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(1989–) America and “A World Transformed” The Great Convergence A Democratic Peace? 10 The New Prosperity 11 Farewell to All That 12 Blueprints for the New Millennium Part III: Victory without Peace (2001–) 13 The Assault on Freedom 14 In the Shadow of War 15 The Great Recession 16 Back to the Streets 17 Crisis upon Crisis 18 Epilogue: The End of an Era? Acknowledgments About the Author Notes Index For Katerini, and Oscar and Elias At the International Café, two fools are laughing telling jokes They say if you want to lie, you want to make someone laugh just try the word “democracy.” At the International Café, after they’ve finished drinking the fools chatted some more They said the moment will arrive, when the whole earth will be embraced by a white dove And a young man sat alone on the side, listening to the two fools talking, saying that, if everyone on earth was as crazy as these two, we’d really have a day of peace sometime Kostas Hatzis, ‘Sto Diethnes To Magazi’ (At the International Café), 1974 Introduction But the scene is now changed, and gradually the two ranks mingle; the divisions which once severed mankind are lowered, property is divided, power is held in common, the light of intelligence spreads, and the capacities of all classes are equally cultivated; the State becomes democratic, and the empire of democracy is slowly and peaceably introduced into the institutions and the manners of the nation Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 1831 W HAT IS THE story of democracy in our time? Not long ago the Western formula of democracy and free markets seemed unassailable When the Cold War ended in 1989, the new “great game” played by diplomats, politicians and intellectuals alike became to promote and report on the further spread of democracy about the globe.1 The tendency was to assume that democracy was working well still at home The war on terror and the nancial crisis have more recently framed those assumptions in a less comfortable light By the time of the uprisings that swept across the Arab world in 2011, the dimming status of the liberal democratic formula was clear Whatever was being demanded on the streets of Cairo it was not Western-style liberal democracy Nor was a liberal democratic form of government any longer something that could be “built” on behalf of these nations, as the United States had attempted during the previous decade in Iraq In the aftermath of 2011, as Syria imploded and Islamic State dug in its bloodied claws, the former call to democratic arms of the pundits in Washington was replaced by a faint piccolo whistling about “democracy in retreat.” From the point of view of the West it was not long before the high drama of the Arab Spring was drowned out by a pervasive and growing cacophony of discontent at home The former narrative of democracy’s historical spread has now been rmly replaced by one of its crisis and decline “Never has there been such a thin line between a positive outlook for democracy and the chance that it might go o the rails,” wrote the French historian Pierre Rosanvallon in 2008 “What’s gone wrong with democracy?” asked London’s The Economist a few years later in 2014.2 Neither were looking across the Mediterranean to Tunisia or Algeria, but home to the disa ected banlieues of Paris, to the US Congress and the European Union The concerns of over million British voters, who in 2016 signed a petition demanding repeal of the country’s recent referendum on “Brexit,” or of those dumbfounded by the election of Donald J Trump to the White House later that same year, revealed that sense of anxiety to be spreading “Democracy has survived the twentieth century by the skin of its teeth,” observed Arthur Schlesinger Jr presciently at the end of the millennium “It will not enjoy a free ride through the century to come.”3 In recent years Western democracy has indeed come under threat; the basic right of citizens to habeas corpus has been pared back after centuries of struggle to esh it out Distrust in politics has grown Foreign governments have been shown to have interfered in national elections Civil liberties, including the right to privacy in the home, have been openly infringed The growing power of political lobbies has given moneyed interests undue in uence over policymaking, and has endowed a new class of politician with the ability not only to fundamentally misunderstand their constituents but to be rewarded for this Socioeconomic inequality, which for much of the postwar era had been warded o by the welfare state, has returned In response to such developments, the streets of Western capitals have been marched upon by people in larger numbers than at any time since the high point of the civil rights movement half a century ago Whether it is Occupy protesters or the gilets jaunes, white supremacists or national populists, a more assertive popular voice is emerging beneath the battered wing of liberal democracy and its representative institutions Some of these movements are utopian; others demand greater rights, if only for themselves But everywhere the clamor of popular disapproval is growing and is making its presence felt in the cordoned halls of liberal democratic debate Democracy itself is changing before our eyes But what is it that has changed exactly? That is the question I set out to answer in this book * Stripped of its national particulars, modern democracy, as the in uential Austrian jurist Hans Kelsen once argued, is “the restriction of freedom by a law under which all subjects are equal.”4 That is, on the face of it, a wonderfully simple formula And yet the way di erent societies have over time sought to reconcile these two values—of freedom and equality—has fallen short more often than it has succeeded Franchises were neither full nor fair for most of the nineteenth century And many of the parliaments and constitutions thrown up in the wake of imperialism’s retreat did not survive long before they too needed rebuilding in the aftermath of two catastrophic world wars To recognize that democracy may be di erent things at di erent times is to recognize that it is both more recent and more fragile than we tend to imagine Our own liberal democracy has almost nothing in common with the classical democracy of Athens Scratch beneath the surface, and it soon reveals itself to have little in common either with that form of democracy inaugurated by the French and American revolutions, which placed “representative” institutions at the heart of the nation state and its newly constituted “peoples.” But if democracy changes