This page intentionally left blank THE JUDICIAL APPLICATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS LAW National, Regional and International Jurisprudence Since the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, over 140 countries have incorporated human rights standards into their legal systems: the resulting jurisprudence from diverse cultural traditions brings new dimensions to concepts first articulated in 1948 Nihal Jayawickrama draws on all available sources to encapsulate the judicial interpretation of human rights law in one ambitious, comprehensive volume Jayawickrama covers the case law of the superior courts of eighty countries in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, the Caribbean and the Pacific, as well as jurisprudence of the UN Human Rights monitoring bodies, the European Court of Human Rights, and of the Inter-American system He analyses the judicial application of human rights law to demonstrate empirically the universality of contemporary human rights norms This definitive compendium will be essential for legal practitioners, and government and non-governmental officials, as well as academics and students of both constitutional law and the international law of human rights law n i h a l j a y a w i ckr a m a was the Ariel F Sallows Professor of Human Rights at the University of Saskatchewan He taught both constitutional law and the international law of human rights at the University of Hong Kong, and published on a range of contemporary legal, constitutional and human rights issues An advocate for a Bill of Rights in Hong Kong prior to the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, he was involved in the processes that led to its fruition Executive Director of Transparency International from 1997 to 2000, he is currently a consultant on governance and judicial reform A member of the Sri Lanka Bar, he held the offices of Attorney General and Permanent Secretary to the Ministry of Justice, and served as a Representative to the United Nations General Assembly THE JUDICIAL APPLICATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS LAW National, Regional and International Jurisprudence NIHAL JAYAWICKRAMA Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge , United Kingdom Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521780421 © Nihal Jayawickrama 2002 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press First published in print format 2002 - isbn-13 978-0-511-06895-9 eBook (EBL) - isbn-10 0-511-06895-6 eBook (EBL) - isbn-13 978-0-521-78042-1 hardback - hardback isbn-10 0-521-78042-X Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of s for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate The birds that fly in the air and the wild animals that dwell in the jungles have the same rights as you, O great King, to live wherever they wish or to roam wherever they will The land belongs to the people of the country and to all other beings that inhabit it, while you are only its guardian Arahat Mahinda, the son of Emperor Asoka of the Mauryan dynasty, to King Devanampiyatissa of Lanka, c 250–210 bc, found on a rock inscription in Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka CONTENTS Preface page ix Table of cases xiii Table of instruments part i Introduction civ 1 Historical and juridical background The international bill of human rights The domestic protection of human rights The international protection of human rights part ii General principles Interpretation Non-discrimination Limitations 182 Derogation 202 24 157 part iii 159 174 The substantive rights 215 The right of self-determination 10 The right to life 11 The right to freedom from torture 217 239 vii 296 95 130 viii contents 12 The right to freedom from slavery 13 The right to liberty 14 The rights of prisoners 15 The right to freedom of movement 16 The right to a fair trial 17 The rights of accused persons 18 The right to recognition as a person 19 The right to privacy 20 The right to freedom of thought 21 The right to freedom of expression 22 The right to freedom of assembly 23 The right to freedom of association 24 The right to family life 761 25 The rights of the child 780 26 The right to participate in public life 27 The right to equality 28 The rights of minorities 29 The rights relating to work 30 The rights relating to social security 31 The right to an adequate standard of living 32 The right to health 33 The right to education 34 The right to cultural life 35 The right to property Index 921 353 369 425 436 478 527 595 597 637 663 721 735 789 816 842 852 881 890 904 908 864 869 index Namibia Bill of Rights, 108, 118 constitutional law, 108, 115, 118, 119, 122, 123–4, 162–3, 258, 342 corporal punishment, 345–6, 349–50 death penalty, 115, 258 detention, 122, 258 discrimination, 834–6 entrenchment of rights, 123–4 human dignity, 258 ICJ decisions, 137 inconsistent legislation, 119 interpretation, 162–3 life imprisonment, 258 mandatory/minimum sentences, 341–2 UN Council, 140 national emergency ACHR (1969), 202 armed conflict, 204 civic obligations, 367–8 derogations, 175, 202–12, 273, 644 detention, 122–3 ECHR (1950), 202, 203, 205 ‘exigencies of the situation’, 210–12 fair trial, 481 good faith, 206–7 Greece, 208 ICCPR (1966), 88, 202, 203, 204, 208–9, 273 Lesotho, 206 life of nation threatened, 194, 204–9, 243 margin of appreciation, 205 Northern Ireland, 207, 212 ‘other obligations under international law’, 212–13 proclamation, 204, 209, 210 public emergency, 204–9, 210, 243, 481, 644 right to life, 243 Uruguay, 211, 213–14 national human rights commissions, 49 national security ACHR (1969), 438, 664, 668 AfCHPR (1985), 438 armed forces, 194 broadcasting, 714–15 ECHR (1950), 437, 479, 480, 714 expulsion, 472, 473 freedom restricted assembly, 193, 723, 731, 732 association, 193, 735, 736, 737, 740 expression, 193, 436, 437, 438, 663, 664, 668, 713–15 justification, 193–4 movement, 193, 436, 437, 438, 465, 472, 473 951 national security, 193 privacy, 193, 601 public trial, 193, 478, 479 ICCPR (1966), 193, 203, 436, 437, 472, 478, 480 India, 207, 715 Israel, 465 North Korea, 713–14 preventive detention, 101 state secrets, 465 surveillance, 631 terrorism, 194, 207, 714 nationality arbitrary deprivation, 443, 476 Austria, 840 children, 77, 183, 787–8 discrimination, 837–8, 839–40 married women, 63 passports, 452, 453 right to change, 443 Strasbourg Declaration (1986), 456 UDHR (1948), 28, 36 natural justice, audi alteram partem, 504 natural law Aristotle, 13 Buddhism, 7–8 national entities, philosophy, 13–14 standards, 98 natural wealth and resources, 224, 234–5 Nauru, 83, 108, 115, 123 Nepal, 82, 83 Netherlands, 837 The Netherlands arbitrary detention, 380 compulsory labour, 364 discrimination, 833, 838 judicial power, 409 nuclear weapons, 275 personal identification, 616 public life, 801 New Zealand Bill of Rights, 562 detention, 170, 171 discrimination, 833 ICCPR (1966), 82 imprisonment, 430 reasoned judgments, 582 search warrants, 707–8 newspapers, freedom see freedom of the press Nicaragua, 43 Nigeria Bill of Rights, 107, 108, 169 constitutional law, 107–8, 125 ECHR (1950), 107, 108, 169 952 index Nigeria (cont.) freedom of expression, 669, 696 freedom of the press, 705 Idoma law and custom, 657 justiciability, 125 Non-Aligned Nations meeting (New Delhi, 1983), 37 non-governmental organizations (NGOs) access, 53, 133–4 categories, 141, 153 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 134 consultative status, 152, 153 ECOSOC, 141, 152–3 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 53, 134 international protection, 152–3 Roster, 153 UN Commission on Human Rights, 141, 146 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), 275 North Korea, 713–14 Northern Ireland armed forces, 715 judicial power, 409 national emergency, 207, 212 right to life, 261–2 terrorism, 207, 212, 261–2, 390 torture, 309–11 Norway, 362, 720 nuclear weapons, 273–6 obligations ACHR (1969), 77 continuity, 93–4 ESC (1961), 74 government, 96–7 ICCPR (1966), 46–53, 93 ICESCR (1966), 57–61, 132 individual beneficiaries, 24–5, 84, 86, 96 measures derogating, 209–10 municipal law, 97 right to life, 261–3 self-determination, 236–7 UN Charter, 24–5 ombudsman services, 49 ordre public see public order Organization of African Unity (OAU) AfCHPR see African Charter on Human and People’s Rights Charter (1963), 37 UDHR (1948), 37 Organization of American States (OAS) ACHR see American Convention on Human Rights ADRD see American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man Charter (1948), 75 Commission see Inter-American Commission on Human Rights United States, 294 pacifism conscientious objectors, 366–7, 407–8, 420, 658–9, 836, 837 freedom of thought, 644, 653 military duties, 653, 715 taxes, 654–5 Paine, Thomas, 14 Pakistan, 106 Palestinians Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), 465 UN committee, 140 Panama, 37 Papua New Guinea constitutional law, 39, 83, 108, 116, 121, 172, 341 freedom of expression, 116 mandatory/minimum sentences, 341 vagrancy, 392–3 Paris Principles (1991), 129 passports ancient India, 441 Ceylon, 454 freedom of association, 454–6 impounded, 459 India, 441, 454, 459 migrant workers, confiscation, 359 nationality, 452, 453 obligations, 452–3 refusal, 453, 454–5 residence, 452, 453 restrictions, 457–9, 464 right to leave any country, 452–9 UN principles, 455–6 United Kingdom, 453 United States, 455, 457–9 Zambia, 452 Peace of Versailles (1919), 19, 220 Peace of Westphalia (1648), peaceful assembly see freedom of assembly penalties Buddhism, capital see death penalty criminal see punishments mandatory supervision, 591 right to leave country, 456–7, 462–3 peoples characteristics, 226–7 self-determination, 225–30 index subsidence, 236 UN Charter, 226 peremptory norms (jus cogens), treaties, 6, 87, 88, 299, 356 Permanent Court of Arbitration, international disputes, Peru Andean Group, 37 discrimination, 833 equality before the law, 493, 833 Philippines, 82, 83 philosophy natural law, 13–14 transformed into law, 14–17, 24 Poland, 35, 247, 751 police code of conduct (1979), 372, 428, 532 compelled testimony, 575, 576 demonstrations, 733–4 freedom of association, 735, 736, 737, 759 freedom of expression, 672 immunities, 486 investigations, 551, 555, 556, 580 premises entered, 627 random stopping, 380–1, 448, 466 police custody interrogation, 390 investigations, 555, 556 legal advice/representation, 555, 556 random stopping, 380–1, 448 self-incrimination, 575 political crimes, death penalty, 241, 245, 286 political parties freedom of association, 757–8 freedom of expression, 687–8 Portugal, 268, 418 positive rights, 253 possessions see property pre-trial detention arbitrary, 380 children, 392 grounds, 413–14 ICCPR (1966), 432–3 investigations, 412 legal