Environmental chemistry of animal manure

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY OF ANIMAL MANURE No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained herein This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, medical or any other professional services ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the Series tab Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the E-books tab ANIMAL SCIENCE, ISSUES AND PROFESSIONS Additional books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the Series tab Additional E-books in this series can be found on Nova‘s website under the E-books tab ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY OF ANIMAL MANURE ZHONGQI HE EDITOR Nova Science Publishers, Inc New York Copyright © 2011 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers‘ use of, or reliance upon, this material Any parts of this book based on government reports are so indicated and copyright is claimed for those parts to the extent applicable to compilations of such works Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS Additional color graphics may be available in the e-book version of this book LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Environmental chemistry of animal manure / editor, Zhongqi He p cm Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 978-1-61942-238-4 (eBook) Agricultural chemistry Chemistry, Analytic Farm manure Environmental chemistry I He, Zhongqi S587.E58 2011 631.8'61 dc22 2010051543 Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc † New York CONTENTS Preface vii About the Editor ix Part I Organic Matter Characterization Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Application of Analytical Pyrolysis-Mass Spectrometry in Characterization of Animal Manures Jim J Wang, Syam K Dodla and Zhongqi He Structural and Bonding Environments of Manure organic Matter Derived from Infrared Spectroscopic Studies Zhongqi He, Changwen Du and Jianmin Zhou 25 Carbon Functional Groups of Manure Organic Matter Fractions Identified by Solid State 13C NMR Spectroscopy Zhongqi He and Jingdong Mao 43 Ultraviolet-visible Absorptive Features of Water Extractable and Humic Fractions of Animal Manure and Relevant Compost Mingchu Zhang, Zhongqi He and Aiqin Zhao 61 Fluorescence Spectroscopic Analysis of Organic Matter Fractions: The Current Status and a Tutorial Case Study Tsutomu Ohno and Zhongqi He 83 Part II Nitrogen and Volatile Compounds Chapter Ammonia Emission from Animal Manure: Mechanisms and Mitigation Techniques Pius M Ndegwa, Alexander N Hristov and Jactone A Ogejo 105 107 Chapter Origins and Identities of Key Manure Odor Components Daniel N Miller and Vincent H Varel 153 Chapter Manure Amino Acid Compounds and their Bioavailability Zhongqi He and Daniel C Olk 179 vi Chapter Contents Determinants and Processes of Manure Nitrogen Availability C Wayne Honeycutt, James F Hunt, Timothy S Griffin, Zhongqi He and Robert P Larkin Part III Phosphorus Forms and Lability Chapter 10 Solubility of Manure Phosphorus Characterized by Selective and Sequential Extractions John D Toth, Zhengxia Dou and Zhongqi He 201 225 227 Chapter 11 Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Organic Phosphorus Zhongqi He and C Wayne Honeycutt Chapter 12 Characterizing Phosphorus in Animal Waste with Solution 31P NMR Spectroscopy Barbara J Cade-Menun 275 Metal Speciation of Phosphorus Derived from Solid State Spectroscopic Analysis Olalekan O Akinremi, Babasola Ajiboye and Zhongqi He 301 Modeling Phosphorus Transformations and Runoff Loss for Surface-Applied Manure Peter A Vadas 325 Improving the Sustainability of Animal Agriculture by Treating Manure with Alum Philip A Moore, Jr 349 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Part IV Heavy Elements and Environmental Concerns Chapter 16 Sources and Contents of Heavy Metals and Other Trace Elements in Animal Manures Jackie L Schroder, Hailin Zhang, Jaben R Richards and Zhongqi He 253 383 385 Chapter 17 Fate and Transport of Arsenic from Organoarsenicals Fed to Poultry Clinton D Church, Jane E Hill and Arthur L Allen 415 Chapter 18 Mercury in Manures and Toxicity to Environmental Health Irenus A Tazisong, Zachary N Senwo, Robert W Taylor and Zhongqi He 427 Index 443 PREFACE Animal manure is traditionally regarded as a valuable resource of plant nutrients However, there is an increasing environmental concern associated with animal manure utilization due to high and locally concentrated volumes of manure produced in modern intensified animal production Although considerable research has been conducted on environmental impacts and best management practices, the environmental chemistry of animal manure has not developed accordingly Accurate and insightful knowledge of the environmental chemistry of animal manure is needed to effectively utilize animal manure while reducing its adverse environmental impacts The primary goals of this book are to (1) synthesize and analyze the basic knowledge and latest research on the environmental chemistry of animal manure, (2) stimulate new research ideas and directions in this area, and (3) promote applications of the knowledge derived from basic research in the development and improvement of applied, sustainable manure management strategies in the field This book will serve as a valuable reference source for university faculty, graduate students, extension specialists, animal and soil scientists, agricultural engineers, and government regulators who work and deal with various aspects of animal manure This book consists of four parts Part I is manure organic matter characterization Five chapters in this part examine the chemical composition and structural environments of organic matter in animal manure and relevant compost, using pyrolysis-mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, solid state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, ultravioletvisible spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy Part II is focused on nitrogen and volatile compounds in animal manure Four chapters in Part II examine ammonia emission from animal manure, key manure odor components, manure amino compounds, and manure nitrogen availability Part III is manure phosphorus forms and lability The first four chapters in Part III examine solubility, enzymatic hydrolysis, forms, and metal speciation of manure phosphorus using various wet and instrumental analysis The last two chapters in Part III then examine the models used in predicting phosphorus transformations and runoff loss for surface-applied manure and reduction of runoff potential of manure phosphorus by alum amendment Beyond the phosphorus concern, the alum chapter also comprehensively