over time it also changes from place to place Writing in the middle of the nineteenth century, Alexis de Tocqueville famously compared democracy in France with what he had recently seen of it in America He believed that America had come some considerable way further than France in achieving the right balance between governments that ruled from above and people as they voiced their demands from below What was distinct about democracy in America, Tocqueville suggested, was the achievement of “the general equality of conditions.” Looking to America as the crucible of democracy’s future, Tocqueville saw that the “empire of democracy” was irresistible— even in aristocratic societies such as his own And yet republican America was no more the end of history in the mid nineteenth century than Western democracy was after the Cold War Liberal democracy as we understand it today in fact only properly took root across the Western world in the early years of the new century It grew from the same bloodied soil of war, revolution, and economic crisis as its principal competitor ideologies of fascism on the right and communism on the left The term itself had relatively little traction in America until President Woodrow Wilson roused the nation to war in its name: to “make the world safe for democracy” (he meant safe for America) in 1917 And it took the experience of yet more illiberal regimes and failed democracies—by 1941, there were just eleven democracies left amidst the carnage of the Second World War—before the commitment to combining liberal values and the institutions of democratic equality was reaffirmed amid the “general political fatigue” of the postwar moment.5 A more consistent set of liberal democratic political institutions locked into place across the Western countries after 1945, binding them more closely together as it did so These same countries exceeded even their prewar trajectory of industrialization and they now bureaucratized as well The resulting era of prosperity—“the Golden Age,” les trente glorieuses, the wirtschaftswunder, the miracolo economico: most countries had a term for it—was always more golden for some than it was for others It also unfolded in the shadow of the struggle between capitalism and the communist world: indeed, it was signi cantly shaped by that struggle But it nonetheless provided an unprecedented degree of political stability and economic progress that left its mark in “the institutions and the manners,” as Tocqueville put it, of the Western nations The gap between rich and poor narrowed and for many there was a sense that the Western world’s political compass was pointing in the right direction People felt they knew where they stood and that they had a good chance of getting to where they wanted to be This is not at all what many now think of when they think about democracy today For all its achievements, the modern democratic state has been hollowed out The markets upon which the delivery of political outcomes has come to rely are volatile and encourage short-term thinking Today’s citizens are garlanded with an expanded panoply of political rights, yet they routinely lack the social protections once taken for granted by their elders The people grow resentful of the political elite’s detachment, while the public domain through which democratic voice is exercised has been parceled out to the highest bidder A thinly scraped notion of liberty has gained the upper hand over equality Something has changed, in short, and in the turmoil of the present it may well be changing again It is imperative we now try to understand the full chain of events by which our modern democracy has changed It is of course a di cult thing to capture something like democracy in the process of transforming itself, and that much harder when we cannot meter history by the rhythm of the drums of war alone The changes I seek to address in this book are not best measured by the number of bodies on the ground They provide us, rather, with a di erent kind of drama: one forged through institutional NGOs (non-governmental organizations), 162, 181, 184–87, 189; environmentalism and, 340; human rights and, 476; refugees and, 716 Nicaragua, 276–77 Nice Work (Lodge), 226 Niebuhr, Reinhold, Reflections on the End of an Era, 739–40 Niese, Al, 422 Nigeria, 186 9/11 terrorist attack, 7, 503–8, 553; expansion of US militarism and, 375; “ground zero,” 534; hijackers in Yugoslav Wars, 374; military response to, 506–28; world response to, 504 Nitze, Paul, 171 Nixon, Richard M., 13, 18, 245, 735, 749; administration, 5, 22, 23, 166, 749; Black Power movement and, 48; Bretton Woods system and, 97, 622; China visit, 97, 166; Kissinger and, 44–45; lowers interest rates, 66; “new Atlantic charter” and, 174; New Economic Policy, 60– 62, 86, 315; OPEC crisis and, 63, 64; pardon of, 117; re-election of, 62, 91, 166; “silent majority” and, 36; Simon’s financial reforms and, 97–98; spaceship earth and, 186; Supreme Court and, 146–47, 153; Vietnam War and, 46–47, 166–67; Watergate scandal, 22–24, 167 Nixon Doctrine, 166–67 No Logo (Klein), 493 Noriega, Manuel, 276 Northern Ireland, 113, 471; Downing Street Declaration of 1993, 462; Good Friday Agreement of 1999, 471–72, 474; urban regeneration in, 462 Norway: anti-Islamic cartoons published, 545; Breivik killings, 662, 664; center-far right coalition government, 672; Christian democrats and, 559; democracy in, 27; financial crisis (2008–14) and, 635; immigrants and asylum seekers in, 664, 667, 712; independence of EU, 343; inflation and, 89; labor unions in, 213; oil industry, 72, 90; peace movement, 134; Progress Party, 143–44, 424; right-wing movement in, 666–67, 672; Schengen Agreement and, 348; social democrats in, 122; welfare state of, 445, 664, 672; whale hunting, 134; worker– employer confederation, 30 nuclear disarmament, 135; antinuclear groups, 134–35; SALT I, 166 Nuland, Victoria, 699 Nunn, Sam, 306 Obama, Barack, 8, 586–90, 611, 634, 675–77, 679, 681–82, 705; Afghanistan and, 704, 708; as centrist, 675; China, the dollar, and, 659; Citizens United ruling and, 681; a divided country and, 688, 724–25; economic/fiscal policy, 674, 678; evaluation of his presidency, 725; executive power and, 725; financial crisis (2008–14) and, 590, 610, 612–14, 618; foreign policy, 535; health care reform and, 677, 681, 725; immigration reform, 677; inequality and, 576; leadership of, 611–13; military offensive policy, 705–6; Monti’s proposal and, 660; overseas wars and, 705–6; presidential primary (2016) and, 724–25; revisionist liberalism of, 588; surveillance programs and, 686–87; Syrian War and, 708–9; war on