Meanings of english prepositions over, above, under and below and their equivalent expressions in vietnamese a study in the light of principled polysemy

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES ĐỖ TUẤN LONG MEANINGS OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS “OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, AND BELOW” AND THEIR EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS IN VIETNAMESE: A STUDY IN THE LIGHT OF PRINCIPLED POLYSEMY NGỮ NGHĨA GIỚI TỪ TIẾNG ANH “OVER, UNDER, ABOVE, BELOW” VÀ PHƯƠNG TIỆN BIỂU ĐẠT TƯƠNG ĐƯƠNG TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT M.A Major Thesis Major: English Linguistics Code: 60220201 HA NOI – 2016 iii VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES ĐỖ TUẤN LONG MEANINGS OF ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS “OVER, ABOVE, UNDER AND BELOW” AND THEIR EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS IN VIETNAMESE: A STUDY IN THE LIGHT OF PRINCIPLED POLYSEMY NGỮ NGHĨA GIỚI TỪ TIẾNG ANH “OVER, UNDER, ABOVE, BELOW” VÀ PHƯƠNG TIỆN BIỂU ĐẠT TƯƠNG ĐƯƠNG TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT M.A Major Thesis Major: English Linguistics Code: 60220201 Thesis Advisor: Assoc Prof Dr LÂM QUANG ĐÔNG HA NOI – 2016 iv DECLARATION I declare that this MA thesis, entitled Meanings of English prepositions “over, above, under and below” and their equivalent expressions in Vietnamese: A study in the light of Principled Polysemy, is entirely the result of my own work The thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or tertiary institution, and to the best of my knowledge, neither does it contain material previously published or written by another person, except where due acknowledgement is made in the text Signature Đỗ Tuấn Long v ABSTRACT Meanings of English prepositions over, above, under and below and their equivalent expressions in Vietnamese: A study in the light of Principled Polysemy Linguists have known that prepositions, especially spatial markers, develop their meanings in semantic networks in which the prototypical meaning is the core from which other extended senses develop One framework offering such kind of semantic network is Principled Polysemy introduced by Tyler and Evans in 2003 This study focuses on providing additional information for the meanings of the four English prepositions over, above, under, below beside works presented by Tyler and Evans Comparative and contrastive methods were exploited to analyze data from three sources namely “Gone with the Wind”, “Vanity Fair” and 721 articles of contemporary topics on BBC and CNN The results show that over has two online meanings, under possesses one meaning not analyzed by two framework founders Particularly, over in certain cases means because of (reason) and by (a means to something), under is used to denote a situation or state that someone or something is experiencing Additionally, graphic illustrations for extended senses of three prepositions above, under, below were added, which facilitates learners to better construe the semantics of the prepositions The Vietnamese equivalents for those prepositions are presented systematically in the order of their appearances in the semantic networks, which makes learners‟ reference to those spatial markers more conveniently vi ACKNOWLEGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc.Prof.Dr Lâm Quang Đông for transferring me his specialized knowledge, his inspiring me the love in linguistics as well as his valuable suggestions, advice and correction during my the thesis throughout I also take this opportunity to thank all my lecturers in the Department of Graduate Studies at University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi for many of their interesting lectures, which have surely contributed to the foundation of my thesis Finally, I would like to show my deep gratitude to my family, especially my wife for her support, encouragement and understanding, without which my theis would not have been accomplished Hanoi, November 2016 Do Tuan Long vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES PART A: INTRODUCTION Rationale of the study Objectives of the study Research questions 3 Structure of the thesis PART B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1: LITERATURE REVIEW & THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Literature Review 1.1.1 Full-specification Approach 1.1.2 Principled Polysemy Framework 1.2 Theoretical Background 12 1.2.1 Important tenets of Principled Polysemy Framework in the light of cognitive linguistics 12 1.2.2 Principles of contrasting English and Vietnamese 1.2.3 Principles of semantic