MEANINGS OF PREPOSITIONS OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, BELOW IN ENGLISH AND THE VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS FROM a COGNITIVE SEMANTICS PERSPECTIVE

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY M.A THESIS MEANINGS OF PREPOSITIONS OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, BELOW IN ENGLISH AND THE VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS FROM A COGNITIVE SEMANTICS PERSPECTIVE (CÁC NÉT NGHĨA CỦA CÁC GIỚI TỪ OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, BELOW TRONG TIẾNG ANH VÀ TƯƠNG ĐƯƠNG TRONG TIẾNG VIỆT DƯỚI GÓC NHÌN NGỮ NGHĨAHỌC TRI NHẬN) DAO THI HUONG Field: English Language Code: 60220201 Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Tuyet Minh Hanoi, 1/2018 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I certify that the thesis entitled “Meanings of prepositions over, above, under, below in English and theVietnamese equivalents from a cognitive semantics perspective” is the result of my own research and the substances of this thesis has not, wholly or in part, been submitted for a degree to any other university or institution Ha Noi, January, 2018 Đào Thị Hương SUPERVISOR Approved by Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Tuyet Minh i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has, in many senses, been accomplished with the help and encouragement of many people Therefore, I hereby would like to express my appreciation to all of them First of all, I would like to acknowledge my depth of gratitude to my supervisor, Assoc Prof Dr Hoang Tuyet Minh, lecturer of Hanoi Open University Institute, who has not only encouraged me to this study but also given invaluable ideas and enormously helpful guidance My sincere thanks also go to all staffs of the Department of Post Graduate and Hanoi Open University for their valuable lessons and precious help Thanks to them, I could overcome enormous obstacles when doing this research Besides, I would like to give my heartfelt thanks to the teachers and the students at the People’s Police University of Technology and Logistics for participating in this research Without their help, I would not have been able to complete this thesis Last but not least, I also owe the deepest gratitude to my parents and my boyfriend, my colleagues, my friends for their constant support and thorough understanding Their great encouragement and love have helped me to overcome the difficulties during my study ii ABSTRACT The thesis studies the meanings of four vertical prepositions above, over, below, and under to find out their similarities and differences The theory of cognitive linguistics and cognitive semantics are used as fundamental framework background for the research.The data are collected and analyzedin three famous literary works that are represented by the tables and figures They were grouped and analyzed through using image schemas (analyzing spatial senses) and metaphorical structures (analyzing metaphorical expressions or non-spatial senses) Investigating of four described prepositionsthrough the up-down schema gave the results but there are still some differences in characteristics of the trajector and the landmark and the Vietnamese equivalents of these prepositions These differences cause different spatial senses and metaphorical uses of the prepositions and synonyms that made some common errors by the first year non-major students at The Police People University of Technology and Logistics iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Certificate of originality i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Table of contents iv List of tables and graphs vi CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale for the study 1.2 Aims and objectives of the study 1.3 Research questions 1.4 Methods of the study 1.5 Scope of the study 1.6 Significance of the study 1.7 Design of the study CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Previous studies 2.2 Cognitive Linguistics 2.3 A brief overview of Cognitive semantics 11 2.4 Spatial prepositions and semantic perspectives on spatial prepositions 13 2.5 Cognitive semantics approach to prepositions 15 2.5.1 Spatial domain and dimensionality 15 2.5.2 Spatial