terror and, 704–5, 710 Occhetto, Achille, 423 Occupy (protest movement), 2, 647–52, 671 Ofili, Chris, 458 oil prices, 63–65, 85, 89, 93, 95, 96, 171, 233, 389, 473, 558, 586, 698 Olin Institute, 200 Olson, Mancur, 154, 684 O’Neill, William, Coming Apart, 44 On the Democratic Idea in America (Kristol), 223 On Tyranny (Snyder), 733 OPEC (Oil Producing and Exporting Countries), 62–65, 69 Operation Desert Fox, 378, 490 Ophüls, Marcel, The Sorrow and the Pity, 54 Orantes, Ana, 454 Orbán, Viktor, 10, 414, 669–71, 702, 712 O’Reilly, Bill, 734 Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 85, 193, 353, 354; McCracken Report, 176–77 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, 180 Ortega, Daniel, 276 Ortoli, Franỗois-Xavier, 431 Orwell, George, 421 Osborne, David, Reinventing Government, 448 Osborne, George, 637–41, 722 Oslo Accords, 377 Ossi, Umberto, 423 Ostpolitik, 172–73, 180 Overney, Pierre, 51, 55 Owen, David, 155, 367 Özal, Turgut, 283 Page, Larry, 390 Pakistan, 514, 527, 557, 558, 706 Palestine, 37, 376–77 Palin, Sarah, 587–88, 676 Palme, Olof, 158, 213 Panama, 276–77 Panetta, Leon, 706 Papademos, Lucas, 655–56 Papadopoulos, Georgios, 53 Papandreou, George, 403, 654–56 Parboni, Ricardo, 77 Paris Peace Agreement, 167 Parkinson, Michael, 131 Parsons, Talcott, 41 Pasqualini, Jean, Prisoner of Mao, 125 Patten, Chris, 463 Paulson, Hank, 608–10 Pavlov, Valentin, 291 Peacock, Elizabeth, 132 Pearlstein, Steven, 687 Pearson, Lester, 18 Peccei, Aurelio, 133 Pei, I M., 455 Perec, Georges, Things, 225–26 Perle, Richard, 171, 309, 375, 523, 566 Perot, Ross, 305–6, 311, 339, 427, 566, 741 Persson, Göran, 404 Phantom of Liberty, The (film), 53–54 Philippines, 278 Piketty, Thomas, Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 690 Pinochet, Augusto, 689 Planet Is Plundered, A (Gruhl), 133 Podhoretz, Norman, 488 Pohl, Karl Otto, 256 Pokayanie (film), 264 Poland: anti-liberalism in, 414, 694; Balcerowicz Plan, 321; banning of gay pride parades, 665; Christian Democrat party and, 487; in economic crisis (2008), 607; economic reforms, 323; “front-loaded reform,” 320; integration into West, 366; liberation and reforms, 236, 237, 240, 241, 244, 326; low voter turnout, 435; national debt, 239, 316; refugees and, 714; rise of political right, 665, 703; social–ethnic divisions, 691; Solidarity movement, 126, 234, 237–38 Political Order in Changing Societies (Huntington), 120 Politkovskaya, Anna, 697 Pompidou, Georges, 14, 16, 24, 87, 141; European integration and, 174, 178 Poohl, Daniel, 663 popular unrest and uprisings, 2, 5, 642–51; anti-immigrant movements, 663; Arab Spring, 1, 643–44, 706; austerity-driven discontent, 644– 51; Indignados movement, 645, 646, 647, 650; Occupy protest movement, 647–50, 671, 682; Podemos (We Can) movement, 650; populism and, 668–73; Prague Spring, 14, 43, 45, 168, 237, 239, 317; radical right and, 661–68; social media and, 649, 667 populism, 49, 483, 668–73; democracy and, 30; rise in Europe and US, 670–72, 702, 736, 741 Portugal, 179; asylum seekers in, 712; austerity backlash and, 657; austerity policies, 629–30, 637; Christian democracy in, 143; coups and socialist constitution, 52; democratization, 13, 121, 214–15; in economic crisis (2008), 607; ERM crisis and, 330; EU membership, 625; European Community and, 258; financial crisis and, 628; NATO membership, 52; unemployment, 332, 630, 632; women’s rights in, 129; worker management in, 226; workers’ protests, 43 Posner, Eric, 530 Posner, Richard, 148 Potter, Paul, 43 Pöttering, Hans-Gert, 564 Poujade, Pierre, 194, 230 Poulantzas, Nicos, 163 Powell, Colin, 277, 285, 375, 378, 507, 516 Powell, Enoch, 76 Powell, Lewis, 153, 200 Power, Samantha, 369 Preuss, Hugo, 361 Pricard, Michel, 480 Priebus, Reince, 726 Prince, Chuck, 605 Prisoner of Mao (Pasqualini), 125 privatization (of the public sector), 191, 215, 313, 314, 318, 350, 352, 393, 429, 459, 481, 568, 606, 630–31, 633; in Britain, 196–97, 198, 206, 208, 429, 568, 569; in Russia, 413; in the US, 94, 184, 566 Prodi, Romano, 404, 406 Pronk, Jan, 406 Przeworski, Adam, 312 Purdy, Jedediah, 528 Putin, Vladimir: autocratic rule, 695–98; Brexit and, 723–24; Chechnya and, 695, 698, 700; Crimea and, 698–99; Georgia and, 619–20, 698, 700; meddles in Western affairs, 2, 751; Syrian War and, 708, 710; US election meddling, 731, 732 Putnam, Robert, 585; Bowling Alone, 449–50 Quayle, Dan, 376 Quinn, Marc, 458 Rabin, Yitzhak, 377 Raffarin, Jean-Pierre, 472 Rajoy, Mariano, 644 Ravelli, Aldo, 110 Rawls, John, Theory of Justice, 128 Reagan, Nancy, 229 Reagan, Ronald, 82–83; conservatism and, 140, 156, 158, 509; deregulation and, 194; the dollar and, 218; economic policy and reforms, 95, 199, 201, 228, 321, 605; economic prosperity and, 232–33; election of, 145, 157, 306; foreign policy, 165, 233–34; Gorbachev and, 244; laissez-faire reforms, 228; libertarianism and, 158; military spending, 195–96; New American movement, 144; political principles, 192– 94, 196, 200, 203, 205; Star Wars program, 509; supply-side thinking, 195; Thatcher and, 257; unions and, 205, 206, 55; unofficial “manifesto” of, 201; vision of democracy, 191–202, 203; welfare reforms, 205–6 “Recovery of Civility, The” (Mount), 223–24 Reddy, Helen, 80 Reflections on the End of an Era (Niebuhr), 739–40 Reflections on the World Today (Valéry), 105 refugees See immigrants and refugees Rehn, Olli, 657 Reich, Robert, 392 Reid, Richard, 546 Reinventing Government (Gebler and Osborne), 448 Rémond, René, 211 Renan, Ernest, 753 Requiem (Akhmatova), 263 Requiem for the American Dream (film), 674 Reston, James “Scotty,” 21–22, 24, 57 Revolution in the Revolution (Debray), 210 Reynolds, Albert, 471 Rhodes, Ben, 676 Rice, Condoleezza, 509 Ridge, Tom, 535 Rieff, David, 304–5 Riggs, Bobby, 38 Right-wing politics: ethnic nationalism and, 746; forms of the modern Right, 483–90; rise of Conservatism and, 140–46, 664, 683–84; as threat to democracy and, 701–2 See also Christian democrats; neoconservatism; specific countries Rijan, Raghuram, 598 Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, The (Kennedy), 296 Robin, Corey, 539 Robinson, Frank, 38 Rocard, Michel, 210, 255, 658 Rochetta, Franco, Liga Veneto, 132 Rockefeller, David, 78, 119 Rockefeller, Nelson, 20, 44 Roderick, David, 73, 77 Rodgers, Bill, 155 Rogers, Richard, 455 Romania, 318, 320, 321, 325; democratic practices, 702; economic crisis and, 607, 625; EU membership, 564; post-communism and, 413–14 Romney, Mitt, 679 Rompuy, Herman Van, 673 Rooker, Jeffrey William, Baron, 532 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 31, 58, 535 Rosanvallon, Pierre, 2, 211 Rose, Fleming, 544 Roseau, Jacques, 