advice/representation, 555 mitigated prison regime, 384 police investigations, 551 presumption of innocence, 432, 433 prison conditions, 432–3 public order, 414 reasonable time, 409–11 restricted liberty, 382–3 risks absconding, 413–14 collusion, 414 953 re-offending, 413 witnesses, 414 segregation, 425, 427, 432–3 serious crimes, 412, 413 Spain, 383–4, 411 Zimbabwe, 433 presumption of innocence ACHR (1969), 530 ADRD (1948), 529 AfCHPR (1985), 531 bail, 413 consistent treatment, 548–50 costs, 549 ECHR (1950), 529, 536, 550 evidentiary burden, 539–41 ICCPR (1966), 527 liberty, 390 persuasive burden, 541–8 pre-trial detention, 432, 433 reasonable doubt, 535, 541 substantive rights, 533, 535, 536, 538 preventive detention deprivation of liberty, 400–4 grounds, 401–3 ICCPR (1966), 401 national security, 101 representations, 401 prisoners of war, 3, 654 privacy abortion, 613 ACHR (1969), 77, 183, 598, 600 ADRD (1948), 597 anonymity, 617 arbitrary/unlawful interference, 603–4 bodily samples, 614–15 Canada, 599 children, 609, 615–16 comment, 598–603 common law, 100 constitutional law, 599 correspondence, 603, 629–35 Cyprus, 603 data protection, 607–10 ECHR (1950), 69, 193, 194, 197, 199, 200, 597–8, 600–2, 616, 627 education, 613 family life, 601–2, 620–5 freedom of expression, 617 freedom of the press, 682 Germany, 602–3 home, 625–8 human relationships, 611–14 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 604 ICCPR (1966), 45, 183, 597, 600, 601, 603, 606, 629 954 index privacy (cont.) India, 599 interpretation, 603–36 legal advice/representation, 554–5 meaning, 604–16 medical treatment, 608–9 personal choices, 618–20 personal identification, 616–20 personal information, 606–10 photographs, 617 physical/moral integrity, 614–16 private conversations, 632 regional instruments, 597–8 restrictions national security, 193, 601 public health, 199, 601 public morals, 197, 601 public safety, 194, 601 rights/freedoms of others, 200, 601, 627–8 Romano-Dutch law, 599 searches, 599, 610, 627, 628 sexuality, 611–12 social standards, 612 South Africa, 605 substantive rights, 597–636 surveillance, 100, 602, 610–11, 629–32 telephones, 603, 606, 629–32 torts, 598 transsexuals, 617–18 trials, public excluded, 478, 479, 480, 512–13 UDHR (1948), 28, 36, 597, 600 property ACHR (1969), 909, 910, 911 ADRD (1948), 908 AfCHPR (1985), 909, 910, 911 comment, 909–11 compulsory purchase, 627–8 constitutional law, 115, 121 deprivation, 914–16 destruction, 627 ECHR (1950), 70, 627, 908, 910, 913, 918 expropriation/confiscation, 234, 235, 236, 910, 918–20 forfeiture, 337 Ghana, 105 Guyana, 121, 462 interpretation, 911–20 meaning, 911–14 political compromise, 114 possessions, 913 regional instruments, 908–9 related texts, 909 right to leave any country, 457 substantive rights, 908–20 UDHR (1948), 908, 909 use/enjoyment, 916–19 proportionality arbitrary arrest, 377 discrimination, 177, 179 limitations, 187, 189, 463, 482, 756, 798 necessary in a democratic society, 463 personal information, 607 punishments, 336–7 prosecutors burden of proof, 535, 536, 538 disclosure, 506, 552–3, 554, 572 guidelines (1990), 372, 532 Hungary, 409 impartiality, 409, 502, 522–3 Italy, 409 Zimbabwe, 502 prostitution children, 359 convention (1949), 62, 355, 468 presumptions, 546 public emergency see national emergency public health ACHR (1969), 664, 668 freedom restricted assembly, 199, 723 association, 199, 735, 737, 740 expression, 198, 199, 663, 664, 668, 717–18 movement, 198, 199, 467–8 privacy, 199, 601 thought, 198, 200, 639, 656 ICESCR (1966), 57 infectious diseases, 199 International Health Regulations (1969), 467–8 Lithuania, 718 mental health, 199 public interest, deprivation of property, 915–16 public life ACHR (1969), 790–1, 792, 793 ADRD (1948), 790 AfCHPR (1985), 791 aliens, 790 comment, 791–3 conduct, 804–7 Cyprus, 794 ECHR (1950), 790, 792 elections see elections equality, 813–15 every citizen, 793–4 Hong Kong, 798–9, 807 ICCPR (1966), 46, 183, 211, 789, 792, 793, 794–5, 798, 813 imprisonment, 430, 799–800 index interpretation, 793–815 The Netherlands, 801 regional instruments, 790–1 related texts, 791 right and opportunity, 794 substantive rights, 789–815 UDHR (1948), 28, 36, 789 Uruguay, 211, 798, 814–15 without distinctions, 794–5 without unreasonable restrictions, 795–804 public morals ACHR (1969), 664, 668 freedom restricted assembly, 197, 723 association, 197, 735, 737, 740 expression, 197, 663, 664, 665, 668, 698–9, 718 movement, 197, 468 privacy, 197, 601 public trial, 197, 478, 479, 480, 512 thought, 197, 639, 656, 660 Gibraltar, 198 moral standards, 197–8 public order ACHR (1969), 196–7, 664, 668 Cameroon, 716 common law, 115 ECHR (1950), 437, 479, 480 freedom restricted assembly, 184, 186, 195, 723, 731 association, 184, 195, 735, 736, 737, 740 expression, 184, 195, 663, 664, 668, 679, 716–17 movement, 184, 195, 436, 437, 465–6, 470 public trial, 195, 478, 479, 480, 512 thought, 195, 639, 656, 659–60 Hong Kong, 717 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 716 ICCPR (1966), 195, 203, 436, 478, 480 ‘in the interests of ’, 193 meaning, 195–7, 465–6 ordre public, 114, 115, 184, 195–6, 396, 466, 717 parliamentary procedure, 716 pre-trial detention, 414 Zimbabwe, 466 public safety extradition, 466–7 freedom restricted assembly, 194, 723, 732 association, 194, 735, 737, 740 expression, 194, 664, 668 justification, 194–5 movement, 194, 466–7 955 