characteristics of trajectors (TR) and landmarks (LM) 16 2.5.3 Categorization and semantic structure 17 2.5.4 Metaphor and Spatial Prepositions 20 2.6 Summary 23 CHAPTER 3: PREPOSITIONS OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, BELOWIN ENGLISH AND THE VIETNAMESE EQUIVALENTS FROM A COGNITIVE SEMANTICS PERSPECTIVE 25 3.1 The semantic features of over, above, under, below in English 25 3.1.1 Spatial senses of over 25 3.1.2 Spatial senses of above 28 3.1.3 Spatial senses of under 29 3.1.4 Spatial senses of below 31 3.1.5 Non- spatial senses of over 32 iv 3.1.6 Non- spatial senses of above 36 3.1.7 Non-spatial senses of under 36 3.1.8 Non-spatial senses of below 40 3.2 Prepositions over, above, under, below in English and their Vietnamese equivalents 41 3.2.1 “over” and the Vietnamese equivalents 41 3.2.2 “above” and the Vietnamese equivalents 42 3.2.3 “under” and the Vietnamese equivalents 43 3.2.4 “below” and the Vietnamese equivalents 44 3.3 Summary 44 CHAPTER 4: SOME COMMON ERRORS OF USING PREPOSITIONS “OVER, ABOVE, UNDER, BELOW” IN ENGLISH MADE BY THE FIRST YEAR NON-MAJOR STUDENTS AT THE POLICE PEOPLE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AND LOGISTICS 47 4.1 Survey questionnaires 47 4.1.1 Subjects 47 4.1.2 Questionnaires 47 4.1.3 Procedure 47 4.2 Common errors made by learners of English when using the prepositions over, above, under, below 48 4.2.1 Theory of error analysis and contrastive analysis 48 4.2.2 Students’ perception of learning using English prepositions 52 4.2.3 Learner’s factors hinder in using prepositions over, above, under, below 53 4.3 Suggestions for teaching and learning English prepositions 57 4.3.1 Suggestions for teaching English prepositions 57 4.3.2 Suggestions for learning English prepositions 57 4.4 Summary 58 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 59 5.1 Concluding remarks 59 5.2 Limitation of the study 59 5.3 Recommendations/Suggestions for further study 60 REFERENCES 61 APPENDIX v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LM: Landmark (mốc định vị) TR: Trajector (vật định vị) vi LIST OF TABLES AND GRAPHS Table 3.1: Frequency of image schemas of over 25 Table 3.2: Frequency of image schemas of under 29 Table 3.3: Frequency of metaphorical structures of over 33 Table 3.4: Frequency of metaphorical structures of under 37 Graph 4.1: Students’ perception in using these English prepositions 52 Graph 4.2: Students’ agree in using positions of the prepositions in sentences… 50 vii CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale for the study English is a language that has more languages than other prepositions Howard Sargeant once said that "We know that English is a language used to connect the relationships between words in a sentence, and as a result, English uses more and more prepositions than other languages" Theoretically, there was many famous authors that researched on prepositions from cognitive perspectives in overseas and Vietnam These traditional studies also have represented the semantics of English prepositions as largely arbitrary and difficult to characterize prepositions in English from cognitive perspective Accordingly, it is essential to grasp the related meanings of the English preposition within the framework of cognitive semantics and in this way immensely understand what native English speakers conceptualize spatial relations of the physical world objects and how they map from these spatial domains to non-spatial domains via metaphor, however, how the prepositions can be translated into Vietnamese when they are in different collocations have so far not been thoroughly investigated or they have not still illustrated the Vietnamese equivalents of the prepositions from cognitive perspective Practically, four prepositionsabove, over, below,under are examined in English that belong to the group of vertical prepositions They usually make the learners confused with their polysemyand synonym prepositions such as “above and over”;“below and under”.Although there are a lot of reference books and materials related to preposition but not many of them is about their meanings and their Vietnamese equivalents from Cognitive perspective Moreover, many students of English often make mistakes when using