0521614740 cambridge university press language culture and society key topics in linguistic anthropology jun 2006

l a n g ua g e , c u lt u r e , a n d s o c i e t y Language, our primary tool of thought and perception, is at the heart of who we are as individuals Languages are constantly changing, sometimes into entirely new varieties of speech, leading to subtle differences in how we present ourselves to others This revealing account brings together twelve leading specialists from the fields of linguistics, anthropology, philosophy, and psychology, to explore the fascinating relationship between language, culture, and social interaction A range of major questions are discussed: How does language influence our perception of the world? How new languages emerge? How children learn to use language appropriately? What factors determine language choice in bi- and multilingual communities? How far does language contribute to the formation of our personalities? And finally, in what ways does language make us human? Language, Culture, and Society will be essential reading for all those interested in language and its crucial role in our social lives c h r i s t i n e j o u r d a n is Professor of Anthropology in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Concordia University in Montreal Trained in linguistics and anthropology, her work focuses on theories of culture and social change, on pidgins and creoles, and on linguistic representation of cultural knowledge She has published books and articles on Solomon Islands Pijin, urbanization in the Pacific, and socio-cultural creolization k e v i n t u i t e is Professeur titulaire (full Professor) of Anthropology at the Universit´e de Montr´eal He specializes in the languages and cultures of the Caucasus, especially those of the Republic of Georgia, where he has conducted fieldwork since 1985 He has published a number of books and journal articles on language and culture, in journals such as Anthropological Linguistics, Anthropos, and Lingua s t u d i e s i n t h e s o c i a l a n d c u lt u r a l f o u n d at i o n s o f l a n g ua g e The aim of this series is to develop theoretical perspectives on the essential social and cultural character of language by methodological and empirical emphasis on the occurrence of language in its communicative and interactional settings, on the socioculturally grounded “meanings” and “functions” of linguistic forms, and on the social scientific study of language use across cultures It will thus explicate the essentially ethnographic nature of linguistic data, whether spontaneously occurring or experimentally induced, whether normative or variational, whether synchronic or diachronic Works appearing in the series will make substantive and theoretical contributions to the debate over the sociocultural-function and structural-formal nature of language, and will represent the concerns of scholars in the sociology and anthropology of language, anthropological linguistics, sociolinguistics, and socioculturally informed psycholinguistics Editors Editorial Advisers Judith T Irvine Bambi Schieffelin Marjorie Goodwin Joel Kuipers Don Kulick John Lucy Elinor Ochs Michael Silverstein A list of books in the series can be found after the index L A N G UAG E , C U LT U R E , AND SOCIETY K E Y TO P I C S I N L I N G U I S T I C A N T H RO P O L O G Y C H R I S T I N E J O U R DA N Concordia University KEVIN TUITE Universit´e de Montr´eal cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521849418 © Cambridge University Press 2006 This publication is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2006 isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-511-16910-6 eBook (NetLibrary) 0-511-16910-8 eBook (NetLibrary) isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-84941-8 hardback 0-521-84941-1 hardback isbn-13 isbn-10 978-0-521-61474-0 0-521-61474-0 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate In memory of Roger M Keesing, a passe-muraille of the best kind CONTENTS List of tables List of contributors