Reconstruction in a Globalizing World Reconstructing America Andrew L Slap, series editor Reconstruction in a Globalizing World David Prior, Editor Fordham University Press New York 2018 Copyright © 2018 Fordham University Press All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other—except for brief quotations in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher Fordham University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate Fordham University Press also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books Visit us online at www.fordhampress.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available online at https://catalog.loc.gov Printed in the United States of America 20 19 18 54321 First edition for Tiffany and Isaac Contents Foreword Ian Tyrrell xi Introduction David Prior | 1 Our South American Cousin: Domingo F Sarmiento and Education in Argentina and the United States Evan C Rothera | 21 Liberia College and Transatlantic Ideologies of Race and Education, 1860–1880 Matthew J Hetrick | 50 Transatlantic Liberalism: Radical Republicans and the British Reform Act of 1867 Mitchell Snay | 74 The Arms Scandal of 1870–1872: Immigrant Liberal Republicans and America’s Place in the World Alison Clark Efford | 94 “The Failure of the Men to Come Up”: The Reinvention of Irish-American Nationalism Caleb Richardson | 121 Incorporating German Texas: Immigrant Nation-Building in the Southwest Julia Brookins | 145 212 Frank Towers in ways similar to the aims of Republican policy in the South Snay, Rothera, and Hetrick join Don Doyle, Patrick Kelly, Pablo Mijangos, and others who argue for the importance of the mid-nineteenth-century struggle against aristocracy in all its forms as a bond that united the ideals of the Union cause in the Civil War with related movements abroad and forged a dialog between liberal national heroes such as Benito Juárez, William Henry Seward, and Giuseppe Garibaldi. At the end of the nineteenth century, socialist revolutionaries sought to distinguish revolution from liberalism, which they viewed as a prop to capitalist exploitation Yet in the 1860s, even Karl Marx could find in the Union a beacon of freedom against a slaveholding aristocracy. Given the erosion of liberal gains in the late 1870s and 1880s, most clearly illustrated by the New Imperialism and the scramble for Africa, it is easy to dismiss the revolutionary potential of free labor, free soil, and free men during the generation that it held sway in the United States and around the world Why that revolution ended is one thread that future global histories of Reconstruction should consider The defeat of Radical Reconstruction timed closely with Bismarck’s union of blood and iron in Germany and the subjugation of the Taiping state in China, a movement that liberals in the United States and Britain saw as a kindred spirit and whose defeat destroyed a last viable effort to stop western exploitation of China in the nineteenth century India’s rebels of the 1850s could fit the same paradigm, as could Iranian nationalists In the aftermath of these defeats, systems of racial and ethnic hierarchy were recreated in the more “modern” extremes of legal segregation and varieties of unfree labor that stopped short of chattel slavery but relied on force and fraud to sustain global profits in commodities And, far from disappearing, monarchy took on new, grander forms as Europe’s kings and queens conquered new lands, acquired new sources of wealth, and promoted levels of global exploitation that matched or exceeded the brutality of earlier ages Viewed from the 1890s, the 1860s truly was a time of hope around the world for a more equitable global order Imperialism’s defeat of liberal nationalism closed a possible path toward preventing the era of world war between 1914 and 1945 To study Reconstruction as a piece of the global history of liberalism raises basic questions about how it emerged, why it fell, and whether the many permutations of these values had had enough coherence in terms of ideas and human networks to merit the label “global.” Patterns of settlement and conquest shed light on the Reconstruction era’s complicated relationship between liberalism and imperialism For the United States, historians would well to consider its similarities to