examines the sustainability of animal agriculture by treating manure with alum Part IV covers heavy elements and environmental concerns The first chapter in Part IV examines sources and contents of heavy metals and other trace elements in animal manures Although not heavy metals in strict terms, arsenic and mercury in animal and soil have been frequently investigated with other toxic heavy metals Thus, the last two chapters in Part IV examine fate viii Preface and transport of arsenic from organoarsenicals fed to poultry and mercury in animal manure and impacts on environmental health, respectively Chapter contribution is by invitation only Each chapter is designed to cover a specific topic For each chapter to stand alone, there is occasionally some overlap in literature review, and some experiments have been used as examples in more than one chapter All 18 chapters in the four parts were written by accomplished experts in the relevant fields, and were subject to the peer reviewing and revision processes Positive comments from at least two reviewers were required to warrant the acceptance of a manuscript I would like to thank all reviewers for their many helpful comments and suggestions which certainly improved the quality of this book ABOUT THE EDITOR ZHONGQI HE is Research Chemist of Environmental Chemistry and Biochemistry of Plant Nutrients at the United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, New England Plant, Soil and Water Laboratory, Orono, Maine He was a recipient of the National Research Council postdoctoral fellowship with the host of the United States Air Force Research Laboratory, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida The author or co-author of over 100 research articles, patents, proceedings, and book chapters, he has actively pursued basic and applied research in phosphorus, nitrogen, metals, and natural organic matter He received the B.S degree (1982) in applied chemistry from Chongqing University, China, the M.S degrees (1985 and 1992) in applied chemistry from South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, and in chemistry from the University of Georgia, Athens, and the Ph.D degree (1996) in biochemistry from the University of Georgia, Athens, USA Index breakdown, 4, 14, 108, 114, 288 breeding, 218, 270 bromination, 289, 294 bronchitis, 377 buffalo, 153 by-products, 165, 247, 374, 376, 406, 408, 410 C cadmium, 39, 78, 320, 408, 409, 440 calcium, 121, 122, 144, 151, 233, 249, 273, 280, 292, 298, 306, 308, 312, 313, 321, 323, 343, 351, 359, 361, 363, 368, 371, 374, 378, 379 calibration, 69 cancer, 416 CaP, 308, 309, 315 capillary, 4, 22, 181, 198, 425 carbohydrate, 5, 8, 9, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 27, 36, 45, 47, 48, 50, 51, 53, 58, 141, 143, 146, 151, 159, 163, 164, 169, 180, 216, 270, 400 carbon, 19, 21, 33, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 58, 62, 65, 66, 69, 71, 73, 76, 78, 79, 81, 91, 99, 101, 109, 114, 126, 127, 130, 147, 149, 150, 159, 169, 170, 171, 198, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 273, 274, 310, 311, 341, 417, 436, 438 carbonyl groups, 52, 61 carboxyl, 31, 38, 40, 48, 50, 52 carboxylic acid, 22, 26, 159, 215, 216, 323 cardiovascular system, 429 case studies, 62, 72, 74, 76, 84, 92, 96, 127, 247, 406, 411, 423 catabolism, 109, 197 cation, 35, 123, 150, 181, 182, 193, 263, 270, 306, 318 C-C, 37, 61, 62 CEC, 35 cell death, 170 cell division, 400 cell membranes, 170 cellulose, 4, 36, 47, 48, 50, 51, 162, 163, 165, 169 Census, 201, 223 challenges, 133, 153, 216, 222, 322 charge density, 288 chelates, 402, 405 chemical bonds, 255, 276 chemical characteristics, 95, 102 chemical kinetics, 439 chemical properties, 42, 58, 59, 79, 81, 83, 99, 157, 222, 227, 268, 327, 338, 340, 342, 397 445 chemical reactions, 253 chemical structures, 41, 47, 58 chemicals, 72, 121, 122, 138, 158, 161, 169, 170, 232, 233, 234, 242, 244, 245, 254, 320, 332, 386 Chicago, 220, 221 chicken, 9, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 37, 38, 41, 45, 47, 59, 69, 151, 205, 220, 278, 283, 287, 288, 291, 292, 363, 372, 388, 389, 390, 395, 402, 418, 424, 425, 432, 438, 439, 440 children, 428 China, ix, 25, 142, 272, 389, 407, 429, 432, 433, 435, 439, 440, 441, 442 chitin, chitinase, 114 chlorine, 437, 439, 440 chloroform, chlorophyll, 78, 400, 429 choline, 304 chromatographic technique, 181 chromatography, 3, 4, 7, 20, 21, 23, 81, 157, 181, 193, 197, 198, 256, 408 CIS, 410 City, 351, 426 classes, 9, 93, 228, 229, 246, 255, 277 classification, 27, 102, 257 clean air, 130, 157 cleaning, 140, 161 cleavage, 274 climate, 210, 331, 337, 338, 340 climates, clothing, 157 clustering, 98 CO2, 154, 158, 161, 211, 218, 417 coal, 22, 24, 232, 241, 244, 247, 374, 376, 427, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440 cobalt, 406 coconut oil, 145 coffee, 437, 439 coherence, 58 colon, 168 colonization, 343 color, 61, 231, 242, 441 colorimetric test, 23, 80 combustion, 164, 232, 241, 243, 244, 247, 374, 376, 427, 436, 437, 439, 440, 441, 442 commercial, 22, 35, 42, 59, 66, 72, 81, 124, 185, 232, 234, 236, 257, 258, 259, 263, 264, 353, 361, 363, 364, 365, 370, 372, 377, 381, 421, 430, 435, 441 446 community, 166, 168, 325, 366 compaction, 422 competition, 206, 418, 421 complement, 216 complex carbohydrates, 162 complex interactions, 112 complexity, 66, 70, 179, 216, 418 composition, vii, 3, 5, 6, 8, 14, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 41, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 84, 87, 96, 108, 110, 117, 137, 141, 149, 153, 162, 163, 165, 166, 168, 179, 181, 182, 185, 188, 196, 198, 199, 202, 210, 219, 221, 223, 249, 272, 275, 297, 299, 308, 317, 318, 323, 343, 345, 371, 377, 386, 402, 407, 411, 429, 435, 441 compost, vii, 8, 21, 23, 31, 34, 35, 39, 41, 48, 51, 54, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71, 72, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 86, 92, 130, 131, 156, 187, 190, 196, 197, 218, 219, 243, 250, 345, 386, 411, 413, 430, 431, 442 computer, 340 computing, 93 conceptual model, 115, 116, 326, 328, 338 condensation, 318 conduction, 284 conductivity, 157 conference, 198 configuration, 276 confinement, 232 Congress, 198, 380, 426 conjugation, 72, 73, 85 connectivity, 47 consensus, 162, 169 conservation, 140, 354 constant rate, 155 constituents, 5, 25, 35, 140, 157, 158, 164, 180, 222, 234 consumers, 153 consumption, 165, 167, 194, 203, 218, 379, 415, 416, 418 contact time, 119 contaminant, 58, 264, 349, 416 contaminated soil, 323, 389, 426, 438, 441 contamination, 6, 8, 107, 149, 158, 235, 385, 428, 430, 440 contour, 95, 98 controlled exposure, 157 controversial, 47 conversion rate, 208 COOH, 27, 47, 48, 182 cooking, 154 Index cooling, copper, 