Acknowledgments page ix x xi Introduction: Walking through walls christine jourdan and kevin tuite 1 An issue about language c h a r l e s tay l o r 16 Linguistic relativities j o h n l e av i t t 47 Benjamin Lee Whorf and the Boasian foundations of contemporary ethnolinguistics regna darnell 82 Cognitive anthropology p e n n y b r ow n Methodological issues in cross-language color naming p a u l k ay 115 Pidgins and creoles genesis: an anthropological offering christine jourdan 135 Bilingualism monica heller 156 The impact of language socialization on grammatical development elinor ochs and bambi schieffelin 168 Intimate grammars: anthropological and psychoanalytic accounts of language, gender, and desire elizabeth povinelli 190 96 vii viii Contents 10 Maximizing ethnopoetics: fine-tuning anthropological experience paul friedrich 11 Interpreting language variation and change kevin tuite References Index 207 229 257 301 TA B L E S 11.1 11.2 11.3 Declension of word for “tooth” in four Indo-European languages Germanic sound shift (Grimm’s first sound law) Apparent exceptions to Grimm’s first law ix page 235 236 238 296 References Indogermanen: Volkstum, Sprache, Heimat, Kultur Festschrift făur Herman Hirt, 124 Heidelberg: Carl Winter [Indogermanische Bibliothek, 50, Teil 2.] Steiner, George 1975 After Babel: aspects of 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bilingual classrooms.” In Richard Duran (ed.), Latino language and communicative behavior, 109–131 Norwood NJ: Ablex 1997 Growing up bilingual: Puerto Rican children in New York Malden: Blackwell INDEX Aarsleff, H., 51, 233 Abu-Lughod, L., 193, 204, 218–219 accessive, 29, 36 accommodation, 155, 179 linguistic accommodation, 151, 187 cognitive accommodation, 178 acculturation, 9, 144 aesthetics, 55, 111, 220, 222, 226–7 verbal aesthetics 208, 218 African-Americans, 172, 173, 174–175, 217 agency, 33, 39, 40, 92, 139, 144, 149, 155 human agency, 10, 63, 135, 140, 155 linguistic agency, 22, 137 agent, 22–23, 24–25, 31, 45, 219, 220, 225 social agent 4, 147, 196, 201, 202, 205–206, 254 spirit agent 40–43 Alleyne, M., 140, 143 “alternating sounds”, 54, 58 Amerindian languages (see also Hopi language), 47–65, 70, 71, 74–76, 89, 91 analogy, 215, 218, 220, 221, 228 analogical change, 237, 238, 244, 248 analysis, analytic, 31, 34–35, 67, 188, 207–208, 214–224, 226; see also synthesis anthropology, 1–2, 8, 12, 13, 47, 82–84, 85, 88, 90, 91–95, 115, 129, 135, 153, 154, 158, 190, 204 anthropology and poetics, 207–228 cognitive anthropology, 2, 7–8, 75, 96–114 (socio-)cultural anthropology, 1, 54, 68, 90, 109, 153 evolutionary anthropology, 109, 113–114 linguistic anthropology, 2, 3–7, 9, 10, 35, 80, 84, 97, 156, 192–193, 200, 252 physical anthropology, 90 psychological anthropology, 97, 105, 109, 113 symbolic anthropology, 68 Arends, J., 137, 140–142 arbitrariness, 116, 127, 215 Aristotle, 36, 48 Arrente (Arrernte, Aranda), 12, 13, 45–46, 128–130, 134, 190–192, 196–199 assimilation, 162 Auer, P., 160, 164 Austin, J., 11, 200 Baker, P and Corne, C., 137, 139 Bastian, A., 53 Bate, B., 225, 207 Benedict, R., 55, 59, 91 Berinmo, 117 Berlin, B and Kay, P., 8, 70–71, 99, 117–120, 125, 128, 133, 221 Bhagavad Gita, 212, 216, 224, 225 Bickerton, D., 136, 139, 152–153 bilingualism, 4, 9, 10–11, 14, 79, 84, 156, 184–188, 216 bilingualism in the workplace, 163 bilingual families, 163, 186–187 bioprogram, 138, 139, 152–153 Black, M., 72 Bloch, M., 93–94, 101, 112 Bloomfield, L., 83, 86, 87 Boas, F., 1–2, 6–7, 47–48, 53, 55–62, 65, 67, 69–70, 71, 78, 79, 80, 83, 86, 89–90, 92–93, 96, 104 body, 13, 39, 41, 45, 52, 80, 102, 108–109, 175, 190, 191, 192, 203 body language, 27–28, 29–31, 33, 34 Bopp, F., 232, 234 Bourdieu, P., 140, 254 boundary, linguistic, 157, 159, 164, 165, 170, 254–255 buffered self, 38, 41, 44–46 301 302 Index calibration, 72, 87 Caribbean, 142, 143, 187, 226 Caribbean creole languages, 138, 140, 152 Cassirer, E., 34, 68 categories color categories, 115, 116, 120–124, 131, 221 grammatical categories, 48, 60–64, 65, 76–78, 80, 82, 84, 92, 103, 