them too Therefore, the study is conducted related to them named “Meanings of prepositions over, above, under, below in English and the Vietnamese equivalents from a cognitive semantics perspective” With the purpose to help English learners have an insightful view on these prepositions, cognitive semantics was chosen as the tool to investigate the meanings of the four spatial prepositions above,over, below,underandpoint out some common mistakes and suggest solutions 1.2 Aims and objectives of the study The aims of the study are tohelp Vietnamese learners use prepositions above, over, below and undereffectively The objectives of the study are: - todescribe the semantic features of prepositions over, above, under, belowin Cognitive semantics perspective - to find out the Vietnamese equivalents of four prepositions in English 1.3 Research questions To realize the above objectives, the following research questions will be searched out: What are the semantic features of four English prepositions over, above, under, below from a cognitive semantic perspective? What are the Vietnamese equivalents of four English prepositions over, above, under, below? What implications are suggested prepositionsover, above, under, belowin English? for learning–teaching four 1.4 Methods of the study The meanings of four prepositions over, above, under, below are investigated and described by collecting information from many different resources such as the internet, reference books and documents After collecting enough information in this paper, both quantitative and qualitative methods are used to synthesize the basic theories from many linguists and induce the data collected from English and Vietnamese materials In addition, the descriptive, analytic, comparative method is used to find out the similarities and differences of the prepositions in the body experience and the world conceptualization in English and their Vietnamese equivalentsbased on the semantic aspects Besides that, statistical methods are also used to investigate the frequency of prepositions occurred in the process of semantic changing from spatial meaning into non-spatial meaning The use of many prepositions is a dominant feature of English 1.5 Scope of the study The study explained the meanings conveyed by the four English prepositions over, above, under, below Not only prototypical but also derived meanings of the prepositions motivated using image schema transformations and metaphorical extensions will be described Based on the corpus with forms of NP + prep + NP and NP + V + prep + NP, where the function ofprepositions over, above, under, below as a preposition CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION 5.1 Concluding remarks Based on the strengths and weaknesses of famous foreign and Vietnamese authors’ previous studies and a lot of thequantitative statistic, quantitative analysis, occurrence surveys, comparative methodsare used in three literary works to find the meanings of the prepositions over, above, under, belowin the characteristics of the TR and the LM in spatial and non-spatial sense and different transformations of the basic schema It is very important to find out the differences and similarities between these synonyms through image schemas and metaphorical structures The differences between using of prepositions in English and Vietnamese mainly focus on the meanings, especially in the concept of taking the position yourself or defining implicitly object to Vietnamese’s trajectory in Cognition perspective These differences have caused many difficulties for understanding the sentences that are likely to contain two conceptual structures in expressing space in Vietnamese 5.2 Limitation of the study Semantics plays an important role in linguistics that helps us to define the meaning of words and phrases in literally However, the polysemy prepositions make learners and teachers difficult to use, especially in broadening their understanding of prepositions to explain what speakers express when producing utterances through cognitive perspective.It finds out the relation between the different senses of a preposition as well as the differences between the synonyms Hence, it is beneficial for teachers and learners can practice