4.3 Biological Features of Abyssal Megafauna, Community Dynamics, and Diversity
4.4 Water Masses and Major Currents
4.5 Eddy Kinetic Energy and Bottom Currents
4.6 Climate Variation and Global Warming
4.7 Sedimentation Rates and Mixing: The Sedimentary Environment of Nodules
5 Options for Management of the Impacts of Deep-Sea Mining
5.1 Monitoring and Rapid Ecological Assessment (REA)
5.2 Management Tools Applied to a Pilot Study: NIXO 45
Description of the Site from Imagery
Fixed Organisms as Indicators of Bottom Currents
Value and Sensitivity Indices for NIXO 45
References
Long-Term Monitoring of Environmental Conditions of Benthic Impact Experiment
1 Benthic Impact Experiment
1.1 Historical Background
1.2 Short-Term Impact of Benthic Disturbance
2 Methods and Materials
3 Results
3.1 Sediment Properties
3.2 Meiobenthos
4 Discussion
5 Future Tasks for Deep-Sea Impact Experiments
5.1 Sample Number and Representation
5.2 Baseline and Natural Variation
5.3 Impact and Evaluation
5.4 Accuracy of Data
5.5 Scientific Approach and Environmental Management
6 Conclusion
References
Metal Mobility from Hydrothermal Sulfides into Seawater During Deep Seafloor Mining Operations
1 Introduction
2 Metal Leaching Potential and Possible Mechanism of Dissolution from Non-oxidized Hydrothermal Sulfides into Seawater
3 Evaluation of Leachable Metals and Metalloids from Hydrothermal Sulfides After Exposed to Atmosphere into Seawater
4 Metal Release from Hydrothermal Sulfides During Mining Operations
5 Summary
References
Mining in Hydrothermal Vent Fields: Predicting and Minimizing Impacts on Ecosystems with the Use of a Mathematical Modeling Framework
1 Introduction
1.1 Importance of Protecting Deep-Sea Chemosynthetic Communities
1.2 Potential Impact of Mining Activities on Deep-Sea Chemosynthetic Communities
1.3 Difficulty in Assessing the Effect of Disturbances
1.4 Resilience of Vent Ecosystems
1.5 Dispersal: A Key Factor for Resilience of Communities in HVFs
2 A Model-Based Data Analysis
2.1 Potential Larval Dispersal Between Hydrothermal Vent Fields
2.2 Differential Equation Model
2.3 Resilience of HVFs Around Japan
Recovery Time of HVFs
Simultaneous Disturbance to HVFs
Contribution of a HVF to the Resilience of Other HVFs
Optimal Scheduling
Individual-Based Model
3 Future Directions
4 Conclusion
References
Ecotoxicological Bioassay Using Marine Algae for Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Test Algal Species
3 Rapid Bioassay Method Using Delayed Fluorescence
4 Impact of Heavy Metals on Marine Algal Species
5 Conclusion
References
Part III: Environmental Data Standardization and Application
New Techniques for Standardization of Environmental Impact Assessment
1 Introduction
2 Technique for Turbulence Measurements
2.1 Necessity of Deep-Sea Turbulence Measurements
2.2 Example Measurement of Deep-Sea Turbulence
2.3 Adaptation to a Deep-Sea Turbulence EIA Prediction Model
3 Technique for Habitat Mapping
3.1 Necessity of Habitat Mapping for EIA
3.2 Overview of Data Types Required for Producing Habitat Maps
3.3 Types of Models Used to Map the Habitat of Species
3.4 Required Data for SDMs
3.5 Types of Models in SDMs
3.6 Example of Preliminary Analysis in the Deep Sea
3.7 Perspectives on the Use of the Recent Techniques
Perspectives on Data Acquisition Feasibility for Mapping Sea Bottom
Perspectives on Feasibility of Automatic Extraction of Organisms
4 New Technology/Approach for Investigating Planktonic Larvae
5 Conclusion
References
Environmental Factors for Design and Operation of Deep-Sea Mining System: Based on Case Studies
1 Introduction
2 Atmospheric and Sea Surface Parameters
2.1 Sea Surface Temperature
2.2 Wind Speed
2.3 Rainfall
2.4 Cyclones
2.5 Waves
2.6 Summary of Atmospheric and Sea Surface Factors
3 Water Column Characteristics
4 Seafloor Features
4.1 Nodule Distribution Characteristics
Distribution of Nodule Sizes
Distribution of Nodule Coverage on the Seafloor
Distribution of Nodule Abundance on the Seafloor
4.2 Sediment Properties
Effect of Sediment Cover on Nodule Burial
Analysis of Sediment Thickness in Nodule Areas
Physical Properties of Sediments and Nodules
4.3 Occurrence of Rock Outcrops
4.4 Influence of Seafloor Topography
4.5 Summary of Seafloor Features
5 Conclusions
References
Part IV: Environmental Management
Environmental Policy for Deep Seabed Mining
1 Introduction
2 Background Information and Issues
2.1 Nonrenewable Resources
2.2 Equitable Sharing of Benefits
2.3 Market Prices for Minerals and Environmental Damage Costs
2.4 Uncertainty
2.5 Economic Issues Requiring Consideration
2.6 Regulatory Issues When Selecting Environmental Policy Instruments
2.7 Basic Economic Principles to Consider When Choosing Environmental Policy Instruments
3 Suite of Possible Policy Instruments for Protecting Marine Environment
3.1 Direct Regulation
3.2 Incentive-Based Approaches to Regulation
3.3 Environmental Taxes or Fees
3.4 Environmental Liability
3.5 Insurance
3.6 Environmental Bonds
4 Additional Incentive-Based Policy Instruments for Potential Consideration
4.1 Transferable Habitat Impact Quotas
4.2 Payments for Ecosystem Services
4.3 Conservation Easements and Concessions
4.4 Biodiversity Offsets
4.5 Conservation Credits and Biobanking
5 Combining Policy Approaches
6 Technology and Innovation
7 Concluding Remarks
References
Ecosystem Approach for the Management of Deep-Sea Mining Activities
1 Introduction
2 Uncertainty and Managing Risk
3 Carrying into Effect the Ecosystem Objectives
4 Pressures, Components, Functions and Harm
5 Monitoring and Review
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Improving Environmental Management Practices in Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 Environmental Assessment