136 Rositer, Clinton, Constitutional Dictatorship, 528 Rostow, Walt, 229, 296 Rothbard, Murray, 158–59 Rothschild, Joseph, 121 Rubin, Robert, 33, 333–34, 602 Rubio, Marco, 725 Rumsfeld, Donald, 489, 507, 509, 512, 514–15, 523–27, 536, 554, 573 Rupnik, Jacques, 432 Russia: autocracy in, 695–97, 701; Balkan settlement and, 375; billionaires appropriate assets, 324; constitution, 241; Crimea and, 620, 698– 99; defaults, 496; Europeanization and, 346; G7 membership, 382; GDP falls, 412; Georgian war, 619–20, 698; illiberal democracy in, 694–700; journalists murdered, 697; life expectancy, 322; living standards, 323–24; money withdrawn from US, 622; Moscow business leaders’ meeting (1992), 320; nationalism in, 467; NATO and, 701; oligarchs, 632, 696; privatization program, 413; reforms and, 324–25; Security Council veto and, 369, 707, 708; “state capitalism” in, 696; Syrian War and, 707; US election meddling (2016), 730–31 See also Soviet Union Rutte, Mark, 658, 666 Rwanda, 355, 371–72 Rybakov, Anatoly, Children of the Arbat, 263 Saakashvili, Mikheil, 619 Sachs, Jeffrey, 320 Sadat, Anwar, 63 Saddam Hussein, 277–78, 280, 282–83, 285, 287–88, 377, 489, 505, 521 Sakharov, Andrei, 188–89 Salazar, António de Oliveira, 214 Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 338 Sandbu, Martin, 617, 654, 661 Sandel, Michael, 389 Sandemose, Axel, Jantelov, 37 Sanders, Bernie, 530, 724, 726, 729, 732 Sarkozy, Nicolas, 559, 581–82, 656; Deauville agreement and, 651–52, 656; as EC president, 614–15, 619; financial crisis (2008–14) and, 634; government spending and, 657; Greek crisis and, 661; immigrant policy, 585; international monetary system reform and, 182; Irish referendum and, 563–64; Merkel and, 651–52, 654; Putin’s invasion of Georgia and, 700; Roma expelled by, 667; Russia–Georgia deal and, 619–20; US and, 620–23 Sarrazin, Tilo, Germany Is Abolishing Itself, 663 Sartori, Giovanni, 116 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 51 Sassoon, Donald, 233 Saudi Arabia, 99, 288, 527, 557, 707, 709 Savage, Charlie, 687 Scalia, Antonin, 550–51 Scandinavia: civil society and, 225; democracy in, 749; environmental concerns, 464; EU success, 635; immigrant rates, 664–65; industrial democracy in, 213; law and the courts in, 150; right-wing politics in, 664; samhold concept, 749; social democrats and, 44, 122; social welfare in, 158, 445; women in workplace, 450; women’s movement in, 130 Scargill, Arthur, 207 Schäfer, Axel, 564 Schäuble, Wolfgang, 401, 580, 624, 630–31, 672, 714, 716–17 Schell, Jonathan, 240 Schengen Agreement, 348 Schengen Information Service (SIS), 410 Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 2, 28, 45, 128, 535 Schleyer, Hanns Martin, 110–11, 212 Schlüter, Poul, 316–17, 325 Schmidt, Helmut: economic policy, 86–87, 95, 101–2, 250; European Monetary Union and, 330; Giscard agreement with, 651; immigrant policy, 714; internationalism and, 181, 182; liberal conservatism and, 122, 123, 140–41 Schmierer, Joscha, 41 Schmitt, Carl, 739 Schröder, Gerhard, 402–4, 561, 580–81, 714; Agenda 2010 reforms, 580; Blair meeting, 406; Blair–Schröder manifesto, 403; economic reforms, 444, 449; Hartz labor reforms and, 446; Lafontaine and, 345; 9/11 attack on US and, 504; politics as theater, 420; welfare system reform, 441 Schuman, Robert, 173 Schumpeter, Joseph Alois, 340 Schwab, Klaus, 119, 352 Schwarzkopf, Norman, 285 Scobie, William, 405 Scotland, 472, 473, 691 Scowcroft, Brent, 277–78, 291–92 secularization, 39, 48, 223, 435, 443, 453, 468, 485, 486, 547, 690, 711, 745 Segni, Mario, 423 Selbekk, Vebjørn, 545 Sen, Amartya, Collective Choice and Social Welfare, 153 Sennett, Richard, The Fall of Public Man, 55 Serbia, 325, 364, 365, 366, 373, 377, 414 Shah of Iran (Muhammad Reza Pahlavi), 170 Shapiro, Michael, 516 Sharansky, Natan, 510 Sharon, Ariel, 63 Shatalin, Stanislav, 294 Sherman, Cindy, 458 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 281, 291 Shilt, Randy, And the Band Played On, 231 Shultz, George, 117–18 Simitis, Konstantinos, 659 Simon, William, 97–99, 183 Simpson, O J., 481 Sinatra, Frank, 80 Sinclair, Upton, 466–67 Single European Act (SEA), 177, 258, 259, 326, 347 Slaughter, Anne-Marie, 360–61, 362, 439, 621 Slick, Grace, 38 Slovakia, 242, 317, 321, 325, 435, 694, 702, 717 Slovenia, 242, 318, 324, 364, 366, 415, 564, 657–58; Brioni Agreement, 366 Smith, Clive Stafford, 551 Smith, John, 397 Smith, Lewis, 20 Snowden, Edward, 687, 700 Snyder, Timothy, On Tyranny, 733 Soares, Mário, 52 social contract, 88–89, 123, 190, 201, 205; new, 203–9, 215, 227 social democrats/social democracy, 81, 122, 170, 177; challenged by prosperity, 233; challenged by right-wing parties, 583; cultural hegemony, 122; decline of the Left and, 121–29; equality and, 158; European integration and, 237, 345–46; in Germany, 400, 402–3, 716; middle class and, 407; neoliberalism and, 396; resurgence, 406–7, 434; in Romania, 414; status, 122–23, 396, 403; Third Way and, 403, 404–8; US and, 749; welfare state and, 123, 158 socialism, 43; Berlinguer and Italy, 108, 109, 168; Crosland and Britain, 122; decline of the Left and, 121–29; dismantling of, 264; East Germany and state debt, 239; in France, 210; Mitterrand and, 55, 210–11; new left realism and, 403; parliamentary socialism, 170; Socialist International, 122; Thatcher and, 200; as untenable, 95 social mobility, 389, 405, 604 social movements, 129–39, 227; environmentalism, 132–34; feminism, 129–32; gay rights, 137, 232; human rights, 137, 164–65; identity politics and, 135–36, 137–38; as local and policy-based, 132; migrants and, 135–36; peace movement, 134–35; transnationalism and, 165 Society of the Spectacle, The (Debord), 56 Soini, Timo, 661 Solana, Javier, 367 Solly, Laurent, 582 Solnit, Rebecca, 647 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr, 125, 160–61 Somalia, 369–70, 371, 706 Sorkin, Michael, Variations on a Theme Park, 460 Soros, George, 329–30, 610, 642 Sorrow and the Pity, The (film), 54 South Africa, 112, 351–52 South Ossetia, 619 sovereignty, 5, 29, 44, 752; “just war” and, 164; “territorial integrity” and, 164; transforming of, 162–66 Soviet Union: Afghanistan war, 171, 234; Brandt’s Ostpolitik and, 172; Brezhnev Doctrine, 164, 169, 236, 268; Chernobyl disaster and, 235; Cold War bipolarity and, 162–66; Cold War revival and, 233–35; COMECON, 315, 317; communism collapses, 239, 241; communism in, 54, 126–27; Constitutional Court, 266–67; Czechoslovakia invaded, 14, 43, 45; dissolved and reconstituted as federation, 263, 288, 294–96; economy and debt, 264–65; EEC trade agreement, 266; European settlement and, 245; foreign policy and Eurocommunism, 