learning vocabulary, reading comprehension, and speaking Besides that, through examining the meanings of the four prepositions from Cognitive Semantics perspective, I would like to suggest both the teachers and the students an effective way to study as well as enrich vocabulary It is not good for us to teach or learn a lexical item separately with the contexts or experiences because the contexts make a word convey different meanings and the experiences help the learnersunderstand these meanings We should pay more attention to the importance of image schemas and conventional metaphors in teaching and learning meanings of prepositions in particular, and semantics in general To understand deeply the basic sense of 59 wordsbased on image schemas The characteristics of the TR and the LM allow us to find the different transformations of the basic schema In short, cognitive semantics givesboth teachers and learners use effective tools as image schemas and metaphors to correctly understand and use a polysemy lexical unit 5.3 Recommendations/Suggestions for further study This thesis only contributes a small part of the study of a group of vertical English prepositionsover, above, below, and underand their Vietnamese equivalents Because we also have limited in time and referential documents, especially in literary works, which considered as only the results of prepositional analysis in form of(NP) + in + NP and NP + V + in + NP in the thesis.Therefore, it is necessary to have better further research to: (i)studysome issues of prepositions based on the cognitive theory of previous studies in this thesis (ii) investigate the meanings of the whole lexical units of above, over, below, and underwhere theyfunction as a preposition, an adverb and prefix to propose a clearer and more profound radial network of the prepositions (iii)investigate native speakers’ intuitions about the meanings of above, over, below, and under (iv) investigate some common errors the learners often make mistakes when using prepositions over, above, under, below in English 60 REFERENCES In English Boers, F (1996), Spatial Prepositions and Metaphor: A Cognitive Semantic Journey along the Up-Down and the Front-Back Dimensions, Tubingen: Gunter Narr Verlag Boers,F.& Demecheleer, M (1998), ‘A cognitive semantic approach to teaching prepositions’, in ELT Journal, 52(3):197-204 Celce-Murcia, M & Larsen-Freeman, D (1999), The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher's Course, Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle PublishingCompany Corder S.P, London, Error Analysis, 2000, LongmanPublishers Cuyckens, H & G Radden (2002), Perspectives on Prepositions Tübingen: Niemeyer Cuyckens, H (1993), “The Dutch Spatial Preposition “in”: A Cognitive Semantic Analysis”, in Zelinsky-Wibbelt, C (ed.) The Semantics of Prepositions, Berlin: Mouton deGruyter Cienki, A J (1989), Spatial Cognition and the Semantics of Prepositions in English, Polish and Russian, Munchen: Verlag Otto Sagner Croft, W & Cruse, A (2004), Cognitive Linguistics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Evans, V and Green, M (2006) Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction Routledge 10 Evans, V and Green, M (2006), Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress 11 Finegan, E (2004), Language: Its Structure and Use Boston: Wardsworth 12 Geeraerts, D (2006) Cognitive Linguistics: Basic Readings Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter 13 Geeraerts, D & Cuyckens (2007), Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press 14 Herskovits, A (1986), Language and Spatial Cognition: An Interdisciplinary Study of the Prepositions in English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 15 James, C (1980), Contrastive Analysis, London:Longman 16 Johnson, M (1987) The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 61 17 Langacker, R W (1990), Concept, Image, and Symbol, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter 18 Langacker, R W (1987) Foundations of Cognitive Grammar: Theoretical Prerequisites Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 19 Langacker, R W (1991) Foundations of Cognitive Grammar, Volume II, Descriptive Application California: Stanford University Press 20 Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M (1980) Metaphors we live by Chicago: University of Chicago Press 21 Lakoff, G (1987) Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: Whatcategories reveal about the mind Chicago: University of Chicago Press 22 Lakoff, G & Johnson, M (1999), Philosophy in the Flesh: The Embodied Mind and its Challenge to Western Thought, New York: BasicBooks 23 Levinson, S (2001), Space in Language and Cognition: Explorations in CognitiveDiversity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 24 Lindstromberg, S (1998), English Prepositions Explained, Amsterdam: John Benjamins PublishingCompany 25 Miller, G A and Johnson-Laird, P N (1976), Language and Perception, Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress 26 Pütz, M & Dirven, R (1996), The Construal of Space in Language and Thought Berlin: deGruyter 27 Radden, G & Dirven, R (2007), Cognitive English Grammar, Philadenphia: John Benjamins North America 28 Rice, S (1996), ‘Prepositional Prototypes’ in Pütz, M & Dirven, R (ed.) The Construal of Space in Language and Thought, Berlin: Mouton deGruyter 29 Rosch, Eleanor, 1975, Cognitive representations of semantic categories Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 104:192-233 30 Saeed, J (1997), Semantics, Oxford:Blackwell 31 Talmy, L (2000) Toward a Cognitive Semantics Cambridge: MIT Press 32 Talmy, L (1983), Spatial Orientation: Theory, Research and Application, New York: PlenumPress 33 Talmy, L (2000), Toward a Cognitive Semantics Volume I: Concept Structuring Systems, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MITPress 34 Taylor, J R (1989), Linguistic Categorization Prototypes in Linguistic Theory, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress 62 35 Taylor, J R (2002), Cognitive Grammar, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress 36 Tyler, A and Evans, V (2001), Reconsidering Prepositional Polysemy Networks: The case of Over,Language, 77(4):95-159 37 Tyler, A and Evans, V (2003), The Semantics of English Prepositions Spatial Scenes, Embodied Meaning and Cognition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 38 Treichler, M (2003), Metaphor and Space: The Cognitive Approach to Spatially Structured Concepts, Munich: Grin Publishing 39 Vandeloise, C (1991), Spatial Prepositions: A Case Study from French, Chicago: University of ChicagoPress 40 Zeinab A Salam Habash,(1982),Common Errors In The Use of English Prepositions In Vietnamese Nguyễn Lai( 1984), Mối quan hệ phạm trù ngữ nghĩa ngữ pháp tiếng Việt, Một số vấn đề ngôn ngữ học đại, Nxb KHXH Nguyễn Lai( 1990), Nhóm từ hướng vận động tiếng Việt, Tủ sách ĐH Tổng Hợp Hà Nội Trần Quang Hải( 5/2000), Giới từ định vị-phương tiện biểu đạt quan hệ không gian: ngữ nghĩa, Kỷ yếu Hội nghị khoa học nghiên cứu giảng dạy ngoại ngữ, Trường ĐHSP-ĐH Đà Nẵng Trần Quang Hải(2001) , Nghiên cứu giới từ định vị theo hướng ngữ dụng, Luận án tiến sỹ, Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội Lê Văn Thanh (2002), Ba giới từ tiếng Anh: at, on, in (Thử nhìn từ góc độ chế tri nhận không gian so sánh đối chiếu với tiếng Việt), Ngôn ngữ số Lê Văn Thanh (2003), Ngữ nghĩa giới từ không gian tiếng Anh( đối chiếu với tiếng Việt), Luận án tiến sỹ ngữ văn Lý Toàn Thắng ( 1994), Ngôn ngữ tri nhận không gian, Ngơn ngữ số Lý Tồn Thắng( 2001), Bản sắc văn hố: thử nhìn từ góc độ tâm lý – ngơn ngữ, Ngơn ngữ số 15 Lý Tồn Thắng (2005), Ngôn ngữ học tri nhận, từ lý thuyết đại cương đến thực tiễn tiếng Việt, Nxb Khoa học Xã Hội, HàNội 10 Lý Tồn Thắng (2006), Hai hình thức phản ánh hai cách nhìn khơng gian ngơn ngữfromhttp://www.hcmussh.edu.vn/ 63 11 Nguyễn Đức Tồn (2002), Tìm hiểu đặc trưng văn hố dân tộc ngơn ngữ tư người Việt, Nxb Đại học Quốc gia, HàNội Online sources http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/contents.