39, 40, 101, 142, 351, 386, 387, 389, 397, 400, 402, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 425 correlation, 31, 39, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 56, 57, 63, 66, 69, 185, 190, 205, 217, 228, 229, 231, 235, 236, 423, 428 corrosion, 138 cosmetics, 427 cost, 69, 118, 120, 123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 134, 137, 138, 139, 140, 168, 170, 171, 216, 285, 319, 325, 364, 374, 436 Costa Rica, 20 cotton, 196, 218, 401, 405, 412, 432, 435, 442 Council of Ministers, 416, 424 country of origin, 42, 59, 81 covalent bond, 427 covering, 142, 147 creatine, 218 creatinine, 109 crop, 9, 41, 84, 87, 99, 131, 134, 137, 139, 153, 154, 155, 180, 184, 190, 193, 194, 195, 203, 206, 216, 218, 220, 221, 222, 223, 237, 362, 366, 371, 374, 385, 398, 400, 401, 411, 412, 421 crust, 133, 134, 339 crystal growth, 310 crystal structure, 140 crystalline, 47, 50, 52, 359 crystallites, 58 crystals, 302, 322 cultivation, 6, 135, 248 culture, 126, 164, 417 cycles, 124, 129, 210, 214, 224 cycling, 179, 187, 195, 217, 218, 222, 273, 310 cysteine, 161, 180, 190, 193, 194, 196 cystine, 180, 183, 185 cytochrome, 387 Czech Republic, 430 D dairies, 234, 236 danger, 155 data analysis, 305 data set, 84, 93, 95, 98, 204 decay, 88, 110, 112, 113, 276, 305, 338 decomposition, 6, 8, 32, 36, 39, 48, 52, 58, 63, 65, 66, 71, 73, 74, 76, 79, 84, 88, 101, 103, 114, 151, 154, 155, 172, 185, 191, 193, 194, 447 Index 204, 210, 211, 218, 223, 224, 290, 295, 296, 334, 335, 338, 340, 342, 343, 345, 366 deconvolution, 71, 79, 81, 291 decoupling, 45, 286, 288 deduction, 50 Deer, 278, 293 defects, 428 deficiencies, 168, 269, 371 deficiency, 112, 148 deformation, 26, 32 degradation, 8, 36, 39, 48, 50, 79, 108, 150, 169, 170, 273, 282, 283, 284, 285, 288, 291, 294, 297, 298, 341, 416, 417, 418, 423, 424 degradation mechanism, 417 denitrification, 125, 126, 127, 149, 150, 151, 203, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209, 216, 217, 219, 221, 222 denitrifying, 125 Denmark, 220 deoxyribonucleic acid, 277, 304 Department of Agriculture, ix, 211 dephosphorylation, 270 depolymerization, 16 deposition, 107, 281, 338, 339, 350, 440 depth, 65, 135, 191, 202, 228, 268, 305, 327, 356, 357, 358, 400, 436 derivatives, 22, 169, 197 dermatitis, 366 desiccation, 211 desorption, 4, 7, 227, 268, 336, 418, 423, 428, 436, 440, 442 detectable, 187 detection, 3, 4, 19, 91, 156, 157, 161, 181, 183, 302, 303, 305, 388, 392, 395, 396 detergents, 163 detoxification, 255 developing brain, 442 dialysis, 278, 282, 290 diet, 47, 49, 110, 112, 117, 118, 139, 142, 144, 145, 150, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 171, 172, 187, 201, 222, 234, 236, 241, 245, 249, 275, 293, 298, 308, 327, 331, 336, 337, 338, 340, 342, 344, 358, 359, 386, 388, 389, 390, 405, 429, 432 diet composition, 117 dietary fat, 142 diffraction, 320, 359 diffuse reflectance, 41 diffusion, 45, 115 digestibility, 145, 147, 187, 403 digestion, 36, 50, 155, 158, 163, 165, 168, 181, 229, 231, 238, 239, 242, 258, 290, 298, 307, 435, 442 dipole moments, 314 direct measure, 204 discharges, 421 discrimination, 4, 20, 441 diseases, 107, 350, 374, 375, 387 disorder, 441 displacement, 304 dissociation, 109, 115, 121, 138 dissolved oxygen, 126 distilled water, 83, 91 distribution, 5, 8, 14, 48, 52, 53, 54, 78, 80, 87, 95, 96, 98, 180, 182, 187, 188, 190, 191, 193, 195, 196, 222, 227, 240, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 248, 261, 262, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 305, 327, 333, 336, 338, 344, 347, 380, 397, 406, 408, 411, 419, 424, 427, 428, 435, 442 diversity, 166, 179, 228, 315 DNA, 170, 257, 258, 259, 260, 277, 291, 293, 296, 304, 317, 424, 429 DOC, 33, 48, 65, 66, 73, 76, 80, 81, 91, 92 DOI, 24, 413 dominance, 6, 14, 47 double bonds, 62 drainage, 40, 144, 187, 196, 325, 421, 423, 425 drawing, 294 drinking water, 107, 351, 416, 422, 426 drugs, 196, 425 dry matter, 53, 109, 143, 149, 183, 185, 186, 201, 233, 260, 327, 329, 338, 339, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 438 drying, 44, 77, 163, 185, 188, 197, 210, 211, 214, 217, 221, 223, 224, 229, 230, 233, 240, 241, 242, 245, 246, 250, 270, 278, 281, 283, 290, 294, 295, 322, 335, 339, 412 dumping, 405 duodenum, 293, 295 E earthworms, 335, 341 ecology, 424 economic consequences, 442 economics, 134, 139, 169 ecosystem, 100, 107, 171 448 effluent, 125, 126, 127, 129, 145, 154, 278, 289, 292, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 406, 409, 421, 423 egg, 365, 387 electricity, 364, 374 electromagnetic, 61, 302 electron, 4, 61, 72, 73, 102, 157, 161, 171, 207, 276, 277, 302, 303, 305, 311, 386, 387, 417 electronic structure, 86 electrophoresis, 22, 101, 181, 197, 198, 199, 425 elk, 153 e-mail, 25 emission, vii, 79, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 107, 110, 117, 119, 120, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 133, 134, 138, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 155, 158, 162, 169, 171, 197, 206, 207, 208, 218, 223, 276, 302, 305, 322, 344, 350, 375, 378, 437, 439, 440 enantiomers, 197, 199 energy, 4, 90, 112, 117, 118, 139, 141, 149, 154, 158, 161, 162, 163, 164, 170, 187, 206, 217, 276, 277, 301, 302, 303, 305, 310, 311, 421, 436 England, 188, 191, 196, 206, 398, 407, 411, 430, 441 entrapment, 210 environment, 5, 27, 38, 41, 59, 81, 93, 107, 117, 139, 140, 144, 145, 146, 154, 157, 169, 170, 180, 195, 203, 236, 246, 254, 255, 269, 270, 295, 299, 302, 303, 305, 310, 311, 340, 346, 367, 371, 385, 386, 390, 399, 412, 415, 418, 427, 428, 429, 440, 441 environmental conditions, 56, 134, 150, 159, 170, 197, 207, 210, 221, 295, 337 environmental factors, 61, 214, 314, 411 environmental impact, vii, 107, 247, 271, 275, 340, 372, 374, 409 Environmental Protection Agency, 171, 176, 207, 223, 353, 357, 360, 375, 380, 386, 395, 412, 413, 416, 421, 423, 426, 429 environmental quality, 354, 407, 424, 428 environmental regulations, 438 environmental variables, 209, 214 enzyme, 114, 119, 120, 138, 140, 144, 147, 151, 170, 171, 193, 202, 245, 256, 257, 258, 259, 263, 264, 267, 269, 273, 279, 280, 292, 359, 386, 402 equilibrium, 115, 118, 121, 277, 285, 371 equipment, 25, 138, 157, 344 Index erosion, 288, 385, 386 ester, 10, 16, 17, 18, 52, 254, 311 estrogen, 367, 374, 379 ethanol, 159, 165 ethers, 32, 158, 161, 169 ethylene, 361, 412 ethylene glycol, 361 etiology, 424 eukaryotic, 254 Europe, 171, 319, 430 European Union, 430 evaporation, 40, 144, 283, 436 evidence, 49, 140, 163, 203, 208, 334, 359, 416 evolution, 379 EXAFS, 303 excitation, 38, 79, 83, 84, 85, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 100, 101, 102, 103, 197, 277, 302, 305 exclusion, 62, 80, 81, 166, 343 excretion, 109, 