169; German reunification and, 251; glasnost, 264; global economic crisis and, 220; globalism, 165–66; Gorbachev’s reforms, 235–36, 264–67, 291; Helsinki Accords, 190, 239; Kohl funds, 251; moral bankruptcy of, 127; Nixon/Kissinger and, 45; oil exports, 96; perestroika, 264; SALT I, 166; satellite countries controlled, 239; trade with, 168; US arms race and, 13; US missile reduction agreement, 244; Warsaw Pact, 164, 249; world order and, 280–81; Yom Kippur War and, 63 See also Russia Spaak, Paul-Henri, 173 Spadolini, Giovanni, 142 Spain: anti-Europe sentiments, 690; anti-immigration sentiments and measures, 479, 481, 482, 540; austerity-driven discontent, 643, 644– 50; austerity policies, 637; Barcelona SEAT factory occupied, 52; Barcelona terrorist attack, 531; Basque separatism and, 113–14; centerleft hegemony in, 124; communism and socialism in, 169, 215; constitutional monarchy and, 52; currency crisis, 346; debts, 653; democratic elections, 215; democratization, 13, 121, 214–15, 265; disagreement over social pact, 356; ECB and, 346; ERM crisis and, 330; European Community and, 258; Europeanization and, 345; family life, 454; financial crisis (2008–14), 607, 629, 634, 654; Gorbachev and, 266; immigrants and refugees, 663, 665; Indignados movement, 645, 646, 647, 650, 651; Madrid terrorist attacks, 542–43; Moncloa Pacts, 214; pensions provision, 448; Podemos (We Can) movement, 650; secessionist movements, 472–73; socialism in, 124, 345, 346; status of women in, 446; suicides, 640; terror attacks, 719; unemployment, 332, 449, 607, 632–33, 641; worker management in, 226; workers’ protests, 43, 52; Zaptero elected, 559 Sperlich, Hal, 70 Speroni, Francesco, 63, 663 Spinelli, Altiero, 255, 257, 416; Crocodile Club, 255; Ventotene manifesto, 173, 635 Spitzer, Eliot, 384, 570 Springsteen, Bruce, “Dancing in the Dark,” 229 Stanford, Allen, 634 Stanislaw, Joseph, The Commanding Heights, 394 Star Wars missile defense, 195, 235, 248, 491, 509 state: challenges and redefining of, 747–48; as employer, 193; individual vs., 187–89, 203; mistrust of, 688–91; nation state, 30–31, 690; new social contract (1980s), 204–9; ownership and control by, 193; persistence, 743; power and control of, 747–48; privatization and, 429; public sector employees, 193; regulation by, 193–202; social contracts, 477; social functions diminish, 157; social welfare program costs, 193, 194; Thatcher-Reagan anti-statist policies, 193–202 Stein, Herbert, 191, 337–38 Steinbrück, Peer, 618–19 Stenvig, Charles, 49–50 Stevens, John P., 681 Steyn, Johan, 548 Stiglitz, Joseph, 382, 554 Štiks, Igor, 363 Stockman, David, 194, 205 “Sto Diethnes To Magzi” (Hatzis), ix Stoltenberg, Gerhard, 247 Stoltenberg, Jens, 559, 662, 701 Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 376 Sträng, Gunnar, 123 Strategy for Labor (Gorz), 226 Stråth, Bo, 178 Strauss-Kahn, Dominique, 407, 621, 627 Streeck, Wolfgang, 216, 751 Strong Democracy (Barber), 224 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), 19, 35–36, 43, 49; Port Huron Statement, 36; Weather Underground radical offshoot, 19, 111 Summers, Larry, 383, 612–13 Supiot, Aslan, 584 Sutherland, Peter, 431 Sweden, 122; anti-terror legislation, 531; austerity-driven discontent, 643; civic trust diminishes, 419; controls inflation, 89; currency devaluation, 90; democracy in, 27; environmental protection, 464; ERM crisis and, 331–32; EU competitive success, 635; EU membership, 343, 409; far-right party in, 485; foreign workers, 75–77; gay migration to, 231; holidays, 560; illegal asylum seekers, 717; immigrant and refugee numbers, 664, 712; internationalization of capital and, 343; peace movement, 134; recession, 405; rise of rightwing populism, 666–68; social anxieties, 301; social democrats in, 122–23; social welfare reforms, 445; taxation rates, 123, 216; trade unions and, 81, 213; wage bargaining system, 68; as welfare state, 69, 106, 445, 664; women’s status in, 132; xenophobia in, 749 Switzerland, 77, 86, 129, 199, 343, 484–85, 634 Sydney, Australia, 459 Syria: civil unrest and war, 1, 699–700, 706–10; refugees from, 712–13, 715; Russia and, 707; Western involvement in, 708; Yom Kippur War and, 62–63 Tancredo, Tom, 540 Tawney, R H., 684, 784 taxes: antitax sentiment, 194; Bush 43 tax cuts, 558; corporate tax havens, 152; levels of, 123, 193–94, 216; New Zealand cuts, 350; reform, 227; Republican position on cuts, 342; Thatcher-Reagan tax cuts, 193–202, 233 technocracy, 36, 56, 227, 651, 669, 683, 694 Technological Society, The (Ellul), 56 technology: consumer, 391; effect on political economy, 217, 313–14; Google and, 390; laissez-faire and, 396; Microsoft and, 390; mobile telephony, 313–14, 391–92; “new economy” and, 382, 391; publicly funded advances, 393; Silicon Valley and, 390–91 telecommunications, 340–41 television, 34, 228, 467 terrorism: anarchists and, 656; in Barcelona, 719; Charlie Hebdo attacks, 531, 545; as continuing threat, 736; effects on economy, 554–55, 603; far-right movements and, 487; in Indonesia, 542; IRA in Britain and, 394; Islamic extremism and, 512, 542–44, 546, 651, 718–19; Left-wing radicals, 1970s, 108–14; Madrid bombings, 542–43; Mediterranean and, 541; in the Netherlands, 542; in Nice, 719; Norway massacre, 662; Oklahoma City bombing, 487; in Paris, 719; radical right and, 662 See also 9/11 terrorist attack; war on terror Thatcher, Margaret: accomplishments of, 288–89; anti-statism and privatization, 196–99, 206, 321, 567; Britain’s joining ERM and, 329; Bush 41 and, 279, 283; civil society vs., 225; conservative administration, 141, 156, 288–89; democratic vision of, 191–202, 203; departure from power, 288; election of, 140; European integration and, 257; on the family, 453; German reunification and, 243–44, 248–50; Gulf War and, 283, 284; IRA threats against, 113, 207; Kohl and Mitterrand, relations with, 257; laissez-faire reforms, 228; leadership of, 581; Left’s decline and, 127; miners’ strike and, 207; personal responsibility and, 209; political principles and reforms, 191–200, 203, 206, 228; Reagan and, 257; re-election, 127; on Saddam Hussein, 277, 280; sovereignty and, 248; Thatcherism (economic policy), 95, 157, 191–99, 224–25, 254, 288–89, 583, 604; Tory version of democracy and, 224–25; trade unions and, 207 Theory of Justice (Rawls), 128 Thernstrom, Stephan, 482 Thiel, Peter, 728–29 Things (Perec), 225–26 Thin Ice (McCall), 36 Tindemans, Leo, 100, 175, 177 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 44, 737, 750; Democracy in America, 1, 3, 4, 11 To Empower People (Berger and Neuhaus), 224 Toffler, Alvin, Future Shock, 57 Togliatti, Palmiro, 122 Toshiki, Kaifu, 289–90 