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gone_with_the_Wind_(novel) https://tuoitre.vn/khi-duong-tuong-dich-tieu-thuyet-46951.htm https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Potter_and_the_Order_of_the_Phoenix_(fil m) https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Copperfield_(nhà_ảo_thuật) 64 APPENDIX Appendix 1: Examining four prepositions with examples 1) my box was at my old lodging, over the water (Dickens) 2) his arms over his head, cowering (Rowling) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) who only shook her head over her knitting (Dickens) he swung his right leg over his Firebolt (Rowling) the fog was creeping over the desolate flat (Dickens) threw his long beard over his shoulder (Rowling) running his thumbs over the calluses The carts jingling up and down over the stones (Mitchell) sweeping over the rolling wreck (Dickens) stepped over low garden wall (Rowling) 11) I don’t allow anybody to ride over that turf (Dickens) 12) most of the book he owned were strewn over the floor (Rowling) 10) the landlord looked at me in return over the bar (Dickens) 14) The three of them looked cautiously over the banisters (Rowling) 15) we were sitting over our decanter of wine before the fire (Dickens) 16) Harry & Ron read the notice over the heads of some anxious-looking 13) second-years (Rowling) 17) his jacket over his hat (Dickens) 18) coarse grass and rank weeds straggled over all the marshy land in the vicinity (Dickens) 19) rumpled her hair all over her face to hide it (Dickens) 20) claps his hands over his ears (Rowling) 21) Miss Clarissa and my aunt roam all over London (Dickens) 24) he opened his mouth and vomited all over the doormat (Rowling) my knife tumbled over my fork (Dickens) Harry fell forwards over the hydrangea bush (Rowling) 25) he turned over his steak (Rowling) 26) a large purple lump was swelling aboveNevilleʹs right eye (Dickens) Firenze pointed to the red star directly above Harry (Rowling) the portrait of Grandma Robillard hanging above the fireplace 22) 23) 27) 28) (Mitchell) 29) the smoke which rolled like low-hanging clouds above the trees (Mitchell) 30) 31) she sat with her skirts well aboveher knees (Mitchell) He stretched out his cruel-looking hand above my table (Dickens) held it suspended an inch above the smooth yellowish surface of his parchment (Rowling) 33) The mound above the ashes and the dust (Dickens) 32) Look at me through a window above the desk (Dickens) 35) to tower above any other house on Peachtree Street (Mitchell) 36) Johnston did stand like an iron rampart in the mountains above Dalton (Mitchell) 34) 37) Cho Chang had been approaching him under the mistletoe (Rowling) 38) I felt myself violently chucked under the chin by the long-legged young man (Dickens) 39) my legs shook under me (Dickens) 40) His heart, , was thumping loudly under his ribs (Rowling) 41) I found a nest of dead Puffkeins under sofa (Rowling) 42) 43) 44) 45) 46) 47) under a shed in the playground (Dickens) watch the foursome under the tree (Rowling) snuggling under the blankets (Mitchell) its head under its wings (Rowling) lying in their graves at rest, below the solemn moon (Dickens) showing anima-white teeth below a close-clipped black mustache (Mitchell) all of them was alert and serious, watching what was happening below them (Rowling) 49) the banked flowers below the pictures of Mr Davis (Mitchell) 48) 50) 51) 52) 53) his sleepless eyes would come below the writing (Dickens) the sun was now below the horizon (Mitchell) I look down on the line of boys below me (Dickens) She saw Rhett Butler standing just below the doctor (Mitchell) they reached the little town of Calhoun, six miles below Resaca (Mitchell) 54) 55) 56) 57) 58) 59) 60) 61) 62) 63) I were happily seated over our dinner by a blazing fire (Dickens) the thing he was doing over summer (Rowling) I had got over my suspicion (Dickens) Ernie had never quite got over the indignity of Malloy (Rowling) I pass over all that happened at school (Dickens) her eyes ranged over Nevill (Rowling) to exclaim over her dress (Mitchell) without squabbles over food (Rowling) They then spent over an hour revising Summoning Charms (Mitchell) 64) over hundred rolls of parchment zoomed into the air (Rowling) 65) none of them looking over sixteen (Mitchell) we have talked it over a good deal (Dickens) A journey of over five hundred mile (Mitchell) 66) 67) she heard Bonnie’s tones rise over Ella’s (Mitchell) 69) we like to tyrannize over them (Dickens) 70) he wanted to triumph over the others (Rowling) 71) I redden, tumble over half-a-dozen words (Dickens) 68) 74) I trip over a word (Dickens) in a voice that sounded