privacy, 194, 601 thought, 194, 639, 656, 660 punishments ACHR (1969) cruel/inhuman/degrading, 296 death penalty, 241, 242, 285, 286, 293 imprisonment, 425–6, 427 bodily see corporal punishment capital see death penalty cruel, 308, 333 degrading, 311–14, 333–4 discretion, 287, 294, 340 drug offences, 591 ECHR (1950) corporal punishment, 347–9, 350 death penalty, 70, 240, 241–2 inhuman/degrading, 69, 296, 302, 306 substantive rights, 529–30 grossly disproportionate, 336–7 hard labour, 353, 354, 355, 364–5 human dignity, 338 ICCPR (1966) corporal punishment, 350 cruel/inhuman/degrading, 45, 296, 340 death penalty, 56, 90–1, 114, 239–40, 244–5, 251, 266, 284–5, 288–90, 293, 323–5, 340 hard labour, 353, 364–5 imprisonment, 425, 427, 430–2 substantive rights, 528 impugned categories, 334–50 inhuman, 308–11, 314–26, 333 lawful sanctions, 308 lighter penalties, 593–4 mandatory/minimum sentences, 340–3 no valid social aim, 338–40 prisons see imprisonment recidivists, 343, 360, 366, 387, 418, 421 time offence committed, 534, 590–3 torture, 334–5 UDHR (1948), 27, 36, 296, 527 see also torture punishments (cruel/inhuman/degrading) absolute prohibition, 298 ACHR (1969), 296 AfCHPR (1985), 80, 297 convention (1984), 64, 131, 135, 136, 170, 297, 305–6, 439 ICCPR (1966), 45, 296, 340 mental suffering, 300 UDHR (1948), 27, 36, 296 punishments (cruel/unusual) ADRD (1948), 296 Bill of Rights (1689), 15 United States, 16, 333, 334, 336, 338 956 punishments (inhuman/degrading) constitutional law, 166 ECHR (1950), 69, 296, 302, 306 whipping, 166, 170–1, 346–7 Rastafarianism, 644, 652 ratification human rights treaties, 96, 170 Optional Protocol (1966), ix, 82 UN Charter, 21 Read, James S., 127 recidivists, 343, 360, 366, 387, 418, 421 Red Cross see International Committee of the Red Cross refugees asylum see asylum seekers Austria, 329 convention (1951), 62, 139, 329, 439 determination of status, 382 illegal entry, 461 non-refoulement, 460–1 protocol (1966), 62 see also UN High Commissioner for Refugees regional instruments accused persons, 529–32 ACHR see American Convention on Human Rights AfCHPR see African Charter on Human and People’s Rights children, 781 cultural life, 905 detention, 370–2, 425–6 domestic protection, 109–11 ECHR see European Convention on Human Rights education, 892–4 elections, 790–1 employment, 853–5 equality before the law, 816 fair trial, 478–9 family life, 762–3 freedoms assembly, 721–2 association, 736–7 expression, 664–5 movement, 437–9 thought, 638–9 health, 882–3 human rights treaties, 68–84, 109–11 imprisonment, 425–6 jurisprudence, 168–9 legal persons, 595 liberty, 370–2 possible Asian convention, 82–3 privacy, 597–8 index property, 908–9 public life, 790–1 right to life, 240–2 self-determination, 217–18 slavery, 354–5 social security, 864–5 standard of living, 870 torture, 296–7 rehabilitation imprisonment, 427, 434, 614 juvenile offenders, 594 religion Buddhism see Buddhism children, 640 Christian see Christianity churches, 642 constitutional law, 641, 642 contractual obligations, 650 criticism, 650–1 customs, 657 discrimination, 640–1, 836–7 education, 640, 646–7, 655, 661–2, 836–7, 849–50, 900–1 freedom of choice, 647–8, 656–9 Hinduism, 7, 83, 616 human dignity, 7–12, 83 individually/in community, 648–9 Islam, 7, 35, 83, 98, 648 Jehovah’s Witnesses, 658, 836, 837 Judaism, 7, 654, 836, 837 languages, 651 Malaysia, 648 Mauritius, 652–3 minorities’ rights, 640, 641, 849–50 missionaries/proselytism, 647, 655–6 Muslims see Islam observance, 649, 651–3 pluralism, 645 practice, 639, 645, 648, 649–50, 653–5 prisoners, 654, 660 Rastafarianism, 644, 652 religious liberty, 640 religious tolerance, 640 sabbath observance, 657–8, 836 secular state, 643, 647 Sikhs, 660, 836 state discretion, 644–5 state religion, 641, 642, 645–6, 647 symbolic expression, 644, 646–7, 651–2 taxes, 646 teaching, 649, 655–6 United States, 650 worship, 649, 651 see also freedom of thought index remedies ACHR (1969), 49 compensation see compensation ECHR (1950), 49–50, 70 ICCPR (1966), 49–51 investigations, 50, 51 redress, 50 see also enforcement remuneration ACHR (1969), 854 decent living, 860–1 equality, 56, 57, 852, 853, 854, 860 ESC (1961), 853 fair pay, 859 ICESCR (1966), 56, 57, 853, 860 UDHR (1948), 852 reporting procedures children, 131–2 ECOSOC, 61, 142–3 enforcement, 133 HRC see Human Rights Committee ICCPR (1966), 51–3, 131 ICESCR (1966), 61, 131, 132, 133, 134 purpose, 132 Secretary-General see UN Secretary-General torture, 131 treaty mechanisms, 131–4 weaknesses, 133–4 reputation accurate information, 695, 710 ACHR (1969), 664, 668 defamation, 711–13 freedom restricted, expression, 635–6, 663, 664, 668, 710–13 ICCPR (1966), 635–6, 663 reservations ACHR (1969), 85–6 chairpersons of human rights treaty bodies, 92–3 death penalty, 240 Genocide Convention (1948), 137 human rights treaties, 85–93 ICCPR (1966), 86–92 Inter-American Court of Human Rights, 85–6 International Law Commission (ILC), 92 justification, 88 object and purpose test, 87, 89 Optional Protocol (1966), 89–90, 92 Vienna Convention (1969), 85, 92 residence ACHR (1969), 438 ADRD (1948), 437 AfCHPR (1985), 438 aliens, 469–70 957 Belarus, 450 ECHR (1950), 437 France, 470 Germany, 449 ICCPR (1966), 436 India, 449–50 passports, 452, 453 permissions, 464 private interference, 441 substantive rights, 193, 449–51 UDHR (1948), 436 Zimbabwe, 450–1 restrictions see limitations