British imperial- Afterword 213 ism Historian James Belich’s concept of a nineteenth-century “Angloworld” highlights the shared pattern of settler-colonial conquest in the United States and United Kingdom, which reached much higher levels than in other imperial systems British and Americans used a unique governing system for conquest that emphasized local power over central planning and public-private partnerships as the spur to capitalist development Railroads, steamships, mail services, and, as Alison Efford shows, even weapons distribution were run by private companies but relied on public monies and government policies to prosper Furthermore, the “Anglo-world” followed a particular vision of land and its control as absolute that had dire consequences for original inhabitants on British and U.S imperial frontiers Finally, each of Britain’s major settler colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa) went through a process of statemaking and regional political adjustment not unlike Reconstruction, with the most proximate example, Canadian Confederation, occurring in a direct dialog with the U.S experience. If the British Empire offers a familiar venue for transnational histories, China and East Asia present another rich but more unknown setting for tracing the ties between Reconstruction in the United States and the larger world In response to the general global turn in U.S history and Kenneth Pomeranz’s sweeping reinterpretation of the rise of the West as a contingent outcome of what were parallel achievements in East Asia and Western Europe, China and East Asia have attracted the attention of historians seeking to put together the many competing themes of nineteenth-century history. The reach of nineteenth-century globalization meant that events in Asia had significant consequences for the United States, as did American Reconstruction for developments in Asia China’s Taiping civil war not only involved Southern filibusterers and Yankee missionaries, but also provided an opportunity for Britain to make up for profits lost from the cotton embargo and thus lessen the pressure for intervention in the U.S Civil War In the late 1860s and 1870s, merchants looking for cotton supplies branched out across the globe They sometimes brought with them Southern experts in cotton cultivation and coercive labor In fact, the Confederacy’s defeat spurred a mini-diaspora of proslavery capitalists in search of plantation economies that paid better than their former homeland Meanwhile the new, neither-slave-nor-free labor regime of the U.S South fit into a global pattern of the New Imperialism’s staple crop economies A critical ideological prop to this system was the politics of settler-colonial white workingmen who put their producerist self-image up against a degraded “coolie” system from Asia. 214 Frank Towers If historians can approach Reconstruction as a global phenomenon of the 1860s and 1870s, a period of renegotiating social and political relations in the wake of revolution, then perhaps that global era could be the subject of comparisons across time Certainly, the interwar years of the twentieth century, 1920–39, lend themselves to comparison with the 1860s and 1870s Similarly, the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars unsettled not only Europe but also the Americas, India, and ultimately East Asia Going farther afield, one can ask whether there were comparable patterns in more distant historical epochs, such as the aftermath of the Thirty Years War in Europe that led to the Treaty of Westphalia, an important forerunner to the modern European order of states, or more recent ones, such as the collapse of the Soviet Bloc and its fallout in the 1990s To take a very long view, did Reconstruction bear echoes of a more deeply imprinted pattern of human adjustment to crisis, such as the fallout from the Black Death in the fourteenth century? Very likely the answer to this last question is no, but with a clearer idea of what the larger picture of Reconstruction looked like in the mid– nineteenth century, historians will be better equipped to delineate its meaning for both the present and the more distant past Surely there are broad comparisons to be made across moments where a political crisis raised possibilities for ground-level