extension from spatial to non-spatial 1.3 Chapter summary 17 18 20 CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2.1 Data description 2.2 Research methods 21 22 CHAPTER 3: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Research question 3.1.1 New findings for the meanings of over 3.1.2 New findings for the meanings of under 25 25 31 3.2 Research question 32 viii 3.2.1 Graphic illustrations for extended senses of above 32 3.2.2 Graphic illustrations for extended senses of under 38 3.2.3 Graphic illustrations for extended senses of below 43 3.3 Research question 3.3.1 Potential Vietnamese equivalents of over 3.3.2 Potential Vietnamese equivalents of above 3.3.3 Vietnamese equivalents of under 3.3.4 Vietnamese equivalents of below 3.4 Chapter summary 48 49 58 60 65 67 PART C: CONCLUSION Recapitulation Challenges and limitations Orientations to further research 68 68 69 REFERENCES APPENDIX 71 76 ix List of Abbreviations CA Contrastive Analysis CL Cognitive Linguistics IELTS: International English Language Testing System, co-owned by University of Cambridge ESOL, British Council and IDP Education L2 Second language LM: Landmark ESL English second language learners TR: Trajector ULIS-VNU: University of Languages and International Studies, Vietnam National University, Hanoi x List of tables Table 1.1: Schemas proposed by Lakoff (1987) for over besides the central schema Table 1.2: Analysis of “British Ambassador in hot water over joke” Table 3.1: Paraphrases of (3.1) and (3.2) Table 3.2: Summarized information of over Table 3.3: Summarized information of above Table 3.4: Summarized information of under Table 3.5: Summarized information of below xi List of figures Figure 1.1: Central image schema Figure 1.2: The semantic network for over Figure 1.3: The semantic network for under Figure 1.4: The Rubin‟s vase Figure 1.5: The proto-scene of over Figure 3.1: The semantic network for above Figure 3.2: The More Sense of above Figure 3.3: The Superior Sense of above Figure 3.4: The Next-one-up Sense of above Figure 3.5: The Topographical-distance Sense of above Figure 3.6: The Less Sense of under Figure 3.7: The Control Sense of under Figure 3.8: The Covering Sense of under Figure 3.9: The Non-Existence Sense of under Figure 3.10: Semantic network for below Figure 3.11: The accurate semantic network for below Figure 3.12: The Less Sense of below Figure 3.13: The Inferior Sense of below Figure 3.14: The Next-one-down Sense of below Figure 3.15: The Topographical-distance Sense of below xii Next-one- His office is on the floor Văn phòng anh down Sense below mine nằm tầng văn phòng (LQD) They reached the little H tới thị trấn Topographi- town of Calhoun, six Calhoun, cách sáu cal Sense miles dặm below Resaca, phía ahead of the Yankees, Rasaca, sớm … quân Yankee… 10 (DT) Table 3.5: Summarized information of below Below also possesses five distinct senses in the light of Principled Polysemy Applying steps to find out over‟s equivalents in Vietnamese for below, we found that below has four equivalents in Vietnamese The central sense and the Nextone-down Sense are denoted by Vietnamese word The equivalents of below are shown as follows: BELOW (preposition) & At or to a lower level or position than somebody or something = E.g.: i When her eye caught his, he smiled, showing animal-white teeth below a closeclipped black mustache = Khi mắt nàng gặp hắn, mỉm cười, để lộ hàm trắng toát thú râu mép đen tỉa sát ii His office is on the floor below mine = Văn phòng anh nằm tầng văn phòng tơi 2A Of a lower amount or standard than somebody or something = thấp hơn, hơn, 10 Please consult footnote for Vietnamese translation of below in this case 66 E.g.: It [unemployment rate] dipped below 8% three years ago = Tỉ lệ thất nghiệp giảm xuống 8% cách ba năm 2B At a lower rank = thấp E.g.: I don‟t interact with Alan much, as he is below me in the law firm = Tôi không tiếp xúc với Alan nhiều anh tơi cơng ty luật Used to express the distance = cách (về phía dưới) E.g.: They reached the little town of Calhoun, six miles below Resaca, ahead of the Yankees … = H tới thị trấn Calhoun, cách sáu dặm phía Rasaca, sớm quân Yankee… 3.4 Chapter summary So far, we have found that over possesses fifteen absolute equivalents and eight dynamic equivalents in Vietnamese; above owns at least four Vietnamese absolute equivalents; under has four absolute equivalents, one dynamic equivalents and one translated version in Vietnamese; and four absolute equivalents in Vietnamese belongs to below 67 PART C: CONCLUSION Recapitulation As analyzed in the previous part, we have bridged the gaps that Tyler and Evans left when exploiting Principled Polysemy to analyze