3 What Are Environmental Baseline Studies for?
4 Key Environmental Factors to Be Addressed in an Environmental Baseline Study
4.1 Physical Oceanography
4.2 Geological Data
4.3 Chemical Oceanography
4.4 Biological Oceanography
4.5 Geochemical Effects on Biological Systems
4.6 Using the Baseline Data in Environmental Management
5 Value-Based Business Development
6 Environmental Impact Statements
7 Mitigation Hierarchy
7.1 Avoid
7.2 Minimise
7.3 Restore
Cobalt Crust Mining and Restoring Ecosystems on Seamounts
Polymetallic Sulphide Mining and Restoring Ecosystems on Mid-ocean Ridges
Polymetallic Nodule Mining and Restoring Ecosystems on Abyssal Plains
7.4 Offset/Compensate
8 Conclusions
References
The Development of Environmental Impact Assessments for Deep-Sea Mining
1 Introduction
2 What Is an EIA?
3 EIA as a Process
3.1 EIA Process Components
4 The Structure of EIAs
4.1 Scope
4.2 EIS Format
4.3 EIA Guidelines
5 Future Challenges for Deep-Sea Minerals Mining EIA
5.1 Data Shortcomings
5.2 Adequate Environmental Baseline Information
5.3 Uncertainty
5.4 Cumulative Impacts
6 The Role of Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA)
7 Concluding Remarks
Appendix 1: Summary Table of Recommended Scientific Methodologies, Including the Aspects to Be Covered During the Survey Programme, Parameters to Be Measured and Appropriate Methods to Consider Given the Local Environmental Conditions (From Swaddli
References
Protection of the Marine Environment: The International and National Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
1 Introduction
2 The Obligation to Protect the Marine Environment and the Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
2.1 Jurisdictional Mandate
2.2 Obligation to Protect the Marine Environment
3 The International Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
3.1 The Area and Its Salient Features
3.2 Institutional Setting
3.3 Regulatory Framework
3.4 The International Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining from the Environmental Protection Perspective: An Outlook
4 National Regulation of Deep Seabed Mining Activities
4.1 General State Obligations
4.2 The Pacific Context
4.3 SPC Regional Legislative and Regulatory Framework (RLRF)
Papua New Guinea
Tonga
Cook Islands
Pacific Islands Summary
4.4 New Zealand
4.5 Japan
Domestic DSM Legislation Summary
5 Conclusion
References
Part V: Economic Considerations
Deep-Sea Natural Capital: Putting Deep-Sea Economic Activities into an Environmental Context
1 Natural Capital and the Deep Ocean
1.1 The Concept of Natural Capital
1.2 Natural Capital and Deep-Sea Activities
2 Deep-Sea Ecosystem Services
2.1 Provisioning Services
2.2 Regulating and Supporting Services
2.3 Intrinsic Values and Services
3 Human Activities in the Deep Ocean
3.1 Non-invasive
3.2 Extractive
3.3 Harmful Activities
4 Assessment of Proposed Commercial Activities
5 Policy Implications
References
Review of Mining Rates, Environmental Impacts, Metal Values, and Investments for Polymetallic Nodule Mining
1 Introduction
2 Proposed Mining Rates for Polymetallic Nodules
3 Estimation of Ore Production, Mineable Area and Environmental Impacts
3.1 Criteria and Factors for Nodule Mining
3.2 Estimation of Variables Associated with Mining
Ore Production
Total Mineable Area (M)
Size of Mine Site (As)
Area of Contact
Volume and Weight of Sediment Disturbed
Estimation of Mine Tailings
4 Estimates for Different Mining Rates
4.1 Ore Production
4.2 Mineable Area and Area of Contact
4.3 Volume and Weight of Sediment Distributed
4.4 Mine Tailings After Extraction of Metals
5 Estimation of Metal Values for Different Mining Rates
6 Analysis of Global Production Rates of Metals and Duration of Availability of Metals from Land Reserves
7 Estimation of Resource Potential for Different Abundances of Polymetallic Nodules
8 Value of Metals Versus Investments for Mining
9 Conclusion
References
Techno-economic Perspective on Processing of Polymetallic Ocean Nodules
1 Introduction
2 Polymetallic Nodules Characterization
3 Resource Consideration
4 Metallurgical Processing of Nodules
4.1 Reduction Hydrochloric Acid Leach Process
4.2 The Cuprion Process
4.3 High-Temperature and High-Pressure Sulfuric Acid (HPAL) Leach Process
5 Economic Evaluation of Nodules
6 Feasibility Studies
6.1 Cost Estimates for Reduction and Hydrochloric Acid Leach Process (Four Metal Recovery)
6.2 Cost Estimates for Cuprion Ammoniacal Leach Process (Three Metal Recovery)
6.3 Cost Estimates for Reduction and Hydrochloric Acid Leach Process (Four Metal Recovery)
6.4 Cost Estimates for High-Temperature and High-Pressure Sulfuric Acid Leach Process (Three Metal Recovery)
6.5 Cost Estimates at Current Level
6.6 The Environmental Considerations for Processing Nodules