105–107, 126, 195, 250 perceptual categories, 8, 36, 115, 117 semantic categories, 36, 110, 126–127, 154, 194 Caton, S., 218–219 change cultural change, 8–9, 140, 154 language change, 4, 5, 6, 14–15, 50, 88, 151, 152, 229–238 Chaudenson, R., 137, 139 children as conversational partners, 172–175, 177, 185–186 child as addressee 171–175, 187 child as speaker 175–179, 187, 189 child language acquisition, 5, 11–12, 17, 52, 59, 97, 101, 103, 104, 106–107, 110–111, 149, 168–188, 205 cultural factors, 169, 170 bilingual, 184–188 child language socialization, 5, 11–13, 15, 92, 101, 163, 168–185, 187–188, 196 children, language input to, 168 simplified speech (“motherese”, baby talk) 11, 171, 173–175, 179, 187, 188 expansion 175–179 prompting 179, 181–182, 183–184, 187 ventriloquating 179, 187 Chomsky, N., 5, 127, 153, 215, 252, 255 code, 12, 27–28, 156, 159, 161, 164, 187–188, 203, 204 code choice, 184–187 code mixing, 184–185 codeswitching, 4, 10–11, 159–161, 163–164, 188 cognition, 6, 7, 77, 79, 96–99, 136, 152, 159 cognitive anthropology: see anthropology, cognitive cognitive linguistics, 97–98, 100, 101, 112 cognitive schema, 93, 100–101 cognitive science, 13, 70–71, 74, 82–83, 96–98, 99, 102–103, 104, 108, 112 Whorf and 91–95, 107 Coleman, S., 217, 219, 220 collaboration, 145, 151, 166 colonial(ism), 120, 136, 147, 154, 196, 197, 198–199, 211, 225, 226 color color naming, 115–134 color perception, 35–36, 38, 116, 125 color properties, 8, 120–121, 124 perceptual color space, 118, 126, 127, 129 color terminology, 71, 99–100, 115–133 basic color terms, 8, 69, 70–72, 115, 117–119, 121–122, 123, 125–127, 128–129, 131 focal colors, 71, 117–118, 132 communication, 8, 12, 21, 22, 72, 105, 136, 145, 148, 150–151, 153, 155, 170, 171, 199, 253 ethnography of communication, see ethnography communicative ecology, 173 community, 8, 63, 85, 141, 144, 156, 161–163, 165–167, 168–188, 201, 210, 215, 245, 252, 254 see also speech community competence, 166, 185 cultural competence, 11, 169, 180 grammatical (or linguistic) competence, 4, 8, 15, 168–169, 170, 171, 173, 175, 180 Condillac, E., 4, 16–18, 23, 26, 28 Conklin, H., 99, 115, 120–122, 124, 221 connectionism, 100, 102–103, 113 connotations, 122 constitutive rules, 101–102 constitutive theory of language, 4, 8, 16, 23, 25–27, 28–29, 30, 31, 33–34, 35–36 contact cultural contact, 9–10, 135, 136–137, 150, 154 language contact, 9–11, 154, 161, 163, 186, 233 context, 53, 65, 76, 80, 99, 103, 104–105, 112, 123, 127, 137, 147–148, 169, 171, 173, 175, 184, 194–195, 196, 197, 198–199, 200, 201, 202, 204–206, 211, 217, 219, 223, 226, 227, 229, 246, 253, 255 cultural context, 84, 94, 96, 146, 182, 187, 188, 192 phonological context, 237, 243, 244–245, 253 Index social context, 136, 143, 145, 154, 168, 182, 187, 188, 225, 247, 251, 254 context-dependence, 7, 11, 77, 96 context doctrine (or thesis), 31–33 contextualization, 113, 164–165, 188, 216, 217, 219 conversation, 8, 32, 36, 80, 105, 164, 194, 195–197, 199, 213, 214, 215, 216, 218 conversation analysis, 156, 159, 160 Corne, C., 137, 139, 148 corporeal, 45, 193, 195–196, 197–198, 201–202, 203–205 corporeal sensations, 13, 203 corporeal hexis, 196, 199 Crago, M., 177 creativity, 6, 9, 90, 92, 150, 227 creole, 1, 10, 119, 135–155, 197 creole continuum, 138 creolization, 4, 9, 135, 136, 140, 152 cultural creolization, 2, 9, 148 Crowley, T., 137, 138 cultural alienation, 10, 155 cultural models, 7, 100–103, 142 cultural studies, 1, 74, 217 cultural translation, 154 D’Andrade, R., 97, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 113 Darnell, R., 2, 7, 64, 82–95 Davidson, D., 16, 72–73 decontextualization, deictic, deixis, 36, 74, 80, 181, 215 social deixis 196, 201 demography, 137, 140, 143, 148, 152, 158, 162, 254 denotation, 128–129, 192, 195, 196, 200, 204, 205 color denotation 8, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 126, 129–131, 132 desire, 3, 13, 23, 25–26, 39, 45, 182, 191–193, 199, 200, 203–205 determinism, 48, 237 linguistic determinism, 47, 63, 64, 65, 68, 72, 78 development, child language, 13, 