110, 116, 117, 118, 119, 137, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 147, 151, 155, 166, 168, 171, 202, 228, 234, 245, 249, 251, 276, 297, 298, 347, 402, 406, 407, 413, 416 exposure, 107, 135, 154, 376, 386, 428, 442 extraction, 3, 40, 44, 54, 91, 157, 181, 182, 183, 193, 205, 209, 228, 229, 234, 235, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241, 246, 248, 250, 251, 262, 263, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 308, 309, 313, 315, 319, 322, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 336, 346, 397, 412, 421, 438 extracts, 7, 8, 22, 23, 28, 29, 32, 39, 42, 45, 51, 53, 58, 59, 63, 64, 66, 67, 68, 69, 80, 91, 93, 103, 117, 123, 124, 181, 185, 186, 187, 197, 198, 229, 236, 239, 241, 242, 243, 245, 246, 250, 251, 253, 258, 260, 262, 263, 265, 268, 270, 271, 273, 279, 281, 283, 284, 287, 288, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 307, 309, 315, 316, 320, 346, 359, 413 F factor analysis, 83, 84, 100, 101, 102 farmers, 237 farms, 9, 14, 50, 72, 134, 187, 202, 206, 216, 218, 234, 237, 247, 315, 363, 398, 408, 430, 431, 435, 441 fatty acids, 16, 21, 36, 48, 123, 147, 158, 159, 161, 170, 204, 220, 223, 375 fauna, 338, 340 FDA, 429 449 Index feed additives, 280, 292, 407, 411, 424, 432 feedstock, 430 feedstuffs, 153, 154, 168, 385, 411, 425 fermentable carbohydrates, 118 fermentation, 117, 139, 143, 154, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 181, 196, 204, 417 ferredoxin, 417 fertility, 6, 39, 51, 198, 275, 398, 409, 413 fertilization, 24, 41, 65, 78, 190, 221, 222, 223, 435, 442 fertilizers, 9, 171, 180, 187, 188, 190, 191, 196, 198, 297, 325, 367, 370, 371, 379, 386, 391, 399, 410, 411, 430, 435, 441 fetal development, 408 fetus, 387, 428 fiber, 117, 163, 205, 209, 388, 430 fiber content, 163 fibers, 201 field trials, 363 filament, 4, 15, 24 filters, 91, 130, 132, 151 filtration, 91, 92, 163, 228, 229, 231, 279, 280, 282, 290, 294, 438 Finland, 22 first generation, 156 fish, 323, 416, 428, 429, 430, 435, 441 fission, 62 flame, 4, 157 flavor, 169 flooding, 352 fluctuations, 265, 284 flue gas, 437, 438 fluid, 5, 366 fluid extract, fluidized bed, 437, 439, 440 fluorescence, vii, 40, 79, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 98, 100, 101, 102, 103, 181, 197, 198, 302, 303, 305, 310, 311, 321, 324, 407 fluorophores, 84, 87, 88, 92, 93, 103, 181 food, 140, 153, 227, 231, 234, 245, 366, 395, 425, 428, 429, 435, 439 food chain, 428, 429, 439 foodborne illness, 374 forage crops, 187, 245 Ford, 141, 187, 196 formation, 19, 22, 23, 33, 114, 115, 116, 159, 161, 162, 169, 172, 190, 198, 207, 208, 210, 244, 256, 309, 339, 350, 364, 374, 386, 387, 400, 428 formula, 417 fragments, 4, 5, 39 France, 48, 144, 191, 222, 409, 439 free energy, 38 free radicals, 440 freezing, 281, 283 freshwater, 351 FTIR, 4, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 59, 320 funding, 354 funds, 100 fungi, 274, 296 G gastrointestinal tract, 108, 109, 168 gel, 279, 280, 282, 290, 294 genetics, 47, 274 Georgia, ix, 360 Germany, 140, 249, 273, 297 germination, 440 global scale, 154 glucose, 163, 387 glutamic acid, 181, 183, 185, 190, 193, 194, 196 glutamine, 179, 180, 181, 183, 195 glycine, 140, 183, 185, 187, 197, 254 graduate students, vii grass, 8, 14, 72, 109, 143, 148, 149, 164, 179, 193, 194, 207, 224, 268, 338, 340, 344, 345 385, 398, 401, 408, 413 grazing, 232, 243, 249, 298, 326, 334, 335, 338, 339, 340, 342, 344, 386, 389, 406, 408, 409, 411 Great Britain, 218 Greece, 48 green alga, 351 greenhouse, 6, 154, 169, 193, 207, 216, 223, 401 groundwater, 33, 221, 346, 385, 419 grouping, 35, 276 growth, 9, 47, 49, 108, 124, 137, 159, 168, 170, 180, 196, 198, 206, 210, 237, 265, 351, 363, 364, 365, 366, 372, 385, 386, 387, 389, 400, 402, 407, 411, 413, 417, 418, 425, 440 growth factor, 411 growth hormone, 180, 400 growth rate, 159, 206 guidelines, 154, 386, 399, 424 450 Index H hair, 442 halogen, 437 harvesting, 158 Hawaii, 218, 409 hazards, 376, 441 health, viii, 156, 168, 350, 367, 376, 377, 386, 390, 405, 406, 408, 409, 411, 426, 428, 430, 432, 438, 442 heavy metals, vii, 24, 39, 56, 57, 351, 367, 374, 407, 409, 413 height, 34, 291 hemicellulose, 163 heptane, 11 herbicide, 100 heterogeneity, 6, 85, 197 heterotrophic microorganisms, 206 highways, 435 histidine, 179, 183, 190, 191, 193, 194 history, 6, 58, 73, 74, 75, 77, 198, 222, 267 hormones, 139, 140, 154, 367, 379 horse manure, 68, 78, 191, 436 horticultural crops, 309 host, ix, 114, 124, 138 hotspots, 207 housing, 119, 131, 142, 149, 151, 153, 390 human, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 161, 216, 270, 366, 386, 399, 401, 409, 416, 425, 428, 429 humidity, 149, 157, 169 humus, 20, 81, 190, 198, 218, 436 hydrocarbons, 169 hydrogen, 121, 123, 141, 151, 311, 372, 374, 429 hydrolysis, vii, 23, 109, 114, 119, 120, 138, 140, 144, 150, 151, 171, 172, 181, 198, 242, 248, 249, 253, 255, 256, 257, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 279, 280, 282, 283, 284, 292, 297, 342 hydrophobicity, 63, 157 hydroquinone, 14 hydroxide, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 233, 261, 268, 308, 387 hydroxyapatite, 304, 308, 322 hydroxyl, 16, 38, 159, 311, 429 hypothesis, 32, 367 I ideal, 108, 170, 282, 283, 337, 339 identification, 4, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 25, 37, 39, 59, 61, 157, 179, 284, 286, 287, 288, 289, 291, 294, 297, 309, 310, 313, 318 ileum, 276 image, 140 immobilization, 125, 140, 203, 204, 205, 208, 209, 210, 216, 217, 220, 223 immune system, 350 imports, 187 improvements, 108, 318, 320, 366 impurities, 34, 39 incidence, 350, 366 incubation period, 205, 257, 263, 265, 266, 361 individual perception, 156 individuals, 442 induction, 276 industrial revolution, 427 industrialized countries, 438 industries, 201, 436 industry, 155, 245, 325, 376, 387, 395, 415 infection, 375 information density, 84 infrared spectroscopy, vii, 25, 26, 27, 39, 41, 58, 204, 205 ingestion, 389, 401 ingredients, 154, 165, 430 inhibition, 170, 172, 263, 310, 365 inhibitor, 120, 129, 144, 147, 171 injections, 135 inositol, 47, 254, 256, 264, 270, 271, 278, 279, 280, 281, 288, 292, 294, 297, 299 insecticide, 254 insects, 153, 343 institutions, 124, 138 integration, 291, 319 intensity values, 90 interface, 116, 221, 320 interference, 229, 242, 256 intestine, 162, 424 intravenously, 406 invertebrates, 326, 334, 411 ionization, 3, 4, 7, 20, 22, 23, 24, 53, 67, 80, 157, 305 ions, 4, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 32, 35, 86, 123, 242, 256, 263, 273, 277, 283, 312, 314, 428 Iowa, 141, 146, 198, 205 IR spectra, 28, 29, 36, 38 iron, 171, 228, 246, 249, 267, 277, 318, 320, 323, 351, 363, 371, 378, 379, 409, 413, 415, 421, 428, 438 451 Index isoleucine, 183, 