, 384 crevice, 285 deposit accumulation, 253–254, 333f fouling, 220–221, 243–245, 253–254, 253f “lips” protruding from, 244 remote visual inspection, 478, 479f U-bend supports, 245 Tube vibration, 406–408 Turbulence excitation, 410–412 Turbulence modeling, 425 Two-phase FEI, 419–420 U U-bends with flaws, structural integrity, 454–458, 457–458f outer diameter stress corrosion cracking, 437, 454–455 with PWSCC, 465 tube array, flow distribution, 406f tube support plates, 245 Ultrasonic energy cleaning (UEC), 350–351, 350f Ultrasonic testing (UT) probes, 502 Unstable burst conventional model for, 456 CTOD model, 440–442, 442f single axial flaws, 440 single circumferential crack, 445–446 tell-tale sign, 438–439 throughwall notch length and, 442f Unsteady flow equation, 426 Unsteady flow model, 414–415 Upper bundle flushing, 144 Index V Valves wide open (VWO), 392 Velocity ratio, 428 Vena contracta, 253 Viscous damping, 408 Visual inspection tube bundle remote, 477–478, 479f upper internal, 478–479, 480f Vodo-Vodyanoj Energeticheskij Reaktor (VVER), 4, 23–24, 23f pitting in, 169 with stabilized stainless steel tubes, 162 Void fraction, 111, 420 W Wastage, SG tube bundle, 203–204 Water jet lancing high-pressure, system configuration, 345f in-bundle, 346–348, 347–349f top-of-tubesheet, 345–346, 345–346f Water lancing and chemical cleaning, 242, 247–249 tubesheet deposit removed by, 240, 246–249, 246t, 248t Water slap cleaning, 349 Water test, SGs, 485 Water tightness, tube bundle helium test, 486–487, 486f monitored during operation, 485 radioactivity measurement, 485 water test, 485 Watt, James, 5–7, 7f Wear fretting, 421–424 in horizontal steam generators, 176–177 long-term effects of, 176–177 in vertical steam generators, 176 Weibull method, 191 Welds inspection, 474–476, 476f dead zone, 474–476 feedwater nozzle and thermal sleeve, 480–481, 481–482f pressure shell, 474, 475f, 475t steam outlet and flow restrictor, 480 UT oblique shear waves orientations, 476f Westinghouse electric (WE), 155–159 Westinghouse ROSA III, 498–499, 498f Index Wetted length, 280–281, 282f, 289 Wetting fluid, 278–279 Wick boiling, 279, 290–291 World Intellectual Property Organization’s (WIPO) Patentscope database, World Nuclear Association, 240 WWER steam generators blowdown, 115, 115f burst pressure, 118 chemical composition, 107, 109t cold collector, 107, 110f cold feedwater flow, 116–117 collector weld, 114f crack growth vs time, 120f degradation, 107–113 description, 107, 108f dissimilar shell, 114f ECT indication vs real crack depth, 117f elastic and plastic deformation, 119f erosion-corrosion damage, 107–109 feedwater distribution system, 116 hazard function, 123f heat exchange tubes integrity, 117–124 563 hot collector, 107, 110f impurities distribution, 114 measurement, 112f modifications, 113–117 parameters, 107, 108–109t POD curve, 119–120, 120f salt corner, 115 sampling points, 116 simplified model, 110f test results, 118f threaded holes bottom, 113f tube defects under support plates, 123f tubes damage, cumulative probability, 122f two-phase flow rate, 116–117 X X-probe, 501–502, 501f, 507 X-ray diffraction (XRD), 342–343, 344f Z Zetec MIZ-80iD system, 497, 497f This page intentionally left blank ... the steam generator (? ?C) (or alternately heat transferred at full power) Steam pressure at full power (MPa) Variation in steam pressure with power level1 (MPa) Full power steam flow rate (kg/s)... similar except for the (a) size (the WWER-1000 SG is about m longer), (b) tube arrangement (corridor vs staggered), (c) collector material, (d) feedwater supply location, (e) submerged perforated top... submerged perforated top plate (WWER-1000 only), (f ) steam dryer arrangement, (g) emergency feedwater distribution system (WWER-1000 only), (h) steam header arrangement, and (i) vessel material The most