social transformations Notes Douglas Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (2008, rpr New York: Anchor Books, 2009); Tomiko Brown-Nagin, Courage to Dissent: Atlanta and the Long History of the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011) Bernard A Weisberger, “The Dark and Bloody Ground of Reconstruction Historiography,” The Journal of Southern History 25, no (1959): 427–47 A prototype for a transnational history of civil society politics in Reconstruction is W Caleb McDaniel, The Problem of Democracy in the Age of Slavery: Garrisonian Abolitionists and Transatlantic Reform (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2013) For other examples of historians who use civil society to study politics in the era of Reconstruction see Mary P Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City During the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Susan Zaeske, Signatures of Citizenship: Petitioning, Antislavery, and Women’s Political Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003); Stephen Kantrowitz, More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889 (New York: Penguin, 2012); Kyle G Volk, Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014) Influential examples of this scholarship include Richard R John, Spreading the News: The American Postal System from Franklin to Morse (Cambridge: Harvard Univer- Afterword 215 sity Press, 1995); John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); William J Novak, “The Myth of the Weak American State,” American Historical Review 113, no (June 2008), 752–72; Brian Balogh, A Government Out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009) For a transnational case study, see Jay Sexton, “Steam Transport, Sovereignty, and Empire in North America, c 1850–1885,” forthcoming in The Journal of the Civil War Era Andrew L Slap, The Doom of Reconstruction: The Liberal Republicans in the Civil War Era (New York: Fordham University Press, 2006) Don H Doyle, The Cause of All Nations: An International History of the American Civil War (New York: Basic Books, 2014); Patrick J Kelly, “The North American Crisis of the 1850s,” The Journal of the Civil War Era 2, no (2012): 337–68; Pablo Mijangos y González, “Guerra Civil y Esatado-nacion en Norteamérica (1848–1867),” in El Poder y la Sangre: Guerra, Estado y Nación en la Década de 1860, edited by Guillermo Palacios and Erika Pani (México, D.F.: El Colegio de México, 2014), 43–62 Also see Jay Sexton, “William Henry Seward and the World,” Journal of the Civil War Era 3, no (2014): 398–430 For an early iteration of this thesis, see W L Morton, “British North America and a Continent in Dissolution, 1861–1871,” History XLVII (1962), 139–56 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Civil War in the United States, Richard Enmale, ed (New York: International Press, 1937) James Belich, Replenishing the Earth: The Settler Revolution and the Rise of the Angloworld (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009) For the importance of local sovereignty in the British Empire see John Darwin, The Empire Project: The Rise and Fall of the British World-System, 1830–1970 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009) Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University press, 2001); C A Bailey, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914 (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, 2004); Jürgen Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century Trans Patrick Camiller (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2014) 10 Stephen R Platt, Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War (New York: Knopf, 2012); Sven Beckert, Empire of Cotton: A Global History (New York: Knopf, 2014); Andrew Zimmerman, “Cotton Booms, Cotton Busts, and the Civil War in West Africa,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 10 (2011): 454–63; Gerald Horne, The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade (New York: New York University Press, 2007): Kornel Chang, “Circulating Race and Empire: Transnational Labor Activism and the Politics of AntiAsian Agitation in the Anglo-American Pacific World, 1880–1910,” Journal of American History 96, no (December 2009): 678–701 The far-sighted work of Alexander Saxton remains relevant to