185, 191 isotope, 191, 198, 209, 276 Israel, 221 issues, 154, 228, 245, 379 Italy, 198, 218, 440 J Japan, 219, 342 K ketones, 32, 158, 161, 169 kidney, 409, 429 kidneys, 108 kinetics, 125, 150, 217, 221 L labeling, 110, 209 laboratory studies, 119, 120, 124, 134, 170, 210, 216, 377 lactation, 118, 139, 144, 149, 234, 338 lactic acid, 121, 159, 163, 164 lakes, 325, 377, 379, 380, 429 landscape, 84, 90, 101, 224, 342, 442 large intestine, 162 leaching, 24, 107, 109, 122, 203, 219, 220, 221, 245, 299, 309, 325, 351, 356, 359, 371, 374, 377, 386, 397, 408, 413, 421 lead, 39, 43, 44, 70, 91, 96, 235, 256, 275, 351, 425, 438, 439 leakage, 133 legume, 267 leucine, 140, 183, 185, 187, 191 lifetime, 88 ligand, 86, 263, 267, 268, 270 light, 9, 25, 67, 88, 101, 133, 182, 269, 302, 305, 442 lignin, 4, 5, 8, 9, 13, 15, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 36, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 63 limestone, 40 lipid peroxidation, 429 lipids, 5, 21, 36, 54, 163, 254, 387 liquid chromatography, 62, 181, 188, 289 liquid phase, 162 liquids, 25, 43, 327 liver, 108, 109, 409, 416 livestock, 22, 23, 24, 50, 114, 117, 119, 121, 122, 123, 127, 130, 131, 133, 135, 137, 138, 139, 142, 145, 146, 149, 150, 153, 154, 155, 158, 169, 170, 171, 187, 218, 219, 221, 248, 249, 273, 297, 309, 343, 344, 376, 386, 387, 389, 390, 392, 395, 402, 405, 406, 407, 408, 411, 412, 416, 424, 430, 432, 433, 435, 439, 441 localization, 273 Louisiana, 3, 15, 21 low temperatures, 145 LSD, 73, 75, 77, 215 luminescence, 100, 103 Luo, 432, 433, 435, 440 lysine, 183, 185 M macromolecules, 86 magnesium, 122, 151, 323 magnet, 276, 284, 285, 302, 314, 317 magnetic resonance, 43, 57 magnetization, 44 magnitude, 156, 179, 181, 349, 367, 423, 432 Maillard reaction, 14 majority, 14, 107, 207, 245, 261, 264, 282, 283, 287, 291, 325, 350, 351, 385, 397 management, vii, 14, 26, 39, 56, 61, 84, 99, 127, 128, 129, 140, 144, 147, 162, 163, 172, 187, 191, 195, 196, 198, 210, 216, 219, 221, 228, 232, 233, 234, 237, 240, 241, 242, 245, 250, 253, 261, 265, 271, 299, 315, 325, 327, 331, 334, 336, 337, 338, 340, 345, 347, 349, 351, 358, 360, 374, 377, 378, 379, 389, 390, 405, 408, 410, 423, 442 manganese, 171, 277, 323, 406, 408, 409, 413, 428 manipulation, 141, 168, 172, 228, 245, 251, 292, 412 marine environment, 101 Maryland, 264, 357, 360, 385, 390, 402, 415, 416, 420, 421 MAS, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 314, 316, 317, 321, 359 mass, vii, 3, 4, 6, 7, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 36, 53, 67, 80, 81, 91, 115, 157, 181, 182, 306, 326, 330, 334, 339, 350, 398, 399, 408, 425, 427 materials, 5, 8, 9, 14, 15, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 32, 36, 38, 42, 43, 44, 49, 50, 54, 57, 59, 62, 63, 66, 69, 79, 81, 87, 123, 125, 131, 132, 139, 452 185, 188, 201, 202, 220, 232, 233, 254, 308, 318, 319, 323, 341, 360, 389, 410, 439 matrix, 5, 9, 15, 19, 26, 79, 83, 84, 89, 93, 94, 98, 100, 101, 102, 163, 197, 282, 287, 302, 317, 318, 327 matter, vii, 3, 5, 6, 8, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 32, 36, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44, 47, 48, 51, 54, 56, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64, 70, 71, 76, 80, 81, 83, 88, 99, 100, 102, 109, 158, 163, 182, 201, 210, 327, 334, 350, 364, 428, 430, 433, 436 measurement, 38, 88, 91, 92, 146, 147, 156, 158, 187, 193, 196, 197, 210, 229, 231, 240, 243, 256, 286, 305, 306, 319, 324, 371, 322, 399 meat, 415 media, 121, 130, 131, 259 median, 202, 387, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395 Mediterranean, 221 membranes, 229 mercury, vi, 390, 427, 428, 429, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442 MES, 236 meta-analysis, 143 metabolism, 62, 108, 109, 140, 142, 144, 145, 147, 151, 180, 220, 270, 386, 400 metabolites, 14, 109, 139, 169, 254, 397 metabolized, 114, 170, 415 metal complexes, 33, 81 metal ion, 33, 85, 102, 311, 428 metal ions, 33, 85, 102, 311, 428 metal oxides, 351 metal salts, 352 metals, vii, ix, 56, 99, 296, 319, 320, 323, 354, 386, 389, 390, 395, 401, 402, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 435, 439 methodology, 84, 228, 242, 250, 251, 278, 291, 293, 294, 296, 346 methylation, 16, 21, 23, 440 mice, 429, 440 microbial cells, 158, 211 microbial communities, 161, 164, 197, 221, 365, 366, 379, 425 microbial community, 131, 139, 162, 164, 166, 168, 180 microclimate, 137 micronutrients, 385, 391, 400, 401, 403, 404, 412 microorganisms, 3, 21, 108, 130, 153, 154, 158, 161, 163, 165, 166, 169, 170, 171, 172, 194, 207, 217, 253, 375, 416 Index mineralization, 36, 110, 114, 179, 181, 193, 195, 198, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 214, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 267, 326, 334, 336, 341, 360, 366, 398 miniature, 157 Missouri, 407 mixing, 53, 127, 137, 155, 389, 402 MLT, 361 models, vii, 70, 76, 87, 93, 95, 100, 146, 236, 325, 326, 330, 333, 334, 340, 341, 343, 437 modifications, 20, 21, 50, 54, 57, 86, 117, 256, 307, 380 moisture, 129, 131, 137, 139, 154, 159, 163, 166, 168, 187, 218, 282, 331, 334, 335, 337, 338, 339, 341, 346, 377 molasses, 149 mole, 32, 114, 208, 263, 357 molecular beam, 6, 23 molecular mass, 182 molecular weight, 4, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 76, 79, 85, 255 molecules, 5, 8, 19, 40, 44, 48, 61, 67, 90, 93, 157, 158, 162, 163, 180, 276, 302 molybdenum, 248, 256, 411 monomers, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 18, 19, 114, 158 mononucleotides, 254, 288 morphology, 322 mortality, 363, 364, 366, 374 MSW, 65, 66 mucosa, 258, 429 multiplication, 286 municipal solid waste, 31, 65, 66, 69, 73, 81, 435 mutant, 298 N NaCl, 396 NAD, 254, 257, 258, 260 narratives, 135 NAS, 349 National Research Council, ix, 146, 147, 386, 389, 410 national strategy, 380 natural selection, 255 negative effects, 19 negativity, 93 nephritis, 429 Netherlands, 48, 146, 150, 406, 409, 411, 430 neural network, 157 neutral, 28, 162, 185 453 Index neutrons, 276 New England, ix, 3, 25, 43, 61, 83, 179, 201, 227, 301, 385, 427 New Zealand, 218, 389, 409 NH2, 32, 182 nickel, 114, 150, 171 nicotinamide, 254 Nigeria, 435, 438 NIR, 218 nitrification, 107, 125, 126, 127, 150, 151, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 211, 216, 218, 222, 368, 376 nitrite, 125, 126, 221 nitrogen, vii, ix, 74, 78, 102, 107, 110, 115, 121, 123, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 154, 155, 159, 161, 164, 165, 168, 171, 172, 179, 182, 184, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 211, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 246, 250, 275, 314, 340, 341, 347, 350, 375, 376, 400, 406 nitrous oxide, 145, 207, 217, 218, 221, 222 non-polar, nuclear