101, 168–188 developmental psychology, 97, 104, 107, 112 dialect, 47, 67, 75, 135, 138, 146, 152, 158, 231, 237, 255 Romance dialects, 239, 241–242, 250 dialect leveling, 151–152 303 dialectic(al), 194, 200, 208, 230 Dickinson, E., 215, 223, 226 Diez, F., 239–241, 242 diglossia, 157, 161–162 discourse, 48, 146, 147, 158–159, 160, 164, 166, 173, 175, 196, 198, 204–205, 213, 214, 215, 218 discourse analysis, 100 metapragmatic discourse, 194–197 diversity, 71, 83, 92–93, 105, 158, 205 cultural diversity, 89 human diversity, linguistic diversity, 47–48, 49–50, 51–52, 113, 150, 162 pidgin and creole diversity, 138 domain (of language use), 157, 161–162, 163–165 domination, 120, 194, 199, 205; see also symbolic domination Duranti, A., 97, 102 ecology, 99, 166, 227 communicative ecology 173 cultural ecology of grammar 187, 188 linguistic ecology 162 Einstein, A., 6, 48, 57, 66–67, 78–79, 86–87 Emergence Hypothesis (EH), 118, 125–127, 134 emotion, 3, 14, 23, 26–27, 28, 31, 34, 36–37, 43–45, 75, 97, 99, 102, 146, 170, 193, 204–205, 208, 214, 220, 224, 225–226, 241 empowerment, 149, 150, 155, 218 “enchanted world”, 38–45 endangered languages, 90, 162 enframing theory, 16–17, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31–32 English, 12, 14, 27, 30, 37–38, 56, 59–61, 62, 71, 72–73, 74, 76, 77, 79, 80, 106–107, 109, 112, 115, 116–117, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123–128, 129, 133, 140, 186–187, 194–197, 202, 216, 223–228, 231 Liberian English 152 Hawaiian Creole English 152 Old English 231, 249 enlanguagement, 135 entailment, 11, 12, 200, 202, 203 entextualization, 12, 198, 201 esoterogeny, 254 essentialism, 5, 6, 47–48, 49, 50, 52, 55–56, 57, 68, 69–70, 78, 81 ethnicity, 10, 11, 156, 207, 208, 225 304 Index ethnobiology, 99 ethnographic semantics, 98 ethnographic poetry, 208–209, 210 ethnography, 75–76, 93–94, 112, 163, 169, 184, 188, 246 ethnography of speaking (communication), 75, 94, 137 new ethnography, 7, 98–100 ethnolinguistics, 2, 3–5, 13, 69, 82–83, 95, 156, 161, 165 ethnopoem, 220 ethnopoetics, 8–9, 15, 75, 77, 207–228 ethnoscience, 1, 2, 7, 75, 98–100, 101, 102, 103, 113, 221–222, 223 ethnosemantics, 2, 75, 99 etymology, 6, 14, 208, 216–217, 229–256 evolutionism, 6, 53–55, 57–59, 71–72 existential dimension, 29–30, 31, 36, 37, 44 expressive-constitutive theory: see constitutive theory of language Fabian, J., 1, 146, 221 Fernandez, J., 220, 221, 207 Feuer, L., 71–72 Foley, W., 5, 97, 104 folk model, 100 folk psychology, 53, 93–94 folk theories, 101 footing, 23, 36, 37, 165 Foucault, M., 147 Frake, C., 99 frame of reference, spatial, 108–110, 114 French anthropology, 97 French (language), 37, 127, 186–187, 232, 239–241, 244–246, 249 Friedrich, P., 3, 8–9, 14, 15, 75–76, 108, 207–228 functional, 24, 153, 161 functionalism, 5, 10, 169, 218; see also structural-functionalism semiotic functionalism, 2, 75–76 Gapun, 178, 186 Geertz, C., 99, 103, 140 gender, 12, 141, 142, 148, 166, 181–182, 184, 190, 191–197, 199, 200, 201–203, 204, 225 grammatical gender, 61, 63, 193–195, 202, 203 genesis of color categories, 125 of language, 26 of pidgins and creoles, 10, 135–155 German language, 68–69, 77, 127, 185, 231, 232, 238 Gipper, H., 73, 74 Gleason, H A., 116, 129–131 globalization, 9, 14, 38, 138 Goodenough, W., 98–99, 140 Goodman, M., 137, 139, 152 Gordon, M and Heath, J., 256 grammar, 8, 56–57, 59–60, 62, 63–65, 68, 77, 82–83, 86, 90, 105, 106, 125–128, 152–153, 159, 160–161, 179, 188, 189, 201–203, 212, 214, 254 grammar of color words, 124, 125, 126, 131, 134 comparative grammar, 49, 230–236 generative grammar, 4, 6, 252 historical grammar, 229, 240, 243, 245 intimate grammar, 13, 14, 15, 45, 203–206; see also intimate pragmatics universal grammar, 10, 49, 160 grammatical forms, 168–169, 170, 180–181, 182–184 grammaticalization, 203 Greek language, 29, 36–37, 121, 215, 227, 230–231, 232, 235–236 Grimm, J., 235, 236, 238 Gruppe, O F., 53 Gumperz, J., 76, 79, 91–92, 93, 94, 103–105, 113, 161, 166, 170 Guugu Yimithirr language, 79–80, 109 Gyarmathi, S., 233–234 habitual thought, 