this debate See The Indispensable Enemy: Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971) Contributors Julia Brookins is Special Projects Coordinator at the American Historical Association Alison Clark Efford is an Assistant Professor of History at Marquette University Matthew J Hetrick is currently a Visiting Affiliate Assistant Professor at Loyola University Maryland David Prior is an Assistant Professor of American History at the University of New Mexico Caleb Richardson is an Assistant Professor of History at the University of New Mexico Evan C Rothera received his doctorate from the History Department at Pennsylvania State University Mitchell Snay is a Professor of History at Denison University Frank Towers is an Associate Professor of History at the University of Calgary Ian Tyrrell retired as Scientia Professor of History at the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia, in July 2012 and is now an Emeritus Professor of History Index Africa, 52, 53, 54, 56, 59, 60, 212 See also Liberia; Liberia College; racial ideologies; Sierra Leone African Americans See freedpeople; Liberia: and colonization; Liberia: African American views of; racial ideologies agricultural history, Alabama Claims, 87, 103, 106, 111, 133 Allen, James, 183 American Colonization Society (ACS), 53, 54, 64, 66 American exceptionalism, xii, 5, 76, 81, 84–85 Andrews, E Benjamin, 181 Anglo-American history, 75, 88n8, 212–13 Argentina: and Catholicism, 33–34; education in, 28, 29, 32–33, 36, 39, 211–212; politics and conflict in, 25–28, 29, 32, 35 See also Sarmiento, Domingo F Armitage, David, 92n82 Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, 66 Atlantic history, xii, 3–4, 6, 7, 22, 27, 32, 34, 38, 52, 193 See also Liberalism (transatlantic); Reconstruction: history of term Australia: xii, 129, 210, 213 Austria, 95, 175 Avellaneda, Nicolás, 35 Avery College, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 71n33 Ayers, Edward L., 21 Bailyn, Bernard, 3, 190 Baker, Jean Harvey, 192 “The Ballad of Gregorio Cortez,” 162–63, 164 Barnard, Henry, 23 Beach, Thomas, 122 Beale, Howard K., 183, 197n10 Beard, Charles, 183 Beard, Mary, 183 Becker, Sven, Beecher, Catharine, 30 Beiser, J Ryan, 188 Belich, James, 213 Belknap, William, 102, 103, 110, 145, 155 Bender, Thomas, 22, 96, 90n28, 190 Bismarck, Otto von, 34, 98–99, 100, 107, 112, 155, 156, 157, 212 Blaine, James G., 24 Blair, Jr., Francis, 108 Blücher, Felix von, 160 Blyden, Edward Wilmot, 51, 54, 55, 57–58, 60, 61, 62–65, 69 Boston Trustee See Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia Brazil, 34 Bright, John, 77 Brock, William, 188 Brown, Benjamin Gratz, 108 Brown, H Rap, 209 Buenger, Walter, 150 Burgess, John, 182, 187, 189, 195, 202n66 Butler, Leslie, 22 Butz, Caspar, 104 Canada, xiii, 56, 60, 210, 213 See also Fenians: and Canada Caribbean region, 51 Carpenter, Matthew H., 103, 106, 107 Casino Club, 154, 158 Chambrun, Marquis de (Charles Adolphe de Pineton), 102–3 Chile, 26, 28, 29, 32 China, 212, 213 Civil War (U.S.), xii, 1–2, 3, 5, 35, 57, 66, 76, 80, 82, 123, 149, 209, 212, 213 See also German-Americans: and secession and Civil War civilizational discourse, 27, 32, 51, 54–55, 59, 62, 63, 68, 69, 70, 77, 184 See also Facundo: o Civilización y Barbarie Clan na Gael, 125 Clarke, Brian, 129 Clay, Henry, 24 Colfax, Schuyler, 94, 134 Comanche, 149 comparative history See Reconstruction: and comparative history of; Reconstruction: and specific historical comparisons; 220 comparative history (continued) transnational history: and comparative history Confederate emigration, 213 Conkling, Roscoe, 106, 107 Cornish, Samuel, 52 Coulter, E Merton, 184 Cox, LaWanda, 188–89 Crassweller, Robert, 35 Craven, Avery O., 189 Crimean War, 175 Crummell, Alexander, 51, 52–55, 56, 57–58, 61–62, 63, 66 , 69, 210–11, 211–12 Cuba, 6, 135 Degener, Edward, 152, 155, 157, 158 Degler, Carl, xiii Delany, Martin, 52, 54, 55, 56 Democratic Party, 17n18, 25, 82, 83, 86–87, 92n92, 99, 101, 108, 109–10, 149–50, 177 See also Reform Act of 1867: and Democratic Party Derby, Lord (Edward Stanley), 77 Deuster, Peter, 101, 110 Devoy, John, 125 Díaz, Porfirio, 25, 35 diplomatic history, 3, 4, 15n14, 21, 172, 181, 184, 187, 188–89, 194 See also Alabama Claims; Franco-Prussian War; Trent Affair Disraeli, Benjamin, 77, 86, 87 