retroactive criminal law absolute rights, 182, 210 ACHR (1969), 77, 182, 210, 531, 534 AfCHPR (1985), 532 Ceylon, 589 ECHR (1950), 69, 182, 210 Hungary, 589 ICCPR (1966), 45, 182, 210, 528, 589 substantive rights, 534, 586–90 UDHR (1948), 28 United States, 169 right of silence, 535, 538, 579–81 right to enter own country ACHR (1969), 438, 476 AfCHPR (1985), 438 arbitrary deprivation, 476 Cyprus, 476–7 ECHR (1950), 437, 476 ICCPR (1966), 436, 475, 476 UDHR (1948), 436 right to leave any country ACHR (1969), 438, 452 AfCHPR (1985), 438, 452 asylum seekers, 441, 452 ECHR (1950), 437 ICCPR (1966), 436 penalties/taxes, 456–7, 462–3 property, 457 restrictions, 454, 462, 464, 465 Strasbourg Declaration (1986), 440, 456 substantive rights, 451–69 travel documents see passports UDHR (1948), 436, 452 right to life ACHR (1969), 76, 183, 209, 241, 242, 244, 248, 281, 438 ‘actions of state officers’, 269–70 ADRD (1948), 240, 248, 249 AfCHPR (1985), 80, 241 aged/senile/terminally ill persons, 252–6 arbitrary deprivation of life, 241, 273–4, 276–82, 294 armed conflict, 273–6 958 index right to life (cont.) Canada, 270–1 capital punishment see death penalty Colombia, 269–70 comment, 243–5 custody, 263–5, 269 deportation, 265–9, 438 disappearances, 280–2 ECHR (1950), 69, 209, 240–2, 244, 246, 260–3, 264–5, 276–8 environment, 270–1 ‘every human being’, 245–56 eviction, 260–1 extradition, 265–9, 285 Germany, 246–7, 254 human dignity, 254, 257–8, 274, 283–4 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 266–8, 269–70, 274 ICCPR (1966), 45, 55, 114, 183, 209, 239–40, 243–5, 249, 250, 264, 270, 273–4, 276, 281 India, 252–5, 258–60, 269, 270, 271–2 inherent right, 239, 256–76 interpretation, 245–95 livelihood, 258–60 medical services, 255, 271–3 mentally/physically defective persons, 251–2 national emergency, 243 Northern Ireland, 261–2 obligation to protect, 261–3 offences against the person, 261–3 Portugal, 268 protected by law, 260–76 regional instruments, 240–2 related texts, 242–3 restrictive definition, 183 sanctity of life, 9, 253 South Africa, 257, 272–3, 283–4 state immunities, 269 strict construction, 256–7 substantive rights, 239–95 UDHR (1948), 27, 36, 43, 239 unborn child, 245–51 United States, 257 Uruguay, 263–4 use of force, 276–9 rights/freedoms of others freedom restricted assembly, 185, 200, 723, 731 association, 200, 735, 736, 737, 740 expression, 200, 635, 710 movement, 200, 436, 437, 438 privacy, 200, 601, 627–8 thought, 200, 640, 656, 660 Riobamba Charter of Conduct (1980), 37 Roberts-Wray, Kenneth, 103 Rodley, Nigel S., 31–2 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 26, 95 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (26th President), 20, 21, 220 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 14 rule of law democracy, 188 ECHR (1950), 385 Latin America, 29 restrictions prescribed by law, 191 UDHR (1948), 27, 29 rules of justice, 13 Rushdie, Salman, 906 Russian Federation Chechnya, 151 freedom of movement, 445, 462–3 North Ossetia, 445 UN Commission on Human Rights, 151 see also Soviet Union Rwanda, 138 St Christopher and Nevis, 108, 115 St Lucia, 108, 116 St Vincent and the Grenadines, 108, 669 Santa Cruz, Hernan, 26 Saudi Arabia, 34–5 Scandinavia, gender equality, 29 Scotland, 518 search warrants Canada, 706–7 New Zealand, 707–8 Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), 16 searches media premises, 706–8 privacy, 599, 610, 627, 628 Second World War, 19, 24, 299 security of the person, 375–6 self-determination AfCHPR (1985), 217–18 ‘all peoples’, 225–30 Canada, 223–4, 225, 230 choice, 231 ethnic groups, 228 federated states, 228 free association, 231, 232 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 223–4, 231 ICCPR (1966), 45, 217, 222–5, 227–8, 231, 234–6, 791–2 ICESCR (1966), 56, 217 integration, 233–4 interpretation, 225–38 minorities’ rights, 229, 234 national groups, 228 index natural wealth and resources, 224, 234–5 other political status, 234 peoples, characteristics, 226–7 political status, 232 regional instruments, 217–18 related texts, 218–20 reporting procedures, 143 right of self-determination, 230–2 right violated, 145 sovereign independence, 232–3 state obligations, 236–7 substantive rights, 217–38 trust territories, 236–7 UN Charter, 221, 237–8 UN General Assembly, 218–20, 221–3 self-incrimination bodily samples, 578–9 Canada, 577 compulsion, 575, 576, 578 confessions, 506, 575 police custody, 575 substantive rights, 534, 575–9 United States, 577 Senegal, 39 Senghor, L´eopold S´edar, 79 separation of powers, Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), 16 serious crimes death penalty, 239, 266, 284, 285, 285–6 pre-trial detention, 412, 413 servitude ACHR (1969), 354, 356, 357 consent, 359, 360 detention, 360 ECHR (1950), 69, 354, 356, 357, 360 ICCPR (1966), 45, 353, 356, 357, 359 interpretation, 359–61 serfdom, 358, 359, 360, 361 servile status, 358 women, 358, 360 see also compulsory labour; slavery Seychelles, 108, 124 Sieghart, Paul, ix, 154, 174 Sierra Leone, 108, 831 Sikhs, 660, 836 silence accused persons, 535, 538, 579–81 freedom of expression, 675 Singapore, 108, 119–20, 232 slavery absolute rights, 182, 210, 256, 356 ACHR (1969), 76, 182, 210, 354–5, 356 AfCHPR (1985), 80, 355 Berlin Conference (1885), 18, 356 Buddhism, 10 children, 358 959 comment, 356–7 compulsory labour distinguished, 357 customary international law, 356 debt bondage, 