magnetic resonance, vii, 3, 40, 41, 43, 56, 58, 242, 246, 248, 249, 272, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 306, 320, 321, 322, 344, 359 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, 296 nuclei, 43, 276, 277, 284, 285, 291, 314 nucleic acid, 66, 114, 237, 254 nucleus, 276, 277, 302, 314 nuisance, 143 nutrient, 52, 84, 147, 148, 154, 163, 181, 187, 201, 203, 209, 210, 216, 218, 219, 227, 228, 246, 250, 254, 265, 269, 341, 346, 347, 350, 351, 360, 362, 372, 376, 379, 380, 381, 408, 411, 414, 430, 442 nutrients, vii, 6, 56, 71, 99, 140, 153, 154, 165, 169, 187, 221, 270, 275, 325, 338, 346, 350, 385, 406, 407, 409, 412, 413, 415, 442 nutrition, 140, 141, 144, 148, 149, 154, 165, 180, 195, 199, 234, 262, 270, 297, 400, 410, 411 O obstacles, 158 occupational health, 376 offensiveness, 147, 156, 157, 158 OH, 26, 34, 47, 114, 182, 280, 308, 310, 312, 351, 359, 363, 413 oil, 9, 42, 63, 81, 100, 133, 145, 170, 321 Oklahoma, 264, 351, 379, 399, 401, 411, 413 oleic acid, 15, 16 operations, 117, 121, 130, 131, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 146, 153, 165, 297, 349, 378, 380, 385, 387, 389, 410, 436 opportunities, 20, 217, 322 optical density, 215, 418 orbit, 302 organ, 272 organic chemicals, 102 organic compounds, 4, 5, 26, 56, 61, 70, 71, 73, 155, 161, 202, 240, 255, 310 organic polymers, 19 organic soils, 325 organic solvents, 157 organism, 171 ornithine, 183, 193 overlap, viii, 291 ox, 16, 169, 253 oxalate, 268 oxidation, 24, 206, 288, 302, 417, 437, 438 oxidative stress, 429, 439 oxygen, 25, 157, 159, 161, 205, 351, 429 P Pacific, 141 pairing, 327 palladium, 144 PAN, 204 parallel, 83, 84, 100, 102, 276 parasites, 415 pasture, 72, 121, 134, 135, 136, 138, 163, 164, 179, 189, 190, 193, 197, 206, 266, 272, 293, 309, 317, 318, 321, 326, 338, 340, 341, 345, 347, 350, 351, 354, 375, 379, 386, 389, 398, 401, 409 pathogens, 6, 48, 154, 169, 366 pathways, 107, 160, 170, 190, 206, 342, 386 PCA, 306 PCR, 365 peat, 22, 23, 40, 41, 45, 46, 123, 124, 130, 132, 133, 134, 138, 323, 406 peer review, viii pepsin, 205, 209 peptides, 45, 52, 108, 199, 202 percolation, 50 permeability, 170 permission, iv, 192, 418 permit, personal history, 156 454 pesticide, 254 phenol, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 27, 159 phenolic compounds, 62, 169 phenylalanine, 160, 183, 185, 187, 194 Philadelphia, 426 phosphates, 31, 32, 39, 40, 48, 79, 101, 122, 123, 145, 229, 242, 248, 250, 254, 255, 256, 258, 260, 262, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 278, 279, 280, 288, 289, 292, 294, 297, 299, 304, 306, 307, 308, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 317, 321, 323, 340, 342, 352, 359, 371, 435 phosphatidylcholine, 270 phosphocreatine, 255 phospholipids, 254, 277, 279, 281, 283, 285, 288, 291 phosphorus, vii, ix, 24, 40, 57, 79, 80, 101, 122, 141, 144, 154, 196, 197, 198, 219, 222, 223, 228, 240, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 258, 266, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 296, 297, 298, 299, 307, 311, 316, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 349, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 408, 409, 413, 420, 422, 424, 425 phosphorylation, 421 photobleaching, 79 photons, 302 photosynthesis, 400, 425, 429 physical characteristics, 409 physical properties, 206, 214 physico-chemical parameters, 78 Physiological, 387 pigs, 47, 49, 58, 108, 114, 117, 119, 121, 128, 129, 138, 141, 142, 144, 147, 373, 393, 395, 402, 406, 407, 409, 430 plant growth, 180, 195, 265, 267, 400, 429 plants, 21, 22, 52, 79, 87, 137, 169, 179, 188, 193, 194, 196, 207, 219, 224, 227, 249, 253, 273, 288, 367, 371, 372, 386, 390, 392, 399, 401, 402, 411, 416, 425, 429, 437, 441 playing, 165 PM, 193, 194, 195, 265 polar, 5, 16, 66, 73, 180, 182 polarity, 21, 62, 67, 76 polarization, 44, 45, 52, 56, 315, 318 pollutants, 399 pollution, 33, 109, 144, 146, 221, 228, 340, 351, 367, 375, 386, 405, 407, 412, 438, 439, 440, 441 polycarbonate, 91 polycondensation, 85 Index polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, 63 polymer, 126, 134, 150, 151, 216, 402 polymers, 23, 114, 158, 215, 232, 373, 405 polypeptides, 66, 96 polyphosphates, 254, 255, 284, 310 polysaccharide, 31, 32, 34, 35, 39, 48, 141 polystyrene, 134 polyunsaturated fat, 23 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 23 polyvinyl alcohol, 126 ponds, 40, 80, 140, 202, 325 pools, 74, 217, 263, 267, 268, 273, 282, 289, 292, 293, 322, 326, 328 population, 130, 159, 170, 211, 216, 249, 322 position effect, 224 positive correlation, 39, 49, 207 positive relationship, 333 potassium, 121 potato, 222, 223, 259, 260 power plants, 438 precipitation, 150, 211, 256, 282, 284, 297, 310, 322, 324, 351, 418 preparation, 4, 19, 38, 44, 154, 181, 259, 263, 264, 277, 281, 284, 294 preservative, 169 principles, 22, 107, 116, 227, 302 probability, 184, 191 probe, 38, 99, 284 probiotics, 117, 142 process control, 50 producers, 69, 112, 124, 138, 154, 246, 325, 389, 405 profitability, 246 project, 100, 214 proliferation, 206 proline, 16, 183, 185, 190 promoter, 387, 390 propane, 364, 365, 374 protection, 207, 210, 246, 379 protein synthesis, 109, 137 proteins, 5, 8, 14, 27, 36, 95, 96, 108, 114, 163, 166, 172, 180, 182, 187, 195, 196, 202, 254, 255, 387, 429 proteome, 417, 424 protons, 276 pulp, 429 purification, 101, 273 PVC, 133, 134, 365 455 Index pyrolysis, vii, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 36, 41, 53, 54, 57, 59, 63, 67, 80, 438 pyrophosphate, 31, 34, 40, 257, 258, 263, 269, 277, 287, 291, 293, 296, 304, 308, 317 Q quantification, 146, 157, 179, 198, 249, 270, 272, 278, 290, 292, 295, 317, 380 quartz, 421 quasiparticles, 93 quaternary ammonium, 211 quinone, 56 R radiation, 61, 169, 301, 302, 323 radicals, 429 radio, 276, 277, 285, 302 rainfall, 154, 206, 208, 210, 233, 250, 295, 309, 330, 333, 337, 341, 343, 345, 346, 352, 367, 372, 376 rape, 140, 248 RDP, 109, 110, 117, 137 reaction rate, 125 reactions, 5, 14, 19, 56, 96, 99, 102, 165, 196, 254, 255, 336, 352, 371, 437, 440 reactive oxygen, 429 reactivity, 34, 78, 406, 424 reagents, 19, 181, 229, 282, 284 reality, 120 recognition, 156, 179 recovery, 110, 125, 281, 283, 291, 296, 309, 442 recreation, 325 rectum, 293, 295 recycling, 108, 109, 142, 145, 147, 151, 201, 210, 216 redistribution, 397 regional integration, 100 regression, 69, 70, 110, 111, 112, 113, 191, 234, 237, 330 regression equation, 330 regression model, 110, 111, 112, 113 regulations, 153, 399, 430 relaxation, 45, 277, 283, 296, 298, 302, 318, 319 relaxation rate, 318 relaxation times, 283, 296, 298, 319 relevance, 149 remediation, 412 remote sensing, 78 renewable energy, 436 replication, 285, 295, 319 reproduction, 367, 405 