cheerfully all over the house (Dickens) until darkness closed over their heads (Rowling) 75) a drowsy silence lay over the large, square houses of Privet Drive 72) 73) (Rowling) a curious feeling came over me that made me pretend not to know her (Dickens) 76) 77) 78) 79) 80) 81) 82) he could hard make himself heard above it (Rowling) that always took the students above first year to the castle (Rowling) Love was above all earthly considerations (Dickens) I believe Agnes Wickfield to be as far above you (Dickens) I know your motives are always above reproach (Mitchell) far and above their anger at the waste and mismanagement (Mitchell) 83) 84) And the Lord was above all (Dickens) some people like to be above you (Dickens) the road, sagging slightly under the weight (Rowling) 86) he couldn’t bare walk under Dudley’s bulk (Rowling) 87) Ham staggered , , under the blow Mr Peggotty dealt him in his unbounded joy (Dickens) 85) Harry thought Professor Telawney might soon crack under the strain (Dickens) 89) he did not actually stagger under the negus (Dickens) 88) 93) My spirit sank under these words (Dickens) under carefully controlled examination (Rowling) any point was under discussion in our limited circle (Dickens) I should certainly be happy under Doctor Strong (Dickens) 94) my eyes, however, not being so much under control as my tongue 90) 91) 92) (Dickens) 95) under a month (Rowling) I’m not taking a Knut under twenty (Rowling) 97) Harry swore under his breath (Rowling) 98) Mr Micawber should apply for his release under the Insolvent Debtors Act (Dickens) 96) ‘Quite as comfortable as we can expect a young mother to be, under these melody domestic circumstances ’ (Dickens) 100) can never fail under this roof (Dickens) 99) 101) during the remaining term of our residence under the same roof (Dickens) 102) 103) 104) 105) 106) it was under the guidance of the elder (Dickens) To be labouring under the delusion that (Mitchell) What made matters worse was that under his smile (Mitchell) I never could discover who came under the denomination (Dickens) in spidery writing was written a date of some sixteen years previously, and below that (Rowling) 107) has unfortunately resulted in your being far below the standard (Rowling) Appendix 2: Questionnaires for students QUESTIONNAIRES FOR STUDENTS The following questionnaires aim at figuring out problems encountered by the first-year non-major students of English at The Police People university of Technology and Logistics to suggest some ways to improve their knowledge in using the prepositions “over, above, under, below” Please answer the following questions as honestly as you can Thank you very much for your cooperation! Part I: Answer the questions Q1 Your gender is Answer A Female □ B Male □ How long have you been learning English? Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 A years □ B years □ C 10 years □ D ( _ years) □ How you use these prepositions in practice speaking ? A Excellent □ B Good □ C Fair □ D Bad □ You find that using the prepositions “over, above, under, below” is A very important □ B important □ C a little important □ D not important □ On average, in a session, how many times did you participate in in the lesson? A never □ B less than twice □ C or times □ D more than times □ You find your using these prepositions in class Q6 A very interesting □ B interesting □ C a little interesting □ D not interesting □ How many meanings does each preposition have? Q7 A One meaning □ B Two – five meanings □ C More than five meanings □ How you learn these prepositions by yourself? Q8 Q9 A doing homework □ B practice speaking □ C translate sentences into Vietnamese □ D tutor □ How many errors you make with four prepositions? □ A Too much □ B Sometimes □ C Rarely □ D Never □ What mistakes have you made in using these prepositions in English class? A mistakes in translate the sentences □ B poor knowledge of using these prepositions □ Q10 C not distinguish the similar and difference between the pair □ synonyms D not to know to use these prepositions in the real situations( □ spatial view) E all of the ideas Part II: To what extent you agree with each of the following statements Please indicate your answer using the following five-point scale