Doheny, Michael, 123 Dominican Republic, Donald, David, 187, 188, 192 Douglass, Frederick, 53, 55, 56, 64 Downs, Gregory P., 2, 37, 96 Doyle, Don H., 76, 90n28, 212 Du Bois, W E B., 3, 50, 53, 65, 70, 112, 183–86, 189, 190, 191, 192–93 Duerler, John, 145 Dunne, Finley Peter, 128 Dunne, P W., 137 Dunning School, 183, 185, 190, 191, 193, 200n44, 210 Dunning, William A., 180–83, 185, 187, 189 , 192 See also Dunning School East Asia, 213, 214 economic history, 4, 7, 213 See also political economy education, See also Argentina: education in; civilizational discourse; Liberia index College; racial ideologies: and education; Sarmiento, Domingo F.: as educator Efford, Alison, 2, 23, 156–57 Ely, Richard T., 112 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 30 E Remington & Sons, 94, 103 Europe, 23, 28, 39, 172, 214; and Revolutions of 1848, 76, 96, 97–8, 99–100, 122–23, 174, 175–76 See also individual countries andfigures; Reconstruction: history of term Facundo: o Civilización y Barbarie, 26–28, 29, 30, 32, 43n43 Fenians, 210; advertising campaign of, 131; as American, 122, 126, 132, 133, 135, 137, 139; and associational life, 122, 126–27, 127–28, 129–31; in British Empire, 125, 127, 129–30, 131, 138, 210; and Canada, 121–122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 131–32, 136–37; and Catholic Church, 123, 126, 127; as clandestine organization, 125, 126–27, 129; female members, 132; and finances, 124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 136, 137; and Ireland, 121, 122, 123, 124–125, 129–30, 136, 138, 210; origins of movement, 122; and party politics, 133–35, 139; and picnics and balls, 127–129, 130–38, 153, 210–11; rank-and-file vs leadership, 102, 122–23, 135–36, 137, 138, 139; and universalism, 134–35, 139 Fifteenth Amendment, 107–8, 111 Fish, Hamilton, 102 Flake, Ferdinand, 156 Fleming, Walter, 179, 182 Foner, Eric, 21, 133, 190–93, 210 Forten, Charlotte, 32 Fourteenth Amendment, 107 France, 86, 89n15, 102, 106, 175–76 See also Franco-Prussian War Franco-Prussian War, 98–99, 95, 98–101 See also Schurz, Carl: and arms scandal; German-Americans: and Franco-Prussian War; France Franklin, John Hope, 183, 187, 188, 189–90, 205n116 Freedmen’s Bureau, 67 freedpeople, 4, 5–6, 7–9, 31, 61, 74, 81–82, 82–83, 122, 125, 138, 154, 190–91, 193, 210 See also racial ideologies; South, the: education in, slavery and abolition in, violence in Freeman, Louisa, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60 index Freeman, Martin, 52, 55–57, 58–61, 62, 63, 64–65, 69 Frelinghuysen, Frederick, 106, 107 Gallenga, Antonio, 175 Garfield, James A., 94 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 212 Garnet, Henry Highland, 52, 53, 64 Georgia, 177, 185 German-Americans, 210; and American empire, 159–64; and arms scandal, 101–2; and associational life, 146, 151–54, 210–11; and Franco-Prussian War, 95, 99–101; and Liberal Republicans, 104–5, 108, 111–12; and German unification, 96, 99–101, 112, 156–57; and race and slavery, 97–98, 150, 159; and Reconstruction politics in Texas, 146, 151–52; and Revolutions of 1848, 96, 97–98, 99–100, 101, 105, 112, 150; and secession and Civil War, 147, 149–51, 157, 159, 167n27; and technical skills of, 146, 148, 159, 160–62 See also Casino Club; German-English School; Menger Hotel; other individual German-Americans; Schurz, Carl; Texas: German immigration to; Texas: Union Army in GermanEnglish School, 154, 159 Germany and German states, xiii, 34, 75, 86, 89n15, 95, 96, 106, 148, 174–75 See also Bismarck, Otto von; Franco-Prussian War; German-Americans; Texas: Union Army in Gladstone, William Ewart, 76 Globalization, 4, 7–8, 213 Gobineau, Joseph Arthur, 32 Godkin, E L., 104 Gould, Benjamin Apthorp, 23, 35 Grant, Ulysses S., 95, 96, 99, 101, 102, 104, 107, 108, 110, 111, 155, 185, 187, 188–89, 211 Great Britain, 51, 53, 57, 62, 63, 89n15, 106, 122, 175, 176, 211–12, 212–13 See also Fenians; Reform Act of 1867 Greece, 86 Greeley, Horace, 101, 111, 134 Green, Fletcher, 179, 183 Greene, Jack, 22 Hahn, Steven, 192, 207n135 Haiti, 6, Hamilton, Peter Joseph, 180–83, 184, 188, 190 Hamlin, Hannibal, 110 221 Hammond, James Henry, 177 Hanke, Lewis, 24 Hassaurek, Friedrich, 104, 105 Hayes, Rutherford B., 99, 111 Hecker, Friedrich, 104, 105, 110 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 111–12, 