358 definitions, 357–9 ECHR (1950), 69, 182, 210, 354, 356 humanitarian norms, 18 ICCPR (1966), 45, 182, 210, 256, 353–4, 356, 358 ICJ decisions, 356 International Convention (1926), 18, 63, 355, 356, 357, 359 interpretation, 357–68 ownership/control, 359 Protocol (1953), 355 regional instruments, 354–5 related texts, 355–6 serfdom, 358 servile status, 358 slave trade, 18, 356, 357–8 substantive rights, 353–68 Supplementary Convention (1956), 63, 355, 356, 358 UDHR (1948), 27, 35, 36, 43, 100, 353 United States, 99 see also servitude Slovak Republic, 232 Slovenia, 810 social contract, 14, 15, 98 social security ACHR (1969), 865 ADRD (1948), 864 AfCHPR (1985), 865 ESC (1961), 865 ICESCR (1966), 56, 864, 865, 867, 868 ILO conventions, 865, 866 interpretation, 866–8 maternity rights, 762, 778–9 regional instruments, 864–5 social insurance, 867–8 substantive rights, 864–8 UDHR (1948), 864, 866 Socrates, 440 Solomon Islands constitutional law, 83, 108, 448 freedom of movement, 448 interrogation, 316–17 Somalia, 138 Somoza Garc´ıa, Anastasio, 43 South Africa amnesties, 491 apartheid, 64, 132, 139, 145, 150, 831 burden of proof, 538 censorship, 703 Christianity, 657–8 civil imprisonment, 344 960 index South Africa (cont.) constitutional law, 102, 116, 166, 169, 272 corporal punishment, 350 death penalty, 283–4, 335 discrimination, 830–1, 832–3, 840 equality before the law, 494 imprisonment, 429, 430 limitation periods, 483 medical treatment, 272–3, 888 Namibia, 137 privacy, 605 release pending trial, 415–16 restrictions, 187 right to life, 257, 272–3, 283–4 trade unions, 759 UDHR (1948), 35, 37 UN Security Council, 138 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), 82 South Korea, 82, 83 South West Africa, 137, 140 sovereignty Enlightenment, 14 permanent sovereignty, 234, 235 self-determination, 232–3 traditional doctrine, 17, 18, 20, 25 Soviet Union (USSR) economic and social rights, 29 national groups, 228 nuclear weapons, 275 UDHR (1948), 29, 30–1, 35 Spain Andean Group, 37 deportation, 395–6 detention at sea, 406 enforcement, 493 extradition, 417, 422 fair trial, 489, 490 freedom of association, 747 freedom of expression, 690 pre-trial detention, 383–4, 411 unborn child, 247 Special Committee against Apartheid, 139 Special Committee on Decolonization, 139 Sri Lanka censorship, 702 constitutional law, 83, 112, 119, 120, 169 equality before the law, 822, 826 ICCPR (1966), 82 imprisonment, 430 inhuman treatment, 320 lawful arrest, 407 mandatory/minimum sentences, 343 torture, 300 see also Ceylon Stalin, Joseph, 21 standard of living ACHR (1969), 870, 871, 872 adequate clothing, 875 adequate food, 872–5 adequate housing, 875–80 comment, 871 continuous improvement, 880 decent living, 860–1 ‘everyone’, 871–2 freedom from hunger, 875 ICESCR (1966), 57, 869–70, 871, 875 interpretation, 871–80 regional instruments, 870 related texts, 870 substantive rights, 869–80 UDHR (1948), 28, 36, 869 standard of proof accused persons, 535, 536–7 torture, 303 state immunities access to courts, 485–6, 491 right to life, 269 stateless persons convention (1954), 63, 139, 439 convention (1961), 63, 139, 439 statement of rights constitutional law, 159 human rights treaties, 97 see also Bill of Rights states of emergency see national emergency suicide, 252–4 Suriname, 279 surveillance freedom of movement, 446–7 national security, 631 privacy, 100, 602, 610–11, 629–32 telephone interception, 629–32 Swaziland, 108 Sweden discrimination, 838–9 expulsion, 471–2 fair trial, 523 imprisonment, 430 minorities, 848–9 terrorism, 471–2 Switzerland censorship, 684 detention, 366, 395 freedom of expression, 684 imprisonment, 430 judicial power, 409 Syracuse Draft Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary (1981), 171 index Tanzania Bill of Rights (1985), 113, 127 constitutional law, 113 equality before the law, 493–4, 833–4 Haya customary law, 833 justiciability, 172–3 taxes church taxes, 646 equality before the law, 825–6 pacifism, 654–5 right to leave country, 456–7, 462–3 Teheran Declaration (1943), 21 telephones interception, 629–30 mobiles, 631 privacy, 603, 606, 629–32 terrorism detention, 212, 388–91, 407 imprisonment, 654 Irish Republican Army, 278, 714 national security, 194, 207, 714 Northern Ireland, 207, 212, 261–2, 390 ‘political prisoners’, 654 right to life, 261–2, 278 Sweden, 471–2 Third Committee, 29, 139, 184, 432, 434, 702, 745, 776, 778, 783, 828 de Tocqueville, Alexis, 739 Togo, 445 Tonga, 102–3 torture absolute rights, 182, 209, 256, 298–9 ACHR (1969), 182, 209, 296 ADRD (1948), 296 AfCHPR (1985), 80, 297 amnesties, 51, 304–5 Canada, 303 children, 300 comment, 298–305 Committee against Torture, 131, 135, 170 constitutional law, 41–2, 298 convention (1984), 64, 131, 135, 136, 170, 297, 305–6, 327, 439 declaration (1975), 297, 308 deportation, 326–32 ECHR (1950), 69, 182, 209, 296, 302, 306–7 effective remedies, 50 evidence, 303–4 extradition, 326–32 Greece, 306, 307 historic use, 299 human dignity, 298, 300 Human Rights Committee (HRC), 304 ICCPR (1966), 45, 50, 51, 55, 182, 209, 256, 296 961 individual complaints, 136 inquiry procedure, 135 intention, 305, 307 inter-state complaints, 135 interpretation, 305–52 interrogation, 309–11, 576 investigation, 304–5 jurisprudence, 170 lawful sanctions, 308 meaning, 305–8 mental suffering, 300, 307, 318 motivation, 307 Northern Ireland, 309–11 pain or suffering, 305–6 prevention, 