where: = Strongly agree = Agree = Neither agree nor disagree = Disagree = Extremely disagree Q11 The positions of these English prepositions are at the □ beginning or at the end or the center of the sentence Q12 If ordering of prepositions is changed in the sentence, the □ meaning of the sentence still unchanged Q13 The most memorable meanings of “over, above, under, □ below” are “trên/ dưới” in Vietnamese TRANSLATE into VIETNAMESE Q14 Translate sentences Vietnamese (over/ above) When they talked it over, they always wondered just the why they had failed to notice Scarlett’s charms before into 2.She was pretty and she knew it; she would have Ashley for her own before the day was over 3.Just a little over a year ago, she was dancing and wearing bright clothes instead of this dark mourning and was practically engaged to three boys 4.Then something like a well-trained mask came down over his face and he smiledgallantly 5.One more victory and the war wasover! 6.And above all the voices, Gerald’s boomed All Scarlett could hear was “States’ rights, by God!” shouted over and over 7.It was the same conflicting emotion that made her desire to appear a delicate and high-bred lady with boys and to be, as well, a hoyden who was not above a fewkisses 8.She sat with her skirts well above her knees and her chin resting on her arms on the window sill Q15 Translate sentences Vietnamese (under/below) 1.Under the arbor sat the married women, their dark the dresses decorous notes in the surrounding color and into gaiety 2.Men and women, they were beautiful and wild, all a little violent under their pleasant ways and only a little tamed 3.“Yes!” whispered Charles, in a rapture that she had neither laughed, screamed nor fainted, as he had always imagined young girls did under such circumstances 4.Scarlett stood on the landing and peered cautiously over the banisters into the hall below 5.From the kitchen below, she heard the rattle of china as Prissy prepared breakfast, but no sound of Mrs Meade’s Betsy 6.Suffocating under feather pillows while death screamed overhead, Scarlett silently cursed Melanie for keeping her from the safer regions below stairs 7.There!” Maybelle Merriwether was pulling off her lovely twin bracelets from above and below her elbows SUGGESTED ANSWER Q14 Translate into Vietnamese Đó ngày đáng ghi nhớ nhứt đời hai anh em song sinh Về sau, lần nhắc lại, họ tự hỏi khơng nhận bóng sắc Scarlett sớm Nàng thật đẹp, nàng biết rõ điều Nàng chiếm Ashley trước ngày tàn Ánh nắng ấm dịu mùa xuân Georgia trải trước mắt Scarlett vẻ rực rỡ Mới cách năm tý chút, nàng khiêu vũ, mặc quần áo rực rỡ đâu phải màu tang đen này, nói đính với chàng trai Rồi tựa thứ mặt nạ tinh xảo phủ lên mặt chàng chàng nở nụ cười duyên Chỉ trận đánh chiến tránh kết thúc Và vượt lên giọng oang oang đó, tiếng gào thét Gerald, Scarlett nghe rõ hết câu như: "Quyền lợi quốc gia hết" lặp lặp lại nhiều lần, Q15 Translate into Vietnamese Các bà có chồng ngồi giàn bắc vòm cây, áo dài đen điểm nốt trang nghiêm vào khung cảnh rực rỡ màu sắc vui tươi xung quanh Nam nữ đẹp man dại, tất có phần bạo đằng sau cung cách dễ thương bề ngồi túy chút thơi Phải! Charle thầm, sướng rơn thấy k cười phá lên, tru tréo ngất xỉu cậu tưởng tượng cấc cô gái thường phản ứng theo cách trường hợp Scarlett bước đầu thang, cẩn thận nghiêng qua bao lơn nhìn xuống đại sảnh Từ gian bếp nhà , nàng nghe tiếng đồ sứ chạm lách cách Prixi đnag dọn bữa điểm tâm Nhưng không thấy tiếng u già Besty nhà Meade đâu Sặc sụa lơng gối cảm giác chết lởn vởn đầu, Scarlett ngầm nguyền rủa Mélanie làm cho cô phải sống xa nơi an toàn Đây !" Maybelle Merriwether hì hục tháo đơi vòng đeo khuỷu tay ... be drawn The literal, the primary, and the basic meaning all seem to refer to the same thing - it is a spatial meaning that relates the trajector and the landmark to each other Taylor and Evans... temporal and abstract He claimed that the centre of the meaning is spatial, and the other two meanings are derived from the spatial meaning That is, the spatial usage, which shows the relationship... understanding of a spatial relation and the understanding of a preposition means the appropriate spatial relation is being processed According to Grabowski, (1999) explains that the meaning of spatial