reproductive organs, 429 requirements, 108, 109, 118, 146, 147, 163, 169, 203, 259, 275, 281, 286, 344, 350, 364, 374, 386, 405, 410 researchers, 16, 54, 68, 71, 72, 90, 91, 92, 119, 124, 204, 205, 208, 209, 238, 240, 259, 286, 288, 308, 311, 319, 354, 386, 389, 405 residuals, 232, 233, 250 residues, 8, 23, 24, 32, 52, 63, 84, 184, 217, 218, 221, 237, 239, 242, 246, 255, 278, 280, 292, 308, 309, 313, 315, 343, 409, 413 resins, 227 resistance, 116, 129, 149, 211, 269, 375 resolution, 4, 43, 78, 93, 181, 282, 283, 284, 285, 297, 318, 321, 323 respiration, 224 response, 87, 154, 156, 158, 172, 183, 196, 198, 204, 211, 220, 264, 271, 274, 442 retardation, 66, 429 rings, 52, 53, 159 risk, 155, 228, 234, 235, 243, 250, 283, 285, 309, 350, 351, 360, 367, 379, 386, 399, 411, 413, 428, 430, 435 risk assessment, 250, 360, 379, 386, 411, 413 risks, 269, 406 RNA, 257, 258, 260, 288, 291 rodents, 429 room temperature, 91, 258 root, 66, 137, 193, 194, 224, 273, 334, 429 roughness, 136 routines, 93, 287, 291, 305, 326, 338 runoff, vii, 122, 154, 187, 190, 196, 228, 229, 231, 234, 235, 243, 245, 247, 248, 249, 250, 274, 288, 289, 298, 325, 326, 327, 329, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 359, 360, 366, 367, 370, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 386, 401, 408, 410, 422, 423, 425, 442 S safety, 138, 407, 438 salinity, salivary gland, 47 456 salmon, 258 salts, 118, 122, 123, 138, 151, 281, 285, 311, 351, 402 saturation, 56, 156, 377 sawdust, 9, 34, 41, 47, 68, 69, 79, 86, 101, 131, 147, 436 scale system, 126, 131 scaling, 156 scanning electron microscopy, 301 scatter, 38, 90, 93 science, 146, 156, 250, 322 scope, 43, 154, 156, 276 seafood, 428 sediments, 5, 22, 102, 188, 250, 270, 274, 310, 321, 439, 440, 442 seed, 254, 310, 400, 440 seedlings, 198, 248, 386, 439 segregation, 119, 138 selenium, 408, 439 self-similarity, 98 sensitivity, 38, 43, 44, 67, 83, 181, 242, 318, 441 sensors, 157 sequencing, 126 serine, 181, 183, 185 sewage, 68, 69, 80, 87, 102, 321, 322, 347, 407, 408, 409, 411, 413, 429, 430, 439 shade, 338 shape, 71, 81 sheep, 8, 40, 68, 109, 110, 114, 137, 138, 140, 205, 210, 223, 237, 240, 241, 243, 244, 249, 281, 293, 294, 296, 298, 299, 317, 323, 337, 339, 341, 344, 345, 386, 389, 402, 408, 409, 411, 436 short supply, 208 showing, 46, 53, 56, 73, 74, 86, 188, 205, 257, 268, 279, 293, 316, 330, 356, 366, 398, 419, 430 shrubland, 204 side chain, 53, 161, 180, 182, 191 side effects, 351 signals, 20, 38, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 56, 58, 71, 198, 276 signal-to-noise ratio, 38, 306 simulation, 70, 76, 236, 325, 326, 336, 338, 352, 367, 372 simulations, 344, 367 SiO2, 31, 39 skin, 366, 416 Index sludge, 33, 35, 40, 68, 69, 78, 80, 87, 102, 116, 126, 149, 150, 188, 202, 221, 321, 322, 347, 393, 407, 408, 409, 411, 413, 429, 430, 439 smoking, 156 SMS, 66 society, 427 sodium, 34, 121, 180, 191, 233, 234, 235, 256, 260, 261, 262, 277, 279, 282, 290, 304, 308, 313, 314, 363, 365 sodium hydroxide, 261, 277, 308 software, 276, 286, 287, 291 soil particles, 271 soil type, 193, 215, 219, 228, 248, 327, 415 solid phase, 157, 227, 327, 359 solid state, vii, 4, 8, 14, 22, 43, 44, 45, 47, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 197, 264, 272, 297, 301, 311, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 359 solid waste, 31 solubility, vii, 163, 187, 227, 233, 234, 235, 243, 246, 247, 248, 249, 251, 262, 273, 274, 280, 282, 291, 298, 301, 308, 315, 329, 332, 336, 346, 351, 352, 359, 360, 372, 373, 376, 378, 379, 397, 401, 408, 421, 424 solution, 14, 22, 43, 44, 53, 67, 71, 72, 73, 81, 91, 92, 140, 147, 150, 163, 171, 197, 227, 229, 234, 235, 236, 242, 250, 256, 263, 264, 268, 272, 273, 275, 277, 279, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, 288, 290, 291, 293, 294, 297, 299, 301, 309, 314, 315, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 323, 371, 389, 408, 425 solvent molecules, 90 sorption, 6, 51, 58, 66, 79, 80, 96, 100, 101, 103, 157, 310, 323, 359, 421, 423, 428 sorption method, 157 soy bean, 166 Spain, 62, 79, 180, 196, 430, 431, 432 special education, 441 speciation, vii, 246, 249, 250, 251, 275, 292, 296, 297, 298, 299, 303, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 314, 316, 317, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 342, 344, 346, 376, 379, 397, 406, 408, 412, 424, 425, 428, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442 species, 50, 116, 125, 130, 138, 139, 153, 155, 163, 166, 179, 197, 199, 201, 207, 216, 218, 220, 231, 232, 233, 234, 237, 240, 241, 242, 246, 262, 263, 264, 272, 279, 287, 291, 292, 293, 295, 301, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 315, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 324, 457 Index 331, 336, 337, 338, 340, 379, 397, 408, 416, 417, 418, 423, 426, 429 spectral component, 84 spectrophotometry, 41, 59, 80 spectroscopic techniques, 14, 32, 40, 51, 57, 79, 315, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322 spectroscopy, vii, 3, 4, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 50, 56, 57, 58, 61, 63, 67, 76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 85, 87, 88, 91, 92, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 197, 209, 229, 242, 249, 272, 273, 276, 280, 293, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 307, 308, 310, 311, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 323, 324, 344, 345, 359, 379 speed of light, 302 spin, 45, 46, 58, 102, 276, 277, 298, 318, 321 stability, 35, 39, 48, 202, 203, 220, 223 stabilization, 48, 49, 50, 57, 65, 80, 193 standard deviation, 37, 186, 235, 264, 266, 431, 432, 434 standard error, 319 standardization, 245, 296 starch, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 169, 172, 400 state, 27, 40, 41, 43, 44, 45, 48, 56, 57, 58, 59, 126, 144, 191, 196, 216, 245, 276, 277, 279, 290, 298, 301, 302, 305, 306, 312, 313, 314, 315, 317, 318, 320, 321, 322, 323, 344, 351, 376, 379, 437 states, 25, 43, 101, 192, 228, 237, 264, 302, 320, 354, 360 sterols, 7, 8, 9, 14, 21, 22, 53 stimulus, 156 storage, 110, 118, 121, 123, 129, 132, 134, 139, 140, 141, 142, 145, 148, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 158, 162, 163, 167, 169, 171, 187, 201, 202, 203, 208, 216, 223, 227, 231, 232, 249, 254, 260, 262, 269, 275, 280, 281, 292, 295, 296, 298, 322, 331, 344, 350, 378, 402, 421, 423 storms, 326, 333, 334, 335, 340 stratification, 202 streptococci, 367 stress, 54, 197, 377, 412, 439 stretching, 25, 26, 27, 31, 32, 35 structural characteristics, 86 structure, 3, 5, 6, 8, 23, 25, 37, 58, 86, 87, 88, 99, 153, 155, 159, 210, 219, 223, 242, 246, 296, 301, 303, 304, 307, 320, 321, 324, 359 styrene, 14 substrate, 66, 155, 158, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 