6, 55, 64, 73, 80, 85, 88, 91, 115 Haitian Creole, 139, 152, 186 Hamp, E., 229, 243, 246, 250 Hancock, I., 137, 140 Hanks, W., 77, 97, 216 Hanun´oo, 115, 120–123, 124–125, 134 Heath, S B., 172, 174–175 Hegel, G F., 52, 53 Heidegger, M., 16, 25, 26, 29–31, 34, 233 Heller, M., 4, 10–11, 156–167 Herder, J., 3, 6, 17–18, 20, 22–23, 24–25, 26, 28, 30, 46, 49–50, 52, 55, 68, 83, 135 Hering primaries, 118–119 hermeneutics, 5, 93 hermeneutics and historical linguistics, 230, 243, 246–248, 252, 255–256 hermeneutics and translation, 13–15 Index Hickerson, N., 122–124 Hill, J., 75, 76, 101, 104, 105–107, 215–216 historical linguistics, 4, 6, 14–15, 50, 52, 69, 88, 138, 158, 229–256 historiography, 15, 37, 83, 137, 229–230, 245, 254 Hobbes, T., 16–17, 32, 225 Hoijer, H., 70, 87–88 homogeneity, 157, 158, 253 Hopi, 64–65, 72–74, 84, 85, 87, 93, 115, 127, 222 Humboldt, A von, 51 Humboldt, W von, 6, 32, 36, 50–53, 55, 56, 57, 65, 67, 68, 77, 83, 93, 104 “Humboldtian stream” in linguistics, 52, 55, 56–57, 67, 68, 237 see also neo-Humboldtian linguistics, 68–70, 72, 73 hybridization, 148 Hymes, D., 75–76, 82, 83, 94–95, 99, 137, 210, 213, 214, 216, 224 iconicity, 215 ideational system, 100–101 identity, 9, 29, 39, 144, 145, 147, 148, 156, 164, 170, 203, 233 language and identity, 15, 150, 155, 157, 164–167, 186, 255 cultural identity 149 gender identity 13, 183, 195, 205 social identity 11, 12, 169, 183, 188, 192, 201 ideology, 9, 89, 112, 142, 144, 147, 155, 157, 158, 162, 168, 170, 176, 196, 211, 220, 223, 224, 226, 229, 247 language ideology, 147, 156, 163, 166–167, 173, 183–184, 185–187, 188, 195–196, 254 Ile de France Creole, 137, 139 imagistic thought, 111 incommensurability, 14–15, 35–38, 46, 66, 72, 86–87, 104 indexical, 12, 15, 45, 76, 168–169, 195, 196, 197–198, 200, 205, 206, 255 indexical meanings, 168–169 indexicality, 11, 105, 181, 182, 195, 215 individual, 8–9, 15, 50, 51, 62, 82, 90, 92, 102, 105, 113, 137, 139, 140, 142, 144, 150, 154–155, 156–157, 161, 163, 194, 196, 202, 203–204, 207, 218, 219, 220, 225, 227, 252, 256 305 “individual langue”, 203–204 Indo-European, 6, 50–51, 52, 57, 61, 65, 93, 108, 119, 231, 233–237, 238–239, 247, 249–250, 252 inequality, 157, 163, 166, 199 institution, social, 14, 37, 55, 140, 143, 163, 193, 195, 198, 201, 205–206, 255 intentionality, 149, 178 interaction, (communicative, social), 7, 11, 15, 30, 32, 96, 102, 103, 105, 112–114, 138, 146, 147, 153, 157, 160, 163–164, 166, 172, 173, 177, 179, 181, 183, 196, 198, 199, 201, 218 interactionist theory of language, 10 interactionist approach to bilingualism, 164–165 interlocutor, 11, 30, 32–33, 36, 151, 169, 173, 176, 177–178 interlocutionary, 194–195, 199 interpretation, cultural, 5, 9, 142, 154 interpret(at)ive, 5, 57, 99, 163, 202, 222, 227–228, 243–244, 251, 256 intersubjectivity, 11, 155, 255 intrinsic rightness, 18–22, 23, 28, 33 Inuit people, 57, 60, 173, 176–177, 211, 223, 226 Inuktitut (Inuit, Eskimo) language, 56, 59–60, 72, 208, 214 Irish language, 78, 217 Jakobson, R., 8, 77, 203, 214, 216, 220 Javanese, 50, 172, 173, 175, 179, 216 Jourdan, C., 1–15, 47, 82, 135–155, 253, 229 Kaluli, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181–183 Kant, I., 34, 49–50, 65, 108, 220 Kay, P., 8, 35, 71, 99, 115–134, 221 Keesing, R., v, 2, 14, 99, 137, 139, 146, 152 K’iche’ Mayan, 172 kinship terminology, 23, 99–100, 104, 249 knowledge, 11, 13, 17, 96, 97, 98, 101–102, 105, 112, 140, 146–148, 150–151, 153, 169, 170, 208, 228, 255 poetics of knowledge, 222 systems of knowledge, 7, 98, 139, 140, 142 cultural knowledge, 98, 99–100, 101–102, 112, 142, 188, 189 empirical knowledge, 229, 249 linguistic knowledge, 126, 153, 173 306 Index knowledge (cont.) practical knowledge, 97 social knowledge, 182 Koerner, E F K., 47, 67, 82, 106, 229 Kroeber, A., 88 Kulick, D., 178, 186 Labov, W., 15, 137, 170, 252–256 Lacan, J., 13, 192–194, 201, 203 language acquisition, see child language acquisition language loss, 162, 186 language evolution, 37–38, 59, 71, 113; see also evolutionism language shift, 9, 186 language socialization, 5, 