120n122 Helper, Hinton Rowan, 27 Henry, Robert Selph, 183–86, 189, 190 Hesseltine, William, 185 Holt, Michael F., 192 Hottentots, Hotze, Henry, 32 Hungary, 86, 135, 154 See also Kossuth, Lajos (Louis) imperialism: and race, 3, 56, 62, 96, 212; and settler colonialism, 212–13 See also German-Americans: and American imperialism; Reconstruction: and American empire; Texas: and continental empire India, xiii, 90n31, 212, 214 Iran, 212 Ireland, xiii, 80, 84 See also Fenians Irish Americans, 210 See also Fenians Italy, 75 Japan, xiii Jenckes, Thomas A., 106 Johnson, Andrew, 67, 82, 177, 185, 188 Jones, Kristine L., 32 Jordan, Terry, 150 Juárez, Benito, 35, 99, 212 Jung, Moon-Ho, Kamphoefner, Walter, 150 Katz, Philip M., 2, 96 Kelley, Robert, 17n18, 22, 75 Kelly, Patrick, 212 Kerwin, Michael, 136 Kiernan, James Lawlor, 124 Killian, Bernard Doran, 124 King, Edward, 159–60 Kiowa, 149 Koerner, Gustave, 104 Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), 135, 175 Kuechler, Jacob, 152, 162, 170n59 Ku Klux Klan Act, 107 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 174 Latin America, 22–23, 36, 172; and pan- 222 Latin America (continued) Americanism, 23–24, 35–36, 36–38, 39 See also Argentina; Chile; Mexico; Sarmiento, Domingo F Leroux, Karen, 24 Liberal Republicans, 23, 111, 155, 188; and arms scandal, 95–96, 104, 109–10; and race, 95–96, 107–8, 211 See also GermanAmericans: and Liberal Republican Party; Schurz, Carl Liberalism (transatlantic), 17n18, 22–23, 24, 76, 211–12; and Anglican Church, 76, 79–80; and aristocracy, xi, 27, 76, 77, 78–80, 81, 82–83, 84, 85, 86, 97, 111, 212; and Catholic Church, 23, 33–34; and education, 25–26, 27, 37, 81–82; and gender, 31; and monarchy, 27, 76; and nationalist movements, 135; and socialism, 212; and the state, 34–35, 39, 42n23; and universal suffrage, 74–75, 80–82, 85 See also British Reform Act of 1867; civilizational discourse; Sarmiento, Domingo F Liberia, 50, 54; African American views of, 52, 53, 54, 57, 59, 64; and colonization, 50, 51–52, 53, 57, 59, 64, 66; and native Africans, 54, 56, 61–62, 211–12; politics in, 58, 61–64; views of Reconstruction from, 58, 61, 65, 67 See also American Colonization Society (ACS); Liberia College; racial ideologies: and education Liberia College, 69; founding of, 50–51, 51–52, 54; challenges facing, 51, 57–58, 60, 65; and mechanical education, 55, 66, 69–70, 72n68; staffing of, 51, 52, 56, 57, 60, 63, 65 See also Blyden, Edward Wilmot; Crummell, Alexander; Delany, Martin; Freeman, Martin; Roberts, J J Lincoln, Abraham, 27, 66, 94, 157–58, 163, 177, 185 See also Sarmiento, Domingo F.: and Lincoln Logan, John A., 134, 135 Luiggi, Alice Houston, 33 Lynch, John R., 183 Manso, Juana, 31 Marx, Karl, 212 Maximilian, Ferdinand, 33 McGee, Thomas D’Arcy, 125, 136 McGovern, Bryan, 125 McKitrick, Eric, 189 index Meagher, Thomas Francis, 122 Memphis, Tennessee, 58, 138 Menger, Mary, 145, 153 Menger, William A., 152–53 Menger Hotel, 145, 153, 158 Mexico, 6, 25, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 123, 135,147, 149, 150 Mijangos y González, Pablo, 212 Mill, John Stuart, 26 Miller, Kerby, 125 Mitchel, John, 122, 123, 125 Mitre, Bartolomé, 29, 30, 35 Monkonnen, Eric, 190 Montt, Manuel, 28 Morgan, Philip, 22 Morton, Oliver P., 106, 107, 108 Moses, Wilson Jeremiah, 52 Müller, Jacob, 104 Nagler, Jörg, 89n10 Napoleon III, 99, 175 Nast, Thomas, 34, 108–9 Newcomb, James P., 154, 155 New Zealand, 213 Nueces Massacre, 150 O’Brien, William Smith, 123 Oglesby, Richard J., 134–35 O’Mahony, John, 123, 124, 128, 133 O’Neill, John, 121–22, 124, 125, 126, 133, 136, 137, 139 Osterhammel, Jürgen, 19n32 Ottendorfer, Oswald, 101 Patrick, Rembert, 187, 188–89, 189–90, 191, 193 Patton, James, 185 Perman, Michael, 191 Persigny (Duke), 175 Pinney, J B., 65–66 Poland, 174, 175 policy history, 211 political culture, 5, 6, 7, 210–11 See also Fenians: and associational life; GermanAmericans: and associational life political economy, 2–3, 79, 146, 172, 181, 183, 184–85, 186, 191, 193, 211, 213 See also economic history; policy history Pomeranz, Kenneth, 213 Prior, David, 96 Prussia See Germany and German States index Quarles, Benjamin, 189 Quiroga, Juan Facundo, 25, 26 racial ideologies, 6, 19n35, 32, 51–52, 53, 54–55, 55–56, 57, 58–59, 61, 63, 64–65, 176, 213; and citizenship and