196, 204, 205, 206, 207, 215, 216, 217, 257, 258, 259, 262, 264, 269, 273 subtraction, 90, 93 sulfate, 121, 142, 161, 171, 233, 241, 250, 256, 344, 349, 352, 353, 361, 363, 372, 376, 378, 379, 380, 381, 387, 389, 402, 405, 410, 412, 425 sulfur, 6, 150, 154, 161, 321, 427, 428 sulfuric acid, 121, 144 Sun, 80, 131, 149, 196 supplementation, 142, 145, 146, 147, 168, 234, 245, 246, 249, 308, 344, 377, 405 suppression, 52 surface area, 122, 123, 127, 130, 169, 335 surface tension, 38 surplus, 114, 191 suspensions, 91, 235 sustainability, vii, 246, 371, 428 Sweden, 385, 395, 406, 412 Switzerland, 398, 410 symbiosis, 147 synergistic effect, 373 synthesis, 108, 109, 137, 161, 170, 191, 429 T tanks, 143 tannins, 117 target, 5, 156, 157, 306 techniques, 3, 19, 21, 23, 25, 38, 41, 44, 45, 47, 48, 56, 58, 84, 102, 107, 139, 146, 156, 163, 208, 209, 216, 218, 294, 301, 302, 314, 315, 319, 320, 322, 425 technologies, 130, 132, 146 technology, 126, 157 teeth, 387 temperature, 4, 15, 109, 114, 115, 116, 118, 121, 138, 149, 157, 162, 166, 169, 207, 209, 210, 211, 214, 216, 218, 219, 224, 233, 241, 285, 292, 294, 297, 323, 331, 334, 335, 337, 338, 339, 341, 412, 442 terpenes, 169 terrestrial ecosystems, 217, 219, 411 testing, 235, 285, 293, 294, 299 textbooks, 276 texture, 203, 210, 214, 218, 219, 223 thermal analysis, 39 thermogravimetric analysis, 49, 57 458 thoughts, 116 threats, 350, 367 threonine, 181, 183, 185 thyroid, 387 time periods, 209, 371 tissue, 108, 412, 425, 429 tobacco, 439 toluene, 14 toxic metals, 427 toxicity, 56, 164, 166, 363, 371, 376, 381, 386, 392, 397, 409, 412, 418, 425, 428, 429, 439, 441, 442 toxin, 108 trace elements, vii, 385, 386, 389, 390, 392, 395, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 405, 406, 408, 412, 432, 442 training, 162 transformation, 21, 49, 70, 87, 100, 123, 139, 159, 188, 190, 201, 206, 207, 209, 210, 216, 219, 264, 306, 310, 336, 337, 339, 340, 346, 416, 418, 425 transformation processes, 201, 206, 209, 210, 216 transformation product, 425 transformations, vii, 35, 40, 140, 150, 154, 203, 207, 209, 214, 219, 221, 251, 266, 271, 326, 333, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340, 347, 359, 381, 416 translation, 336 translocation, 251 transmission, 303, 305, 306 transpiration, 429 transport, viii, 6, 86, 99, 116, 153, 206, 228, 327, 342, 345, 356, 360, 379, 386, 407, 416, 421, 423, 425, 426, 439 transportation, 208, 398 treatment, 16, 19, 20, 39, 40, 75, 84, 121, 122, 125, 126, 131, 132, 139, 147, 148, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, 163, 167, 169, 188, 190, 191, 203, 208, 211, 220, 233, 234, 249, 257, 268, 279, 282, 295, 318, 319, 323, 341, 351, 359, 360, 361, 364, 367, 368, 369, 371, 372, 374, 375, 376, 377, 397, 400, 401, 409, 416 trial, 180, 184, 197, 198, 357, 365 tryptophan, 14, 63, 88, 160, 180, 181, 187, 188, 190, 195, 196, 197 turbulence, 116, 130, 169 turgor, 170 Turkey, 278, 280, 307, 431 turnover, 203, 209, 210, 216 Index tyrosine, 63, 88, 95, 160, 183, 185, 193, 194 Tyrosine, 182 U uniform, 35, 207, 284, 306 United, ix, 171, 201, 211, 250, 319, 349, 364, 375, 385, 390, 395, 398, 425, 429 United Kingdom (UK), 219, 385 United States (USA), ix, 3, 9, 21, 25, 43, 59, 61, 72, 80, 81, 83, 107, 145, 148, 149, 150, 171, 179, 187, 190, 193, 201, 211, 217, 227, 250, 267, 273, 301, 315, 319, 325, 335, 349, 364, 385, 390, 395, 398, 406, 407, 408, 415, 424, 425, 429, 430, 431, 432, 439, 440 urban, 21, 321 urea, 108, 109, 111, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 138, 140, 141, 142, 144, 150, 161, 171, 172, 202, 204, 209, 223, 332 uric acid, 109, 202, 203, 204, 205, 218 urine, 109, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119, 120, 137, 138, 140, 141, 146, 150, 153, 155, 161, 171, 201, 202, 210, 220, 223, 338, 390, 405 USDA, 100, 193, 201, 211, 214, 223, 325, 345, 349, 354, 360, 375, 380, 415 UV, 32, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 91, 181, 209 V vacuum, 4, 91, 305, 308 validation, 220, 320 valine, 183, 185, 191, 193 vapor, 162 variables, 87, 109, 214, 216, 218, 334 variations, 15, 61, 70, 155, 157, 159, 228, 238, 240, 318, 330, 332, 390 varieties, 159, 429, 440 vector, 71 vegetable oil, 117, 133 vegetables, 398, 408, 429, 438, 441 vegetation, 6, 107, 191, 196 velocity, 110, 116, 169 ventilation, 129, 131, 363, 364, 374 vibration, 26, 31, 37 viscosity, 63, 283 vision, 428 visualization, 95 vitamin D, 280, 292 459 Index volatile organic compounds, 4, 154, 162 volatilization, 23, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 129, 134, 135, 137, 138, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 169, 203, 208, 209, 216, 314, 352, 361, 363, 373, 375, 377, 378 vulnerability, 228 W Wales, 398, 407, 411, 430, 441 warts, 387 Washington, 22, 107, 146, 147, 323, 380, 407, 410, 413, 424, 425 waste, 6, 20, 21, 22, 24, 31, 67, 69, 71, 81, 118, 120, 126, 131, 144, 146, 147, 150, 153, 169, 170, 171, 188, 196, 219, 275, 288, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 342, 344, 376, 389, 390, 395, 396, 402, 405, 408, 410, 412, 413, 416, 421, 423, 424, 427, 430, 435, 439, 441 waste disposal, 6, 376 waste incineration, 427 waste management, 390, 412 waste treatment, 423 waste water, 71, 81 wastewater, 71, 80, 84, 103, 125, 126, 143, 148, 150, 163, 188, 263, 270, 322 water quality, 107, 245, 249, 325, 326, 330, 347, 350, 351, 356, 374, 398, 402, 416, 421, 426 water supplies, 351 watershed, 345, 353, 379, 442 waterways, 350 wavelengths, 61, 63, 65, 67, 70, 72, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 209, 302 weather patterns, 206 weight gain, 350, 364, 387, 415 welfare, 432 West Africa, 341 wetlands, 6, 21 wettability, 38, 40 wetting, 210, 211, 214, 224, 335 wheat germ, 253, 257, 258, 259, 260 wind speeds, 137, 148 Wisconsin, 247, 346, 407, 411 wood, 7, 8, 32, 35, 48, 66, 130, 131, 134, 231, 437, 439 wood waste, 49 workers, 19, 138, 155, 205, 350, 356, 376 workflow, 84 World Health Organization, 416, 426 worldwide, 405 X X-ray diffraction (XRD), 301 XRD, 309, 315, 317, 321, 342 Y yield, 19, 20, 59, 74, 81, 87, 109, 110, 112, 118, 137, 142, 143, 154, 181, 196, 209, 303, 305, 311, 340, 352, 371, 372, 386, 398, 399, 400 Z zeolites, 146 zinc, 39, 40, 101, 351, 405, 406, 408, 409, 411, 412, 413, 425 ... environmental chemistry of animal manure has not developed accordingly Accurate and insightful knowledge of the environmental chemistry of animal manure is needed to effectively utilize animal manure while... acids of cow manure Humic acids of cow manure Water extracts of four manures and composts Sheep manure Cow manure Water extracts of dairy manure Pig slurry colloidal fractions Organic Extracts of. .. 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