11–13, 15, 92, 101, 163, 168–189, 196 Leavitt, J., 6, 47–81, 104, 135, 229 Lee, B., 194, 200 Lee, D., 63–64, 70 Lee, P., 47, 76–77, 82, 85, 104 Lefebvre, C., 2, 139, 152 Leibniz, G., 49, 233 Lenneberg, E., 70, 117, 119–120, 123, 126 Levinson, S., 76, 79, 91–92, 93, 94, 97, 103–105 L´evi-Strauss, C., 59, 96, 214, 221, 252 lexicon, 8, 48, 59–60, 68, 70, 138, 149, 249 color lexicon, 117, 131, 132 liminality, 10, 148–149, 155 lingua franca, 186 linguaculture, 9, 13, 212, 219, 225, 227 linguapoetics, 214–217 literacy, 110, 167, 188 Locke, J., 16–17, 26, 49 Lucy, J., 5, 8, 47, 74, 76, 93, 104–107, 111, 117, 119–134, 194 Lyons, J., 119, 121, 124, 194 Maffi, L., 115, 118, 125, 128 Malkiel, Y., 240, 243, 246 Malotki, E., 73–74 Mannheim, B., 75, 106, 215 Marx, K., 6, 53, 58 master schemas, 101 meaning, 4, 10, 16–17, 22, 24, 26–31, 33–46, 60–61, 64, 68, 80, 86, 87, 97, 100–101, 103, 104, 107, 112, 113, 128, 163–164, 174, 194–198, 201, 215, 220, 223, 226, 231 meaning in children’s language, 177–179, 189 meaning in pidgin and creole genesis, 142, 143, 145, 147–149, 150–151, 153–155 meaning of color words, 121–127, 131, 134 change of meaning, 239, 240–242 cultural meaning, 163–164, 165, 180 indexical meaning, 168–169 linguistic meaning, 62, 71, 104–105, 107 pragmatic meaning, 12, 198 social meaning, 164, 180, 182, 184 “web of meaning”, 243–244, 246–248 means-ends model of grammatical development, 170, 171, 176, 187 Melanesian pidgins, 136, 137, 138, 139 memory, 70, 77, 79, 98, 100–101, 106, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116–117, 146 M´enage, G., 232, 233 Menocal, M R., 241–242, 247, 229 metaphor, 64, 101, 227 metaphysics, 31, 72, 74 metapragmatics, 193–197, 199, 200–201, 202–203, 204, 205 Miller, R L., 73 Milton, J., 212, 223, 226 minority, 56, 148, 162–163, 165, 188, 195 minority movement, linguistic, 165 Mintz, S., 140, 143–144, 148 modal(s), 127, 196, 201–202, 203 modularity, cognitive, 103, 108, 113 Morgan, L H., 54 morphology, 8, 50, 51, 53, 182, 183, 216, 223, 244 agglutinating, 50, 60 historical morphology, 230, 231, 233, 234–235, 248, 249, 250, 251 inflectional, 50, 52, 57, 60, 234 isolating, 50, 60 morphosyntax of color words, 123–124, 126–127, 128, 131, 134 Mufwene, S., 139, 152 Măuhlhăausler, P., 137 multiculturalism, 3, 9, 14–15, 142, 144 multilingual awareness, 85, 91 multilingualism, 9, 10, 65, 80, 156, 158, 165, 184, 186–187, 188, 217 multilingualism in pidgin and creole genesis, 144, 145, 148 museum, 57–58 Index music, 34, 143, 239–240, 241–242 music of language, 213, 215, 226 Muysken, P., 160 Myers-Scotton, C., 160 myth, 212, 214, 224, 252 narrative, 107 narrative in historical linguistics, 230, 242–245, 254 nation, 49, 51, 207, 219 nation-state, 10–11, 156–157, 158, 162 nationalism, 157–158, 251 National Socialism, 69, 227 nativization, 138 Neogrammarians, 4, 5, 230, 236–239, 240–241, 244–245, 247, 251–252, 253, 254 neo-Humboldtian linguistics, 68–70, 72, 73 Newman, S., 86, 87, 123–124 Nichols, J., 250 Nida, E., 116 norms, 12, 180, 183, 185, 188, 201, 203 nuance, grammatical, 76, 215, 223 nuance, poetic, 207, 228 number, grammatical category of, 60–61, 63, 77, 79, 106–107, 183, 195, 203 number terms, 8, 47, 54–55, 59, 71–72 Ochs, E., 4, 11–12, 15, 101, 168–189, 196 Odyssey, 223 paradigm, morphological, 234, 249, 251 paradigmatic structure, 98 Paris, G., 239–241, 244–245, 246, 256 particularism, 2, 5, 57, 92, 94 perceptual salience, 180 performance, 11, 12, 77, 148, 159, 160, 164, 166–167, 213, 214, 218 performatives, 11, 12, 200, 202 Pesmen, D., 220 phenomenological, 24, 25, 26, 200, 203 philosophy, 9, 11, 14, 16–46, 49–50, 52, 53, 63–64, 67, 68, 71–73, 82, 96, 104, 108, 208, 233, 243–244 phoneme, 7, 62–63, 90–91, 223, 243, 244, 249 phonetics, 4, 9, 59–62, 67, 77, 80, 90, 212, 218 historical phonetics, 4, 6, 230–256 phonological features, 203 phonological system, 80, 223, 244 307 phonological theory, 1, 58, 67, 216 phonology, 8, 58, 59, 62–63, 67, 77, 80–81, 138, 150, 173, 214, 215, 218, 223, 224, 240, 249, 253 Piaget, J., 110 pidgin, 10, 135–155 pidginization, 9, 135, 