the semantics of English prepositions Firstly, we showed that besides owning 15 senses in the light of Principled Polysemy, over also is used to denote a reason and a means to something, under is exploited to denote a situation or a state that someone or something is experiencing Secondly, the graphic illustrations for all extended senses of three prepositions above, under, below were added Each sense has its unique spatial configuration denoting the relation between the TR and LM and of course, the human cognition of space is also mentioned in each sense Finally, we systematically presented potential Vietnamese equivalents for the four prepositions, which can be a good reference for Vietnamese learners to learn English Challenges and limitations Analyzing the use of the four English prepositions over, above, under, below from classic literature to modern articles in the light of Principled Polysemy framework is not easy work In fact, though Tyler and Evans provided criteria to count a sense as a distinct one, the authors had to consult other factors such as context, implied meaning, etc to analyze the sentences collected One point worth noting is that not all data (or sentences) collected can illustrate the senses of the four prepositions, so Tyler and Evans‟ sentences were reused, but those sentences were clearly analyzed simply because as Thora (2004) pointed out: … in spite of the authors' constant reference to their own proposed methodology, they not present a comprehensive overview of the proposed criteria for determining the primary and 68 further senses, for example, in the form of a list with detailed and specific information with regard to how the criteria should be applied, which could be used for reference… In addition, because Tyler and Evans only provided graphic illustrations for all senses of over, graphic illustrations denoting the relation between TR and LM of other senses of the other prepositions were added Those illustrations are generalized from sentences of Tyler and Evans together with data collected; hence, it is possible a better way to interpret the sentences in order to provide a more accurate configuration between a TR and LM in a sense The Vietnamese equivalents are found when comparing the classic novels with the translated ones, which can assure the accurate interpretations of context and the equivalent per se Additionally, it is impossible to find out the whole number of Vietnamese equivalents of the four prepositions; however, some translated versions are useful for learners of English because they have not been mentioned in any bilingual dictionaries We could not provide the exact numbers of sentences in which absolute and dynamic equivalents for each preposition This limitation will be taken into consideration in future research Orientations to further research The current investigation of English spatial particles over, above, under, below could benefit both teachers and learners in several aspects Foremost, classroom teachers can benefit this study in ways of developing teaching materials for students who are learning English as a foreign language (EFL) With presented findings, classroom teachers will be better equipped to prepare the materials that can enhance student understanding of language usage; and teachers may find it easier to translate the prepositions if necessary More specifically, when explaining the multiple meanings of those prepositions to students in a systematic way rather than as an arbitrary list that they have to memorize and presenting the semantic maps, teachers are able to enhance student understanding of the meanings of the markers and overall improve the correct 69 usage in real language Tyler (2011) surveys a growing number of classroom experimental studies which have applied the theories of cognitive linguistics to L2 instruction materials and demonstrated positive effects on learning grammar such as prepositions and modals As mentioned at the very beginning of the study, our aim is to bridge the gap that founders of Principled Polysemy framework left The framework would play an important role in analyzing spatial markers in Vietnamese because the framework proves itself workable in a variety of languages such as Russian or Korean In addition, several experimental research studies in light of Principled Polysemy could facilitate learners in their construal of spatial and directional markers Hence, there are two directions that we can go further The first one concerns the analysis of Vietnamese spatial markers, which could help not only learners of Vietnamese as a foreign language but also Vietnamese linguistics students have a better