304 Principles of Medical Ethics (1982), 426, 428 punishments, 334–5 purpose, 299 regional instruments, 296–7 reign of terror, 299 related texts, 297–8 reporting procedures, 131 Second World War, 299 sensory deprivation, 309 Sri Lanka, 300 standard of proof, 303 substantive rights, 296–352 trade unions, 751 treatment cruel, 308 degrading, 311–14 impugned, 314–32 inhuman, 308–11, 314–15 prohibited, 300–5 Turkey, 307 UDHR (1948), 27, 32, 36, 41, 43, 296 United Kingdom, 309–11 witnesses, 303–4 Zaire, 264 Zimbabwe, 303 see also punishments trade unions closed shop agreements, 752, 757 collective bargaining, 755–6 ECHR (1950), 737, 752, 755, 757 ICCPR (1966), 735, 753, 754 ICESCR (1966), 56, 58, 183, 736, 740, 753, 754 intimidation, 750–1 Poland, 751 protection of interests, 752–3 right to strike, 736, 740, 753–4 South Africa, 759 substantive rights, 749–56 torture, 751 962 index trade unions (cont.) UDHR (1948), 28, 36 United Kingdom, 752, 757 translations, documentary evidence, 554 transsexuals marriage, 771–4 privacy, 617–18 treaties ancient India, bilateral see bilateral treaties conclusion, 160–1 context, 160–1 implementation, statutes, 159 international law, 84–5 interpretation, 160–2 multilateral see multilateral treaties object and purpose, 160, 161 pacta sunt servanda, sources of law, 5–6 travaux pr´eparatoires, 161, 167 see also human rights treaties treatment of detainees, punishment distinguished, 300–5 Treaty of Paris (1814), 18 trials appearance, guarantees, 413, 415 fairness see fair trial in absentia, 563 remand in custody see pre-trial detention time see fair trial tribunals impartial see impartial tribunals juries, 524 meaning, 421, 523—4 see also courts Trieste memorandum of understanding (1954), 38 Trinidad and Tobago constitutional law, 108 death penalty, 322, 326 equality before the law, 821 freedom of association, 744 prerogative of mercy, 291, 292 Turkey ECHR (1950), 38, 307, 314–15, 366 inhuman treatment, 314–15 political parties, 758 torture, 307 Turks and Caicos Islands, 109 Tuvalu, 83, 108, 119 Uganda, 108, 149 Ukraine, 35 UN Charter armed conflict, 273, 720 authentic interpretation, 30–2 democracy, 186 ECOSOC, 22, 25, 140, 152 human rights, 21–3, 24–5, 30–2 international co-operation and assistance, 61 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 4, 23, 40, 41, 136 obligations, 24–5 ratification, 21 self-determination, 221, 237–8 states/nations/peoples, 226 UDHR (1948), 29–32 UN Commission on Human Rights, 25, 143 UN General Assembly, 25 UN Commission on Human Rights 728F procedure, 145, 146 1235 procedure, 145–6, 151 1503 procedure, 146–50 1966 covenants, 44, 130–1 Afghanistan, 151 asylum seekers, 460 Bosnia-Herzegovina, 151 Burundi, 151 Chile, 150, 151 Congo, 151 country-oriented mandates, 151–2 Cuba, 151 Cyprus, 151 draft conventions, 131, 141 East Timor, 151 ECOSOC, 140, 141, 144–50 El Salvador, 151 establishment, 140 individual communications/complaints, 143–50 international bill of human rights, 25–6 international protection, 130–1, 141–52 limitations, 184 local committees, 128 membership, 141 national liberation movements, 141 non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 141, 146 political considerations, 141, 150, 151–2 publicity, 150 reporting procedures, 143 Russian Federation, 151 secrecy, 144, 147 special envoys, 148 special procedures, 150–2 sub-commission, 38, 142, 145–8, 226 thematic mandates, 151 thorough studies, 146, 148, 149 Uganda, 149 UN Charter, 25, 143 index Working Group on Communications, 148 Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances, 150, 151 working groups/rapporteurs, 150–1 Yugoslavia, 151 UN Commission on the Status of Women, 140 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 67, 227 UN General Assembly customary international law, 38 declarations see declarations ECOSOC, 140 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 137 international protection, 139–40 reporting procedures, 143 self-determination, 218–20, 221–3 subsidiary organs, 139–40 UDHR (1948) see Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN Charter, 25 UN Guidelines, Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency (Riyadh Rules) (1990), 426 UN High Commissioner for Refugees objects, 139 statute (1950), 139, 439 UN Secretary-General individual communications/complaints, 144, 145, 146 reporting procedures ICCPR (1966), 51–2 UDHR (1948), 143 UN Security Council composition, 138 ECOSOC, 140 International Court of Justice (ICJ), 137 international protection, 138 sanctions, 138 UN Standard Minimum Rules Administration of Juvenile Justice (Beijing Rules) (1985), 170–1, 297, 426, 435, 532, 639 Non-Custodial Measures (Tokyo Rules) (1990), 372, 427 Treatment of Prisoners (1955), 170, 297, 308, 426, 427–8, 430 UN Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities individual communications/complaints, 145–8 membership, 142 peoples defined, 226 UDHR (1948), 34, 142 Working Group on Communications, 147, 148 963 UN treaties, specific/related rights, 62–4 UN Working Group on Indigenous Populations, 228 unborn child, 245–51, 295 United Kingdom abortion, 246 constitutional law, 110, 163 ECHR (1950), 38, 110, 278, 309–11, 312 elections, 797 England see England extradition, 329, 330–1 imprisonment, 430 Northern Ireland see Northern Ireland passports, 453 telephone interception, 630 torture, 309–11 trade unions, 752, 757 UDHR (1948), 38 United