137, 138, 146 Pirah˜a language, 71 plantation society, 10, 136, 140–149, 150, 153–155, 253 poetic language, 77, 80, 207, 208, 223 poetry, 3, 34, 52, 62, 74, 75, 77, 80, 207–228 politeness, 105, 203 political economy, 6, 10, 58, 164, 165, 166, 223 politics, 65, 67, 104, 143, 147 language and politics, 156, 157, 158–159, 162, 188, 230, 248 ethnopoetry and politics, 8, 207, 214, 215–216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 224–227 polysemy, 121–122 Poplack, S., 160 Popol Vu, 211, 226 postcolonial, 196 postmodernism, 68, 74, 214, 219, 220 post-postmodernism, 210, 219 post-phenomenology, 31 Pott, A F., 6, 235, 236, 237, 238, 248, 251 Povinelli, E., 12–13, 14, 15, 38, 45–46, 190–206 power power and meaning, 10, 12, 40–43, 149, 194, 197, 198–199 power and ethnopoetics, 225 power, resistance and creole genesis, 146–152, 155 spiritual power, 40–43 practice cultural practice, 101–102, 105, 111, 112, 146 language practice, 9, 146, 157, 159, 160–161, 163–164, 166, 167, 168, 179, 184–185, 188, 189 social practice, 11, 140, 144, 147, 160 pragmatics, 12, 113, 185, 192–198, 199–206, 214, 215, 220, 227 intimate pragmatics, 193, 203–204 predication, 12–13, 121, 192, 195, 198, 200 pre-linguistic, 12–13, 18, 23, 25, 120, 199, 203 308 Index presupposition, 11, 12, 63–64, 106, 194–195, 197, 199, 200–201, 202–203, 204, 205 projection, expressive 31–32, 33, 34–35 propositional thought, 30, 111 prototype, 100, 116, 121–122 prototype semantics, 98 psychoanalysis, 191–193, 204–205 psycholinguistics, 8, 11, 13, 104, 108, 110, 176, 178, 179, 184, 185, 188 psychological reality, 62, 90, 99 Pye, C., 172 Rask, R., 232–235 Ray, V., 115, 131 rationalist, 28, 49, 91, 95 reanalysis, 149, 154–155 reasoning, 49, 89, 98, 100–101, 102, 107, 109–110, 111, 112, 113, 229, 246, 248 reconstruction (linguistic), 4, 15, 229, 230, 233, 240, 243, 245, 246, 248–250, 251 reflective, 18, 19, 21 reflexive, 1, 12, 39, 113, 169, 194 reflexivity, 39 register, 11, 174, 175, 179, 194–203 regulatory rules, 102 relatedness, 235 relational relativity, 80 relativism, 48, 57, 67, 72, 100, 223–224 cultural relativism, 83, 89 linguistic relativism, 47, 115, 217 poetic relativism, 223 relativity (Einstein’s theory of), 48, 57, 66–68, 78–79, 86–87 relativity, linguistic, 5–9, 47–81, 82–83, 85, 86–88, 91–92, 94–95, 97–98, 100, 103–112, 115–118, 169 relexification, 138, 154 repertoire, linguistic, 15, 180, 181, 183, 185–186, 252 resistance, 10, 147, 148, 149, 155, 158–159, 166, 254–255 resources, linguistic, 10, 14, 79, 149, 157, 161, 163–167, 170, 183 rhetoric, 30, 31, 33, 34, 93–94, 214, 217–218, 219, 239, 246 Rickford, J., 138 Roberson, Davies and Davidoff, 116–117, 119 Roberts, J., 117, 119–120, 123, 126 Romance languages, 122, 230, 232–233, 235, 239–240, 241–242, 243, 245, 246–247, 248, 250 Romantics, 28, 34, 37, 49–50, 55, 68, 157–158, 219, 234 Romanticism, 6, 49–51, 55, 67, 68, 83, 217 Rorty, R., 13, 243–244 Rothenberg, J., 207–210, 211, 225 Samoan, 12, 173, 175, 177–178, 179, 180–181, 183, 184 Sankoff, G., 137, 139 Sapir, E., 5–7, 8, 14, 37, 47, 48, 55, 57, 62–67, 68, 69, 70–71, 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 83–84, 85, 86–91, 92, 94, 209, 224 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 5, 35–38, 47, 64, 70–74, 79, 87, 92, 95, 103–104 Saunders, B and van Brakel, J., 119–120, 133, 134 Saussure, F de, 4, 68, 192, 193, 244, 251–252 schema(ta), 100–101 Schieffelin, B., 5, 11–12, 15, 101, 168–189 Schlegel, A von, 50, 51 Schlegel, F von, 50, 51 Schuchardt, H., 4, 152, 230, 237, 238, 239–241, 242–243, 244, 245–246, 247, 248, 252–253, 256 Schultz, E., 76 semantic analysis, 111 semantic class, 127, 134 semantic dimension, 21, 22–26, 33–34, 35–36, 200 semantic domain, 97, 154, 245 semantic feature, 98, 100, 121, 205, 236, semantic field, 68, 77, 197, 240, 242, 249 semantic parameters, 97, 107 semantic universalism, 13, 71, 104, 106 semantics, 2, 4, 93, 98–100, 111, 120, 128, 195, 214, 218 semiotic functionalism, 2, 76 semiotics, 11, 200–205, 219 sexuality, 191–194, 196–197, 204, 205 shifters, 76 Siegel, J., 135, 151 