understanding of those markers The result(s) of such a study may make a contribution to knowledge of Vietnamese language The second direction concerns the material development for learners of English, which may make prepositions easier to construe 70 REFERENCES English Becker, A., & Carroll, M (1997) The acquisition of spatial relations in a second language Amsterdam: John Benjamins Bloomfield, L (1933) Language New York: Holt Brugman, C (1981) The story of OVER MA thesis, University of California: Berkeley Celce-Murcia, M & Larsen-Freeman, D 1999 The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher's Course Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Coventry, K R., Prat-Sala, M., & Richards, L (2001) The interplay between geometry and function in the comprehension of „over‟, „under‟, „above‟ and „below‟ Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 376-398 238 Evans, V (2005) The meaning of time: polysemy, the lexicon and conceptual structure Journal of linguistics, 41 (01), 33-75 Evans, V., & Green, M (2006) Cognitive linguistics: An introduction Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Evans, V., & Tyler, A (2004a) Rethinking English “prepositions of movement”: The case of to and through Belgian Journal of Linguistics, 18(1), 247-270 Evans, V., & Tyler, A (2004b) Spatial experience, lexical structure and motivation: the case of in In G Radden & K Panther (Eds.), Studies in linguistics motivation (pp 157-192) New York and Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 10 Evans, V., & Tyler, A (2005) Applying cognitive linguistics to pedagogical grammar: The English prepositions of verticality Revista Brasileira de linguistica aplicada, 5(2), 11-42 11 Goldberg, A E (2006) Constructions at work: The nature of generalization in language Oxford: Oxford University Press 71 12 Herskovits, A (1986) Language and spatial cognition: An interdisciplinary study of the prepositions in English Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press 13 Herskovits, A (1988) Spatial Expression and the Plasticity of Meaning In B Rudzka-Ostyn (Ed.), Topics in Cognitive Linguistics (pp 271-298) Amsterdam: John Benjamins 14 Johnson, M (1987) The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, and reason Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press 15 Kang, E (2012) Cognitive linguistics approach to semantics of spatial relations in Korean Unpublished Ph.D thesis Washington, D.C, USA: Georgetown University 16 Kreitzer, A (1997) Multiple levels of schematization: A study in the conceptualization of space Cognitive Linguistics, 8, 291–325 17 Lakoff, G (1987) Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 18 Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M (1980) Metaphors We Live By Chicago: University of Chicago 19 Langacker, R W (1987) Foundations of cognitive grammar, vol 1, Theoretical prerequisites Stanford: Stanford University Press 20 Langacker, R W (2002) Concept, image, and symbol: The cognitive basis of grammar (Originally published in 1991) Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter 21 Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk, B (2010) Polysemy, prototypes, and radial categories In D Geeraerts, & H Cuyckens (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics Oxford University Press: NY pp 139-169 22 Lindstromberg, S (1998) English prepositions explained Amsterdam: John Benjamins 72 23 Nida and Taber (1982) The Theory and Practice of Translation Leiden: E.J Brill 24 Sandra, D., & Rice, S (1995) Network analyses of prepositional meaning: Mirroring whose mind – the linguist‟s or the language user‟s? Cognitive Linguistics, 6(1), 89-130 25 Shakhova, D, & Tyler, A (2010) Taking the principled polysemy model of spatial particles beyond English: The case of Russian za In V Evans, & P Chilton (Eds.), Language, cognition and space: The state of the art and new directions (pp 267-292) London: Equinox Publishing 26 Talmy, L (1985) Lexicalization patterns Semantic structure in lexical form In T Shopen (Ed.), Language typology and syntactic description, Vol (36149) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 27 Talmy, L (2000) Toward a cognitive semantics, vol II, Typology and process in concept structuring Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press 28 Thora, T (2004) Review of The Semantics of English Prepositions [Retrieved from http://linguistlist.org/pubs/reviews/get-review.cfm?SubID=18309 on 20 June 2015] 29 Traugott, E C (1989) On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: An example of subjectification in semantic change Language, 57, 33-65 30 Tyler, A (2008) Cognitive linguistics and