suffrage, xii, 4, 7, 87–88, 184; and education, 50, 54, 56, 68, 69–70; and Reconstruction scholarship, 181, 183, 184, 186, 187 See also Africa; German-Americans: and race; Liberal Republicans: and race; Liberalism (transatlantic): and universal suffrage; Sarmiento, Domingo F.: and race Randall, James G., 192 Raster, Herman, 101–2, 104, 110 Reconstruction: and American imperialism, 3, 76, 85, 92n82, 184, 212–13; and American West, 3, 159–64, 180–81, 182–83, 184, 185, 187, 192–94; and Civil Rights Movement, 4, 186–87, 191, 209; and comparative history of, 6, 75, 172, 184, 209; definition of, 1–2, 3, 5, 6–7, 13n3, 184–85, 186, 188–90; history of term, 173–79, 194, 195–96, 197n6; and national history, 4–5, 172–73, 179, 180–82, 184, 186, 187–90, 191, 192, 193–96, 197n10, 209–10; and Native Americans, 3; parameters of, xii, 1, 209; as period of national introversion, xi, 24, 39; and radical associations, 175–77, 177–78, 184, 185–86, 191; versus “restoration,” 177, 185–86; and southern history, 172–73, 179, 180, 183–93, 195–96, 197n10; and specific historical comparisons, 22–23, 25, 35, 74, 75, 76, 122, 138, 213, 214; as time period, 178, 180, 181–82, 184–85, 185–86, 187, 192–93, 194; and transnational history, xi, 1, 2–9, 14n6, 19n34, 21–22, 38, 172–73, 184–85, 193, 195–96, 209, 212 See also diplomatic history; Dunning School; individual laws, policies, and amendments; individual scholars; Texas: Reconstruction politics in Reconstruction Acts (1867), 74 Reform Act of 1867: and American exceptionalism, 76, 81, 84–85; and class, 74, 77, 82–83; and Democratic Party, 74, 86–87, 92n92; and expansion of electorate, 74, 77, 81, 84, 210; and moderate Republicans, 74, 85–86; politics behind, 74, 76, 77, 78, 83; and radical Republicans, 74, 76, 77–85; women’s suffrage, 74–75 See also Liberal- 223 ism (transatlantic): and aristocracy; South, the: Republican views of Republican Party: xii, 17n18, 22, 23, 25, 32, 35, 37, 39, 41n11, 66, 67, 107 109–10, 111, 134, 159, 177–78, 210 See also Grant, Ulysses S.; Reform Act of 1867: moderate Republicans; Reform Act of 1867: radical Republicans; Schurz, Carl; South, the: Republican views of; Sumner, Charles Reynolds, J J., 152, 157 Rhodes, James Ford, 181 Richardson, Heather Cox, 146, 193–95, 197n10 Riddleberger, Patrick, 188 Roberts, J J., 51, 55, 57–58 Roberts, William, 124, 133 Rodgers, Daniel T., 22, 96, 112, Rosas, Juan Manuel de, 25–26, 27, 28, 29 Ross, Kathleen, 26 Rowe, L.S., 181 Roye, Edward James, 61, 62 Russell, John (Lord), 77 Russia, 123, 175 Russwurm, John, 52, 53 Rustow, Dankwart, 89n15 Ryan, Mary, 127 Santa Anna, Antonio López de, 25, 135 Sarmiento, Domingo F.: as educator, 24, 26, 27, 28, 29, 31–32, 32–33, 34, 36; and Europe, 28, 29, 32; and gender, 28–29, 29–30, 31–32; and liberalism, 22–23, 27, 29, 33, 34, 38, 41n11, 211–12; and Lincoln, 21, 22, 29, 32, 35–36, 37; and Horace Mann, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 39; and Mary Mann, 22, 23, 24, 28–29, 30, 33, 36, 38, 39; as politician, 23, 29, 33, 34–35; and race, 21, 31–32; and religion, 34; and the United States, 21, 22, 28, 29, 30–32, 33, 34–35, 35–36, 37, 38–39; youth of, 24–25 See also Argentina: politics in; Facundo: o Civilización y Barbarie Schleicher, Gustav, 160, 162 Schouler, James 180–82, 187, 189, 190, 191 Schurz, Carl, 155; and arms scandal, 94–95, 96, 102–3, 104–5, 109–11; and black suffrage, 98, 107–9; and Franco-Prussian War, 100; and German probity, 104–5, 110 Seabrook, W G., 185 Seed, Patricia, 19n32 segregation, 212 224 Seward, William H., 124, 212 Sexton, Jay, 2, 92n82 Shanks, Henry, 185 Shumway, Nicolas, 26 Siemering, August, 152, 156 Sierra Leone, 52, 63–64 Smith, Mark M., Snay, Mitchell, 22, 23, 125, 126 South Africa, xii, 213 South, the: 7, 65; education in, 30–31, 32, 50, 51, 62, 67–68, 69; Republican views of, 76, 79, 80–81, 81–84, 109; slavery and abolition in, 1–2, 3, 35, 50, 51, 57, 59, 62, 64, 66, 75, 76, 79, 80, 82, 83, 87, 147, 151, 156, 158, 194; violence in, 66, 67, 68, 138 See also freedpeople; German-Americans: and race and slavery; Reconstruction; Schurz, Carl; Sumner, Charles Spain, 15n14, 27 Stallo, J.B., 100, 104 Stampp, Kenneth, 187, 195 Stephens, James, 123, 124, 132, 133 Stevenson, John W., 110, 111 Steward, Patrick, 125 Summers, Mark W., 75, 193–95 Sumner, Charles, 80, 102–3, 107, 108–9, 110 