Silverstein, M., 11, 36, 76, 199, 200 simplification, 152, 171–172, 173–175, 179, 254 Singler, J., 140, 141 Smith-Hefner, B., 172 Snyder, G., 209–212, 223–227, 228 social categorization, 157, 164, 253 social difference, 157, 163–164, 166 social interaction, i, 105, 113, 138, 163–164, 198, 199 Index social knowledge, 182 social meaning, 164, 182, 184 social organization, 10, 142, 157, 166 social stratification, 157 socialization, 139, 163, 168, 179 sociolinguistics, 5, 13, 15, 77, 137, 138, 156, 160, 192, 219, 228, 230, 254, 255, 256 sociology, 78, 139, 158, 163, 255 sociophonology, 223 Solomon Islands Pijin, 14, 152, 154, 253 Somali, 123, 128 sound correspondence, 234–238, 249–250 sound law, 4, 235–239, 240–241, 243, 245–246, 247, 248, 251–252, 254, 256 sound symbolism, 238, 244, 248 source language, 154 space, 8, 10, 37, 38–39, 42, 43, 49, 55, 57, 65, 66, 77, 103, 107–108, 110–112, 116–118, 119, 125–133, 196, 198, 201–202 social space, 142, 144–145, 146, 148, 193, 195–197, 203, 205 spatial cognition, 77, 107–111 spatial language, 7, 97, 98, 107–111 projective spatial prepositions, 110–111 speech act, 27, 30, 31, 169, 180, 182–183 speech community, 4, 15, 66, 101, 151, 185, 233, 237, 253–255 Sperber, D., 47, 97 stabilization (of creole languages), 146, 253 Starr, F., 54 Stegmann von Pritzwald, K., 69 Steinthal, H., 52–53, 55, 56, 68, 83 structuralism, 2, 67–68, 83, 93, 96 structural-functionalism, 157, 161–164 subjectivity, 40, 144, 155, 193, 196, 199, 201, 202, 204, 227, 255 substrate influences in pidgin and creole genesis, 136, 138, 152–154 superstrate language, 136, 146, 148, 149–151 symbolic domination, 196–197, 202 symbolic expression, 62, 142 symbolic forms, 34, 38 symbolic power, 150, 151 syntax, 8, 69, 77, 126, 127, 128, 131, 138, 171, 191, 201, 204, 213, 215, 216, 222, 230, 248 synthesis, synthetic, 17, 208–214, 222–225, 226; see also analysis 309 T’ang China, 208, 216, 222, 226 Tannen, D., 215, 217, 210 Tarascan, 75, 76, 208 target language, 11, 37, 126, 149–150, 211, 212 rightness, task, 20, 22 taxonomy, 98, 99, 100, 221 Tedlock, D., 207, 210, 211, 213, 220, 226 theory of mind, 113 thinking for speaking, 107 Thomas, A., 241, 244 Thomason, S and Kaufman, T., 150, 153 translation, 5, 9, 19, 29, 72–73, 77–78, 80, 198, 207, 228 translation and hermeneutics, 13–15 ethnopoetic translation, 211–214 Trier, Jost, 68, 73 trope, 8, 207, 217, 220, 221, 239 Tuite, K., 1–15, 47, 50, 135, 229–256 Turgot, A R J., 232–233, 249 Turner, V., 221 Tylor, E B., 54 typology, linguistic, 50, 51, 52, 57, 61, 62, 68, 248 typology of bilingualism, 161–162, 164 typology of color terms, typology of pidgins and creoles, 139 Tzeltal, 93, 109–111 universals and evolution (ue) model, 8, 117–121, 124–125, 126, 128, 129–132, 133–134 universalism, 2, 5–6, 9, 13, 37, 47–48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 57, 74, 77, 78, 95, 97, 131, 152–153, 212, 224 universals cognitive, 7, 13, 96, 104, 105, 112, 113 language, 13, 47–48, 50, 70–71, 80, 91–92, 93 untranslatability, 34, 36, 37, 72 vagueness, 121–122, 124 Valdman, A., 137 variationist sociolinguistics, 15, 160, 230, 254 vernacular culture, 144, 146, 149, 154 vitality, linguistic, 162 vocabulary, 30, 37, 47, 54, 58–60, 68, 70–72, 73–74, 75, 129, 145, 234, 235, 254 color vocabulary, 35, 120, 124 core vocabulary (Swadesh), 233 voicing, 165 310 Vygotsky, L S., 67, 97, 102 Wang Wei, 208, 212 Walcott, D., 209, 226 Weisgerber, L., 68–69, 73, 77 West African languages, 152 Whorf, B L., 6–7, 47, 57, 60, 63–67, 68, 69, 70–71, 72, 73–75, 76–77, 79, 80, 82–95, 96, 103–107, 108, 110, 112, 115–116, 125–128, 222 Whorfian effect, 70, 105, 110–112, 120 Whorfian hypothesis See Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Wierzbicka, A., 8, 13, 119, 120–122, 124 Index Wilkins, D., 115, 128–130, 134 Winteler, J., 67, 80 Wittgenstein, L., 16, 24–25, 68 Woodbury, A., 217 World Color Survey (WCS), 119–120, 121, 124–125, 126, 128, 132–133 world-view, 35, 51, 52, 64–65, 68, 104, 219 Wundt, W., 53 “Yale school” of linguistics, 83–84 Yucatec, 79–80, 226 Zuni, 122–124, 208, 213–214