second language instruction In N Ellis, & P Robinson (Eds.), Handbook of cognitive linguistics and second language acquisition (pp 456-488) NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates 31 Tyler et al (2011) Applying Cognitive Linguistics to Learning the Semantics of English to, for and at: An Experimental Investigation VIGO International Journal of Applied Linguistics Special Issue: Language and Cognition 181-206 32 Tyler, A (2012) Cognitive linguistics and second language learning: Theoretical basics and experimental evidence UK: Routledge p.244 73 33 Tyler, A., & Evans, V (2000) My first husband was Italian: Examining “exceptional” uses of English tense Linguistic Agency of University of Duisburg (L.A.U.D) Series A: General and Theoretical Papers 34 Tyler, A., & Evans, V (2001a) Reconsidering prepositional polysemy networks: the case of over Language, 77(4), 724-765 35 Tyler, A., & Evans, V (2001b) The Spatialization of Tense: A Cognitive Investigation of Exceptional Uses of English Tense In M Putz, S Niemeier, & R Dirven (Eds.), Cognitive linguistic approaches to language pedagogy (pp 63105) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 36 Tyler, A., & Evans, V (2003) The semantics of English prepositions: Spatial scenes, embodied meaning, and cognition Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 37 Tyler, A., & Evans, V (2004) Applying cognitive linguistics to pedagogical grammar: the case of over In M Achard, & S Niemeier (Eds.), Cognitive linguistics, second language acquisition, and foreign language teaching (pp 257280) Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 38 Ungerer, F., & Schmid, H (1996) An introduction to cognitive linguistics London and New York: Longman 39 Vandeloise, C (1991) Spatial prepositions: A case study from French Chicago: University Of Chicago Press 40 Vandeloise, C (1994) Methodology and analyses of the preposition in Cognitive Linguistics, 5(2), 157-184 41 Zlatev, J (2006) Spatial Expressions In K Brown (Ed.), Concise encyclopedia of semantics (pp 902-908) Oxford, UK: Elsevier Vietnamese Lê Quang Thiêm (2005) Nghiên cứu đối chiếu ngôn ngữ Hà Nội: Nxb Đại h c Quốc gia Hà Nội 74 Nguyễn H ng Cổn (2001) Vấn đề tương đương dịch thuật Tạp chí Ngơn ngữ số 11, 2001 Nguyễn H ng Cổn (2005) Dịch thuật: chất số mơ hình lý thuyết Trong “Việt ngữ học ánh sáng lí thuyết đại” Hà Nội: Nxb KHXH 2005 Nguyễn Thiện Giáp (2012) Phương pháp luận phương pháp nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ Hà Nội: Nxb Giáo dục Trần Quang Hải (2001) Nghiên cứu giới từ định vị theo hướng ngữ dụng (trên liệu tiếng Anh tiếng Việt) Luận án Tiến sĩ Trường ĐHKHXH&NV ĐHQGHN Tyler and Evans (2003) Ngữ nghĩa giới từ tiếng Anh: Khung cảnh Không gian, Nghĩa nghiệm thân Tri nhận (Lâm Quang Đông Nguyễn Minh Hà dịch) Hà Nội: Nxb Đại h c Quốc gia Hà Nội (sắp phát hành) 75 APPENDIX BẢNG HỎI Kính chào Thầy/ Cô! Em làm đề tài ngữ nghĩa giới từ không gian tiếng Anh phương tiện biểu đạt tương đương tiếng Việt Hãy ch n phương án mà Thầy/ Cô cho câu dịch sát từ tiếng Anh sang tiếng Việt British Ambassador in hot water over joke A Đại sứ Anh gặp h a câu nói đùa B Đại sứ Anh gặp h a câu nói đùa C Đại sứ Anh gặp h a câu nói đùa D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………………… There was some pressure from sponsors last year over the actual awarding of the World Cup to Qatar A Có chút sức ép từ nhà tài trợ việc trao quyền đăng cai World Cup cho Qatar năm ngối B Có chút sức ép từ nhà tài trợ việc trao quyền đăng cai World Cup cho Qatar năm ngối C Có chút sức ép từ nhà tài trợ việc trao quyền đăng cai World Cup cho Qatar năm ngoái D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………… France teachers strike over government reforms A Giáo viên Pháp đình cơng cải cách phủ B Giáo viên Pháp đình cơng cải cách phủ C Giáo viên Pháp đình cơng cải cách phủ D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………… Penalties were also handed to Lazio, AC Milan, Fiorentina and Reggina over attempts to influence refereeing appointments 76 A Lazio, AC Milan, Fiorentina Reggina c ng phải chịu án phạt gây tác động tới việc ch n tr ng tài B Lazio, AC Milan, Fiorentina Reggina c ng phải chịu án phạt gây tác động tới việc ch n tr ng tài C Lazio, AC Milan, Fiorentina Reggina c ng phải chịu án phạt gây tác động tới việc ch n tr ng tài D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………… The US has charged six Chinese nationals over the alleged theft of technology used in mobile phones A Mĩ truy tố sáu người Trung Quốc tội ăn cắp công nghệ điện thoại di động B Mĩ truy tố sáu người Trung Quốc [tội] ăn cắp công nghệ điện thoại di động C Mĩ truy tố sáu người Trung Quốc tội ăn cắp công