Sweeny, Thomas William, 124, 133 Szurmuk, Mónica, 34 Taylor, Alrutheus A., 183 Taylor, Susie King, 32 Tejada, Sebastián Lerdo de, 35 Texas: and continental empire, 147; ethnic diversity in, 145, 146, 147–48, 149–50, 158–59, 164; German immigration to, 146, 148–49, 151, 160, 164n4; proposed partition of, 155–58; and Reconstruction politics, 146, 147, 151–52, 178; Union Army in, 146, 149, 150, 151, 152–53, 153–54, 163 Thielepape, Wilhelm, 145, 152, 158, 161 Thieme, August, 104, 110 index Thirteenth Amendment, 50, 158 Thistlethwaite, Frank, 75 Thomas, David Y., 182 Thompson, Thomas Perronet, 75 Tipton, Thomas W., 108 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 38 Toppin, Edgar, 189 transnational history: and comparative history, xii, 75; definitions and terms, 1–2, 13n2, 75; and democratization, 89n15; and isolation and disconnections, 5–8, 19n32; and modernity, 4, 27; and national history, xii, 4–5, 75, 193; reflecting nineteenth-century conditions, xi, 7–8, 22 See also Anglo-American history; Atlantic history Trent Affair, 87, 211 Trumbull, Lyman, 104, 108 Trustees of Donations for Education in Liberia, 51, 56, 57, 58–60, 65, 66, 71n33 Tyrrell, Ian, 6, 13n2, 19n32, 209 Urquiza, Justo José de, 29 Valera, Eamon de, 128 Washburne, Elihu B., 99 Washington, Booker T., 50, 65, 70 West, Elliott, 146 White, Horace, 75, 104, 106 Wilhelm I of Prussia, 99 Williams, Peter, 52, 53 Williams, T Harry, 185 Willich, August, 98 Wilson, David A., 127 Wilson, Henry, 135 Woodward, C Vann, 191–92 Woody, R H., 185 Zimmerman, Andrew, 2, 96 Reconstructing America Andrew L Slap, series editor Hans L Trefousse, Impeachment of a President: Andrew Johnson, the Blacks, and Reconstruction Richard Paul Fuke, Imperfect Equality: African Americans and the Confines of White Ideology in Post-Emancipation Maryland Ruth Currie-McDaniel, Carpetbagger of Conscience: A Biography of John Emory Bryant Paul A Cimbala and Randall M Miller, eds., The Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruction: Reconsiderations Herman Belz, A New Birth of Freedom: The Republican Party and Freedmen’s Rights, 1861 to 1866 Robert Michael Goldman, “A Free Ballot and a Fair Count”: The Department of Justice and the Enforcement of Voting Rights in the South, 1877–1893 Ruth Douglas Currie, ed., Emma Spaulding Bryant: Civil War Bride, Carpetbagger’s Wife, Ardent Feminist—Letters, 1860–1900 Robert Francis Engs, Freedom’s First Generation: Black Hampton, Virginia, 1861–1890 Robert F Kaczorowski, The Politics of Judicial Interpretation: The Federal Courts, Department of Justice, and Civil Rights, 1866–1876 John Syrett, The Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct the South Michael Les Benedict, Preserving the Constitution: Essays on Politics and the Constitution in the Reconstruction Era Andrew L Slap, The Doom of Reconstruction: The Liberal Republicans in the Civil War Era Edmund L Drago, Confederate Phoenix: Rebel Children and Their Families in South Carolina Mary Farmer-Kaiser, Freedwomen and the Freedmen’s Bureau: Race, Gender, and Public Policy in the Age of Emancipation Paul A Cimbala and Randall Miller, eds., The Great Task Remaining Before Us: Reconstruction as America’s Continuing Civil War John A Casey Jr., New Men: Reconstructing the Image of the Veteran in LateNineteenth-Century American Literature and Culture Hilary Green, Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South, 1865–1890 Christopher B Bean, Too Great a Burden to Bear: The Struggle and Failure of the Freedmen’s Bureau in Texas David E Goldberg, The Retreats of Reconstruction: Race, Leisure, and the Politics of Segregation at the New Jersey Shore, 1865–1920 David Prior, ed., Reconstruction in a Globalizing World ... to manage and bend to their favor by definition came together in that region But in a broader sense the causal terrain they inhabited was at once local, state-wide, national, transatlantic and,... conceptual innovations? One could make a case for a variety of factors that are incidental, rather than intrinsic, to the two fields Many transnationally minded scholars of American history, for instance,... that made the American South, British Natal, and Queensland, Australia in some measure fit together as instances of the racial readjustments in citizenship, in territorial boundarymaking, and in