States Bill of Rights (1791), 17, 99 communism, 667, 683 Constitution amendments I–X (1791), 17, 98 detention, 42 habeas corpus, 17 I amendment (1791), 458, 674 V amendment (1791), 577 XIII amendment (1865), 17, 334, 336, 338 XIV amendment (1868), 17, 257, 674, 820 XIX amendment (1920), 17 XV amendment (1870), 17 correspondence, 683 cruel/unusual punishment, 16, 333, 334, 336, 338 death penalty, 266–7, 268–9, 293–4, 330–2, 334–5, 339, 341, 592–3 Declaration of Independence (1776), 16–17 democracy, 188–9 discrimination, 831–2 education, 673 ex post facto law, 592–3 fair trial, 560 flag burning, 678 freedoms expression, 169, 670, 678, 683, 688, 690 movement, 446, 454–5, 457–9 opinion, 667, 673 grossly disproportionate punishment, 336 habeas corpus, 17 liberty, 126, 373 natural rights, 98 nuclear weapons, 275 passports, 455, 457–9 964 United States (cont.) religion, 650 retroactive criminal law, 169 right to life, 257 saluting flag, 673–4 self-incrimination, 577 slavery, 99 UDHR (1948), 37, 38 Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), 15–16, 98 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) abstentions, 34–6 accused persons, 527 arbitrary arrest, 28, 36, 369, 377 asylum seekers, 28, 36, 436, 452 bilateral treaties, 38 children, 780 constitutional law, 39–40, 43 cultural life, 28, 36, 904 customary international law, 33–6, 40, 42–3 death penalty, 287 democracy, 186 detention, 28, 36 discrimination, 31–2, 36, 40 education, 28, 36, 890 elections, 789 employment, 28, 36, 852, 857 equality before the law, 28, 43, 816, 820 expulsion, 28, 36, 436, 442 fair trial, 28, 36, 182, 478 family life, 28, 36, 41, 761 freedoms assembly, 28, 35, 36, 721 association, 28, 36, 735, 739 expression, 28, 36, 663 information, 36, 663 movement, 28, 36, 436 opinion, 663, 667 thought, 28, 34–5, 36, 637 health, 881 hostages, 40 ICJ decisions, 31–2, 40–1 individual communications/ complaints, 143 international protection, 130 international treaties, 39 legal persons, 28, 36, 595, 596 liberty, 27, 32, 36, 43, 369 limitation clause, 184 marriage, 761 nationality, 28, 36 privacy, 28, 36, 597, 600 proclamation, 26–7, 30, 33–4 property, 908, 909 index public life, 28, 36, 789 punishments, 27, 36, 296, 527 recognized rights, 27–8, 35, 36 remuneration, 852 residence, 436 retroactive criminal law, 28 right to enter own country, 436 right to leave any country, 436, 452 right to life, 27, 36, 43, 239 rule of law, 27, 29 slavery, 27, 35, 36, 43, 100, 353 social security, 864, 866 Soviet Union, 29, 30–1 standard of living, 28, 36, 869 torture, 27, 32, 36, 41, 43, 296 trade unions, 28, 36 UN Charter, 29–32 United Nations, 25–43 use by international community, 36–8 Universal Declaration of the Independence of Justice (1983), 171 Upali (Venerable), 7–8 Uruguay arbitrary arrest, 378 national emergency, 211, 213–14 public life, 211, 798, 814–15 reasons for arrest, 399 right to life, 263–4 use of force absolute necessity, 277, 278 deprivation of liberty, 382 human dignity, 314–15 impugned treatment, 314–15 unintentional death, 276–9 vagrancy detention, 365, 370, 392–3 rogue and vagabond, 547–8 Vanuatu, 83, 108, 122–3 Velasquez Rodriguez, Manfredo, 281, 282 Venezuela, 37, 43 victims, Basic Principles (1985), 532 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969), 85, 92, 93 Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), 15–16, 98 Vishinky, Andrei, 35 Voltaire, 14 Waldock, Humphrey, 42 war crimes death penalty, 56, 90–1, 240, 242, 245 limitations, 64 war propaganda, 663, 720 warfare see armed conflict Western Samoa, 108, 115 index Wheare, K.C., 102 whipping, 166, 170–1, 346–7 William III (King of England), 15 Willink, Henry, 107 Wilson, Thomas Woodrow (28th President), 220 witnesses accused compelled see self-incrimination adjournment, 573 anonymity, 511–12 attendance, 572 Austria, 570 children, 506–7, 511, 571–2 cross-examination, 528, 531, 534, 569–72 defence witnesses, 572–3 detention, 506–7 disclosure, 552–3, 572 ECHR (1950), 511–12, 570 evidence furnished, 578 Finland, 571 ICCPR (1966), 528, 571, 572, 573 intermediaries, 571 intimidation, 506–7 meaning, 570 protection, 414, 506, 511–12 refusal to allow, 572 statements, 552–3, 570, 571, 572 torture, 303–4 women death penalty, 239, 241, 251, 285, 295 discrimination see discrimination education, 670 equality see gender equality marriage, nationality, 63 political rights, 62 servitude, 358, 360 sexual slavery, 359 traffic in women, 354, 356 UN Commission, 140 work detention, 365–6 migrants see migrant workers see also employment 965 World Conference on Human Rights (Vienna, 1993), 38, 83 World Health Organization (WHO), 467, 883 Yalta Agreement (1945), 21 Yugoslavia national groups, 228 UDHR (1948), 35, 38 UNCHR, 15 Zaire death penalty, 288 fair trial, 288 freedom of movement, 444 liberty, 398 torture, 264 Zambia constitutional law, 108 death penalty, 286 democracy, 188 discrimination, 834 inconsistent legislation, 126 passports, 452 preventive detention, 402, 404 Zimbabwe civil imprisonment, 344 constitutional law, 108, 121, 122, 166, 429 corporal punishment, 166, 170–1, 346–7, 349 death penalty, 325–6 detention, 318 fair trial, 502 freedom of movement, 122, 448, 450–1, 466 freedom of thought, 644, 652 identity documents, 448, 466 imprisonment, 344, 428–9 liberty, 373 pre-trial detention, 433 preventive detention, 402, 403 prosecutors, 502 public order, 466 residence, 450–1 torture, 303