totalitarianism, 703, 747–48 Townsend, John, 547 trade See globalization Trainspotting (film), 457 Transatlantic Business Dialogue (TABD), 349 Transatlantic Economic Partnership (TEP), 349 transnationalism, 132, 135, 159, 176, 185–87, 189, 219, 236, 259, 345, 408, 744, 750, 752; banking and finance, 314, 439–40, 595, 601, 642, 659, 661–62; Christian Democrats and, 143; “democratic gap” and, 744; environmental policy, 465; EU and, 409, 671; European institutions and, 174; G6 and, 181–82, 183; governmental domain, 356–63; human rights organizations and, 164–65; institutional internationalists, 361; international governance, 85, 161, 165, 181–82, 247, 294, 357, 382, 491, 621–23, 660; judicial system and, 361–62; Kohl-Mitterrand partnership and, 254; migrant workers’ rights and, 136–37; military humanitariansim and, 379–80; money markets and, 334; multilateralism and, 527; “multiplex” and, 694; pan-European movements, 739; political radicalism and, 111; repatriating political rule and, 751; the right’s resurgence and, 667; SEA and, 326, 347; sovereignty transformed, 162–66; trade agreements and, 314; UN and, 185; UN and governance, 357–60; workfare state and, 442–43 See also European Council; European Union Trichet, Jean-Claude, 192, 626–27, 629, 632, 651–53, 658 Trilateral Commission, 119–21; “Governability of Democracy” Task Force, 119 Trudeau, Justin, 498, 683 Trudeau, Pierre, 16–18, 51, 111, 121, 179–80, 473, 683 Truman, Harry S., 28, 530 Truman Show, The (film), 457 Trump, Donald J., 10; administration, 734–35, 748–49; “America First” and, 510, 728, 733; background and political platform, 728–29, 733; elected president, 2, 693, 720, 725–28, 730–33; immigration policy, 734; intensification of existing problems by, 749; populism and, 669, 728, 732, 741; protectionism, 727, 744; refugee crisis and, 10; Twitter Presidency, 733 Tsipras, Alexis, 655, 672 Tudjman, Franjo, 373 Tunisian Jasmine Revolution, 707 Turkey, 670, 700, 701; immigrants and refugees, 711–16 Ukraine, 318, 321, 698–99 unemployment: “Beyond Unemployment” (EU report), 584; in Britain, 84, 197, 205, 208, 640; in Europe, 332, 580, 584, 632, 657; in Germany, 446; in Greece, 632, 641; increases, 67, 72, 89, 449; and Iraq crisis, 281; in Portugal, 630; in Spain, 332, 448, 607, 632–33, 641; in US, 94, 209, 214, 297, 335, 384, 386, 614, 632, 636; worldwide, 634, 636 United Kingdom See Britain United Nations (UN): “Agenda for Peace,” 358; Balkan crisis and UNPROFOR, 366–67; Bosnian intervention, 380; Boutros-Ghali ousted, 379–80; conference on environmental issues, 132; decade for women, 131; Declaration of Human Rights, 189; democracy as global norm and, 380; founded, 164; Gorbachev at, 235–36, 268; Haiti crisis and, 370; humanitarian missions, 287; Iraq resolutions, 360; new institutions created by, 185; Operation Restore Hope (Somalia), 369–70; post-Cold War conflicts, 355–56; post-Cold War reconstruction, 360; reinvigorated, 274; Rwanda and, 372; Sarkozy speaking at, 620; Security Council, 358–60, 694, 707, 708; transgovernmental domain, 356–60; US internationalism and, 379–80; veto powers, 369 United States: Afghanistan War, 506, 514–16, 519–20, 527; American democracy, 199, 470, 534, 575, 678, 681–82, 735, 749; anticommunism and, 28, 530; anti-immigrant legislation, 530, 540; anti-inequality campaign, 36; anti-statism in, 193–94, 688; Asia Pacific trade, 289, 290; bank failures and rescues, 66, 67, 97, 99; bond markets, 333–34, 336; border security, 539–40, 585; business as a class, 153, 154; China and, 97, 99, 290, 622–23, 634, 659, 701; citizen disengagement from public life, 449–50; civil liberties under threat, 528–34, 539, 549; civil rights movement and legislation, 19, 21, 28, 34, 36, 48–50, 135, 138, 139, 145; civil society and, 225; communism’s collapse and a new world order, 273–84, 289, 297, 360; communists in, 126–27; Conservatism in, 139–40, 144–45, 157, 274, 300, 358, 487, 728; consumer credit and, 386–89; corporate power in, 152–53, 154; corporate scandals, 571–72; crime and street violence, 297; culture of “elite malfeasance,” 117; culture wars and divisions, 117–18; currency crisis (1971) and, 59–60; debt ceiling, 677–78; decline in management of global monetary system, 96–97; decline of the Left and, 127–28, 145; democracy in, 748–49; democracy promoted abroad, 369, 374–75, 378–79; Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), 155, 306; Democratic Party decline, 680; Democrats and generational change, 589; Democrats and Great Recession, 674; Democrats and minority rights, 745–46; Democrats’ undermining of Sanders, 732; deregulation and, 83, 152–53, 194, 340–41, 605; détente and, 167–81; drone technology and operations, 706; Eastern Europe reform, 244; economic crisis (2008–14), 590–621, 643, 674; economic effects of Afghan and Iraq wars, 554–59; economic growth, 29, 59, 71, 580; economic hegemony, 95–104, 342–43, 382, 509, 623; economic prosperity, 232–33, 333–43, 381–89, 396; educational standards, 300; election campaign funding, 430; election turnout, 431–32; environmental policy, 464; equality in, 157; ethnic minorities in, 482, 574–75, 682; European rift with, over Iraq, 283–84; European settlement and, 245–47; EU-US Madrid summit, 362; family unit in, 209; farming decline, 74; far-right extremism, 487–88; Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 573–74; “fiscal cliff” standoff, 678; fiscal reforms, 680–81; foreign borrowing, 558; foreign capital investments in, 622–23; foreign intervention under Clinton, 371–72; freedom of the press and, 686–87; government failure in, 682; government spending, 32, 194; Gulf War, 284–88; health care, 36, 725; Homeland Security and, 532, 535–37; homelessness and unemployment, 209; housing market and mortgage debt, 94–95, 593–94, 596; Hurricane Katrina disaster, 572–74, 576–77; immigration and, 77, 480–83, 530, 584, 677; Industrial Areas Foundation, 751; inequality and, 229–30; inflation, 66, 89; international finance, 97–100, 219–20; international monetary system and, 58, 61, 69, 85–86, 96, 97, 174, 622; international multilateralism and, 527; international peacekeeping and, 355–80; Iran hostage crisis, 170–71; Iraq bombing (1998), 378; Iraq War, 1, 490, 516, 520–21, 525–26; isolationism, 302; judicial politics, 138–39; “juristocracy” in, 679; labor and, 206, 217; labor unions, 30, 206, 432; laissez-faire and, 333–43; law and the courts, 146–48, 150; liberalism and, 28, 223, 301, 303; manufacturing and, 77, 385; Middle East policy, 171, 709–10; military humanitarianism, 379; millennials and democracy, 693; minority imprisonment, 50, 301; minority interests in, 117, 155; minority rights movements, 