nghệ điện thoại di động D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ………………………………… The fight over middle-class jobs and free trade A Cuộc chiến việc làm giới trung lưu tự thương mại B Cuộc chiến việc làm giới trung lưu tự thương mại C Cuộc chiến việc làm giới trung lưu tự thương mại D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………… Sri Lanka cricket officials removed over harassment claims A Quan chức môn Cricket Sri Lanka chức bị cáo buộc quấy rối B Quan chức môn Cricket Sri Lanka chức bị cáo buộc quấy rối C Quan chức môn Cricket Sri Lanka chức bị cáo buộc quấy rối D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): …………………………… 77 But the announcement Wednesday that U.S authorities had indicted nine FIFA officials as well as five sports media over alleged kickbacks of more than $150 million dating back more than 20 years changed the narrative A Nhưng thông tin công bố hôm thứ tư nhà chức trách Hoa Kỳ truy tố chín quan chức FIFA c ng năm cơng ty truyền thơng khoản lại 150 triệu đô la làm thay đổi câu chuyện B Nhưng thông tin công bố hôm thứ tư nhà chức trách Hoa Kỳ truy tố chín quan chức FIFA c ng năm cơng ty truyền thông khoản lại 150 triệu đô la làm thay đổi câu chuyện C Nhưng thông tin công bố hôm thứ tư nhà chức trách Hoa Kỳ truy tố chín quan chức FIFA c ng năm công ty truyền thông khoản lại 150 triệu đô la làm thay đổi câu chuyện D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): …………………………………… This game and last weekend's against Northampton are below the standards we'd expected A Trận trận cuối tuần trước với Northampton khơng xứng đáng với kì v ng B Trận trận cuối tuần trước với Northampton kì v ng chúng tơi C Trận trận cuối tuần trước với Northampton thấp kì v ng chúng tơi D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ………………………………… 10 "People are still under tents in the open parade ground and they cannot go back home," he said A Nhiều người lều thuộc khu biểu tình h khơng thể nhà B Nhiều người lều thuộc khu biểu tình h khơng thể nhà C Nhiều người bên lều thuộc khu biểu tình h khơng thể nhà D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): …………………………………… 11 That's nearly 20,000 miles under your own steam 78 A Khoảng cách phải vượt qua lên đến gần 20 nghìn dặm sức lực thân bạn B Khoảng cách phải vượt qua lên đến gần 20 nghìn dặm với sức lực thân bạn C Khoảng cách phải vượt qua lên đến gần 20 nghìn dặm sức lực thân bạn D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………… 12 "We went straight in above Noel and I absolutely love Oasis, so that's pretty cool," says Larke A Larke nói “Ngay từ đầu l t vào bảng xếp hạng xếp Noel hiển nhiên yêu ban nhạc Oasis; thật tuyệt!” B Larke nói “Ngay từ đầu l t vào bảng xếp hạng đứng Noel hiển nhiên yêu ban nhạc Oasis; thật tuyệt!” C Larke nói “Ngay từ đầu l t vào bảng xếp hạng Noel hiển nhiên yêu ban nhạc Oasis; thật tuyệt!” D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ………………………………… 13 This saw the Swiss adventurer having to circle above Nagoya while preparations were made beneath him A Điều khiến phi công người Thụy Sĩ phải bay vòng quanh Nagoya người ta chuẩn bị [bãi đáp] cho anh phía B Điều khiến phi công người Thụy Sĩ phải bay vòng quanh vùng trời Nagoya người ta chuẩn bị [bãi đáp] cho anh phía C Điều khiến phi cơng người Thụy Sĩ phải bay vòng quanh Nagoya người ta chuẩn bị [bãi đáp] cho anh phía D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): …………………………………… 14 Beijing claims a centuries-old sovereignty over the region, but many Tibetans argue that Tibet was colonised 79 A Bắc Kinh tuyên bố chủ quyền với toàn vùng lãnh thổ nhiều người Tây Tạng lập luận Tây Tạng bị cưỡng đoạt B Bắc Kinh tuyên bố chủ quyền toàn vùng lãnh thổ nhiều người Tây Tạng lập luận Tây Tạng bị cưỡng đoạt C Bắc Kinh tuyên bố chủ quyền toàn vùng lãnh thổ nhiều người Tây Tạng lập luận Tây Tạng bị cưỡng đoạt D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………… 15 We heard it over the radio A Chúng nghe chuyện qua đài B Chúng tơi nghe chuyện đài C Chúng tơi nghe chuyện nhờ đài D: Phương án khác (xin đề xuất): ……………………………………… 80 ... conduct a study for my M .A thesis entitled Meanings of English prepositions "over, above, under and below" and their equivalent expressions in Vietnamese: A study in the light of Principled Polysemy. .. under and below and their equivalent expressions in Vietnamese: A study in the light of Principled Polysemy Linguists have known that prepositions, especially spatial markers, develop their meanings. .. prepositions over, above, under and below and their equivalent expressions in Vietnamese: A study in the light of Principled Polysemy, is entirely the result of my own work The thesis contains