135–36; “Mogadishu line,” 371; monetarism and, 91, 97; money in politics and, 681–82; as moral standard bearer of the world, 167; multilateralism and, 527–28; multipolar world and, 163; NAFTA and, 310, 324, 338, 350, 354; national debt, 303, 342, 385, 605; national identity, 680; National Labor Relations Board, 206; National Security Entry-Exit Registration System of 2002, 530; national security measures, 535–40; neoconservatism, 156, 223, 303–4, 376, 488–90, 505, 510–12, 676; neoliberalism, 92–93, 95, 396; neo-Republicans, 730; New Deal reformism, 28, 29; New Democrats, 306, 307, 308, 333, 337, 338, 343, 344, 398, 403–4, 578, 579; New Economic Policy (1971), 60–62; “New Paradigm” on military action, 517–18; New Right, 200; 9/11 terrorist attacks and, 7, 503–8, 528, 533–34; Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 205, 206; Open Market Committee, 91; partisan divisions and, 679–80, 688, 725–26; Patriot Act and limiting of freedoms, 529–39; patriotism, 471; personal debt in, 452–53; pessimism and loss of idealism, 304–5; PNAC (Project for the New American Century), 489, 520; political action committees (PACS), 152; political and cultural divisions, 8, 49–50; political elitism, 728–29; political-public disconnect, 419–20, 596, 741; politics of personality, 420, 421–22; populism in, 487, 688, 727–28, 741; post-Cold War challenges, 297–305; poverty in, 299, 578; presidential election (1992), 305–11; presidential election (1996), 375; presidential election (2000), 469–70; presidential election (2012), 688; presidential election (2008), 586–89; presidential election (2016), 724–26, 728–32; presidential power, 529–30; prison uprising, 19–21, 52; privatization and, 429, 554–56, 565–66, 568, 574; progressives in, 342; property market collapse, 633; as “property owning” nation, 604; protest movements, 19, 647–50, 671, 682; public-sector wage demands, 204; public space, 461, 463, 536–37; race issues, 78, 94, 297–98, 300–301, 574, 575–76; Reaganism, 82–83, 192–202; recession (2003), 553, 558–59; recession and budget deficit, post-Cold War, 296–98, 310–11; regulation and regulatory agencies, 194, 438–39, 680–81; religious right or evangelical Christianity in, 39, 144–45, 208–9; Republican Contract with America, 427–28, 434, 441, 488, 489–90, 674; Republican Party and Trump, 725–26; Republican Party’s rupture over economic stimulus, 674–75; Republican Party’s rupture over foreign policy, 374–75; Republican resurgence, 676–77; Roe v Wade and abortion, 131; Russia, hostility toward, 694; Russian election meddling (2016), 730–31, 732; Savings and Loan crisis, 94; school shootings and gun reform, 681; Second Bill of Rights, 31; social–ethnic divisions, 691; socialists in, 126; social mobility in, 28; Somalia intervention, 369–70; sovereignty and, 163; Soviet military rivalry, 13; Soviet missile reductions and, 244; Soviets and Cold War revival, 233–34; Soviet war in Afghanistan and, 171–72; state and local government, 183–84; stock market, mass investment in, 383–84; stock market crash (2001), 557; street violence, 297–98, 301, 307; as superpower, 164, 273–311; supports small government, 200; surveillance programs and, 19, 686–87; Syrian refugees and, 715; TARP (Troubled Assets Relief Program), 612–13, 616; taxation levels, 33, 83, 193–94; Tea Party, 587–88, 614, 676, 682, 688, 726, 728, 741; technological advances, 382; Tocqueville on democracy in, 3; transgovernmental domain, 356–63; Trilateral Commission on governability, 119–21; two-party system, 487; unemployment in, 67, 72, 94, 214, 297, 335, 384, 386, 614, 632, 636, 682; United Nations and, 359–60; urban crisis in, 75, 228–30, 297–99; Vietnam War and, 44–47, 78–79, 166, 168; violent radicalism, 111; Volcker’s reforms, 93–95; wage cuts in, 219–20; war economy, 554–59; War on Drugs, 229; war on terror, 511–20, 528–31, 533, 536, 576, 704–5; war on terror, prisoners and detainees, 518–20, 548–52; wealth inequality, 64, 386–87, 679, 746; welfare programs, 32–33, 68, 69, 166, 203, 205–6, 208; welfare reforms, 205, 208, 428, 441–43; women’s rights and status in, 130, 131–32; working class in, 157; working conditions in, 560; as a “world power,” 168 US Congress: Affordable Care Act, 677, 681; American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, 612; anti-immigrant legislation, 540; Black Caucus, 428; Budget Control Act of 2011, 678; Clean Air Act, 305; Commodity Features Modification Act (2000), 570; Congressional Immigration Reform Caucus, 539–40; Deficit Reduction Act of 1993, 385; Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981), 194–95; Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, 610; Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, 530; Jackson-Vanik amendment, 168; minority rights and, 481; National Literacy Act, 300; Oil Pollution Act, 464; Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act, 195, 205; partisanship in, 678–80; Patriot Act, 529; Republican probusiness legislation, 578; TARP, 609–10; War Powers Act, 168 US Federal Reserve, 91, 93–94, 335–36, 387–88; financial crisis (2008–14) and, 592, 595, 597–602, 605, 609, 611, 631; Jackson Hole policy retreat 2007, 597–98, 600; quantitative easing, 612; TARP and, 613 US Supreme Court, 150; Bakke v Regents of the University of California, 147; Brown v Board of Education, 146; Burger court and conservatism, 147, 150; Bush–Gore election dispute, 469–70; Citizens United, 571, 681, 686; divisions on, 680; golden age of constitutional law, 146–48; Kavanaugh nomination, 748; Law and Economics Center and judicial outlook, 148; Nixon and, 146–47; Powell and deregulation, 153; Rasul v Bush, 550–51; security measures at, 537; Warren court and democracy, 146 Vaizey, John, Baron, 191 Valéry, Paul, 105; Reflections on the World Today, 105 van Buren, Martin, 275 Vance, Cyrus, 366, 367 Van Gogh, Theo, 543 Variations on a Theme Park (Sorkin), 460 Varoufakis, Yanis, 177, 672, 751 Vauzelle, Michel, 283 Veber, Aleksandr, 266 Venezuela, 671 Vermeule, Adrian, 530 Vieira de Mallo, Sérgio, 525 Vietnam War, 45–47, 56; boat people, 186; draft and, 41, 46; effects, 6, 13, 40, 56, 96, 164, 168; ending, 168; financial cost, 59, 69; My Lai massacre, 166; Nixon and, 46–47, 166–67; protests, 18–19, 46 Viner, Jacob, 410–11 Vogel, Hans-Jochen, 266 Volcker, Paul, 93–96, 98, 104, 221, 602, 612–13; international monetary crisis and, 58–61; Volcker rule in Dodd-Frank, 680 Wacquant, Loïc, 575–76 Wainwright, Hilary, 522 Wales, 472 Wałęsa, Lech, 316, 326 Wall Street (film), 222 Walzer, Michael, 164, 225 Warner, Adam, 492 war on terror, 7–8, 511–18, 528–33, 536, 710; civil liberties vs security and, 528–34, 539, 549, 553, 565; domestic security measures and, 534–42; effect on liberalism, 744; in Europe, 543–47; Obama and, 704–5; prisoners and detainees, 518–20, 548–52, 576; Rasul v Bush and, 550–51; surveillance programs, 539; torture and, 550 Warren, Earl, 146–47 Warsaw Pact, 164; disbanded, 316 “Washington Consensus,” 314, 414, 491 Wassenaar Agreement (1982), 191 Waszczykowski, Witold, 703 Watkins, Susan, 561 wealth inequality, 2, 342, 641–42, 690 Webster, Charles, 358 Weidenbaum, Murray, 194 Weizsäcker, Richard von, 262 Welby, Justin, 648 welfare state/welfare system, 40, 69, 205; aims and ideals, transformation of, 203–5; America’s social security and, 477; Christian Democrats and, 142; current difficulties in Europe, 747; economic redistribution and, 2, 477; end of the 1980s and, 215–16; health care, 32, 197, 203, 204; immigrant pressure on, 77; pensions, 204, 448; as pillar of postwar democracy, 31–32, 203–5; primary beneficiaries of, 206; Scandinavian, 105, 132, 144; social democrats and, 123, 158; spending rises, 69; system reform, 144, 233, 441–49, 451–52, 455; taxation levels and, 216; US and, 69, 166 Welles, Orson, 57 Welsh, Irvine, 457 Werner Plan, 174–75, 177, 328 West, Cornel, 748 We Were Eight Years in Power (Coates), 730 Whitelaw, Willie, 207 Whitlam, Gough, 83, 115, 121 Widmer, Ted, Ark of the Liberties, 549 WikiLeaks, 19, 684–87 Wilders, Geert, 658, 666, 667 Williams, Bernard, 731 Williams, Shirley, 155, 196 Williamson, John, 314 Wilson, Harold, 88, 102, 116, 182–83 Wilson, Woodrow, Winfrey, Oprah, 490 Wolfe, Tom, 187 Wolfowitz, Paul, 489, 507, 509, 512 Wolfram, Klaus, 252 Wolin, Sheldon, 565 women: abortion, 117, 131; economic independence, 37; feminism and women’s rights, 129–32; Strike of Equality, 130; UN’s decade of the woman, 131; voting, 157; working, 74, 80, 445–46, 450 working class, 6; civil society replacing, 227; cultural and society change and, 455; deprivation and exploitation, 579–80, 584; geographic separation of, 74–75; male disgruntlement, 37; postwar liberal democracy and, 477; problems in a post-industrial society, 226–28; protests and demands, 79, 81–84; redefining and decline, 127–28; wage levels, 83; workerist moment, 1970s, 226 World Bank, 314, 491 World Economic Forum (WEF), 119; annual Davos meeting, 119, 315; Eastern Europe and, 315–16 World Is Flat, The (Friedman), 312 World Trade Organization (WTO), 314, 353, 491; Seattle meeting (1999), 492–93, 497 Worley, Darryl, 523–24 Wright, Thomas, 734 Wurzelbacher, Joseph (“Joe the Plumber”), 588 Wuthnow, Robert, 450 Wypijeski, JoAnn, 577 Xenophon, Nick, 683 Yalta Agreement, 253 Yaneyev, Gennady, 291 Yankelovich, Daniel, 65, 302 Yanukovych, Viktor, 699 Yavlinsky, Grigory, 294 Yeltsin, Boris, 246, 292, 294–96, 324, 369, 695, 696 Yemen, 706 Yergin, Daniel, The Commanding Heights, 384 Yom Kippur War, 62–64, 98, 169, 175 Yoo, John, 517, 734 Youth International Party “Yippies,” 49 Yugoslavia: Albanian refugees from, 478; Dayton Agreement, 373–74, 375; ethnic violence in, 355, 363–67, 372–73; NATO bombing of, 373; partition, 7, 367; self-determination, 237; violence in former, 380 Zakaria, Fareed, 745 Zapatero, José Luis Rodríguez, 559, 606, 644, 653, 658 Zapatista, Marcos, 491 Zappa, Frank, 42 Zeitoun, Abdulrahman, 576 Zeman, Miloš, 702 Zery, Muhammad al-, 549 Zhou Enlai, 166 Zhou Xiaochuan, 622 Zia ul-Haq, Muhammad, 557 Zito, Salena, 727 Žižek, Slavoj, 647 Zuckerman, Mortimer, 383 Zukin, Sharon, 459 Simon & Schuster 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, NY 10020 www.SimonandSchuster.com Copyright © 2019 by Simon Reid-Henry Originally published in 2019 in Great Britain by John Murray (Publishers), an Hachette UK Company All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or portions thereof in any form whatsoever For information address Simon & Schuster Subsidiary Rights Department, 1230 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020 First Simon & Schuster hardcover edition June 2019 SIMON & SCHUSTER and colophon are registered trademarks of Simon & Schuster, Inc For information about special discounts for bulk purchases, please contact Simon & Schuster Special Sales at 1-866-506-1949 or business@simonandschuster.com The Simon & Schuster Speakers Bureau can bring authors to your live event For more information or to book an event contact the Simon & Schuster Speakers Bureau at 1-866-248-3049 or visit our website at www.simonspeakers.com Interior design by Paul Dippolito Jacket design by Richard L Joenes Jacket images Clockwise Starting from Top Left: Reuters/David Brauchli ; Reagan and Gorbachev from Ronald Reagan Presidential Library; Soviet Union Flag/Public Domain Image; Trump Photograph by Nicoles Glass/Shutterstock Premier; Tiananmen Square Photo by Jeff Widener/Associated Press; Obama Photograph by Evan Vucci/Associated Press; Stock Ticker Image by Bianda Ahmad Hisham/Shutterstock; European Union Flag by Håkan Dahlström/Getty Images Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Reid-Henry, Simon, author Title: Empire of democracy : the remaking of the West since the Cold War, 1971–2017 / Simon Reid-Henry Description: First Simon & Schuster hardcover edition | New York : Simon & Schuster, 2019 | Includes bibliographical references and index Identifiers: LCCN 2019013544 (print) | LCCN 2019016633 (ebook) | ISBN 9781451684988 (E-book) | ISBN 9781451684964 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781451684971 (trade pbk.) | ISBN 9781451684988 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Democracy—Western countries—History—20th century | Democracy—Western countries—History—21st century | Liberalism—Western countries—History—20th century | Liberalism—Western countries—History—21st century | Cold War— Political aspects—Western countries—History | Western countries—Politics and government—20th century | Western countries— Politics and government—21st century Classification: LCC JC421 (ebook) | LCC JC421 R4183 2019 (print) | DDC 320.9182/109045—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019013544 ISBN 978-1-4516-8496-4 ISBN 978-1-4516-8498-8 (ebook) ... for the future of society pervaded the Western democracies For the rst time since the height of the Second World War, the fate of the West appeared in doubt America was mired in Vietnam, the. .. no small reminder of the extent to which the people and the people’s authorities were at odds with one another at this, the very height of the Cold War, that the director of the CIA, Richard Helms... some of which may be more appealing to us than others This book—a history of the political life of the Western democracies—is the rst full account of the way it has been going for most of the