Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.BRIEF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy CHAPTER 2 Earth’s Soil and Agriculture: Feeding the Earth’s People CHAPTER 3 The Earth’
Trang 2PRINCIPLES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMISTRY
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Girard, James.
Principles of environmental chemistry / James Girard.—3rd ed.
p cm.
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1 Environmental chemistry I Title.
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Trang 7Printed in the United States of America
17 16 15 14 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Trang 8Dedicated to my wife, Connie Diamant, the real environmentalist in our home.
Trang 9Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.
BRIEF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy
CHAPTER 2 Earth’s Soil and Agriculture: Feeding the Earth’s People
CHAPTER 3 The Earth’s Atmosphere
CHAPTER 4 Global Warming and Climate Change
CHAPTER 5 Chemistry of the Troposphere
CHAPTER 6 Chemistry of the Stratosphere
CHAPTER 7 Analysis of Air and Air Pollutants
CHAPTER 8 Water Resources
CHAPTER 9 Water Pollution and Water Treatment
CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Water and Wastewater
CHAPTER 11 Fossil Fuels: Our Major Source of Energy
CHAPTER 12 Nuclear Power
CHAPTER 13 Energy Sources for the Future
CHAPTER 14 Inorganic Metals in the Environment
CHAPTER 15 Organic Chemicals in the Environment
CHAPTER 16 Sustainability and Green Chemistry
CHAPTER 17 Insecticides, Herbicides, and Insect Control
CHAPTER 18 Toxicology
CHAPTER 19 Asbestos
CHAPTER 20 The Disposal of Dangerous Wastes
APPENDIX A Solubility Products, Ksp
APPENDIX B Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution at 25°C APPENDIX C Standard Redox Potentials in Aqueous Solutions
APPENDIX D Carbon Compounds: An Introduction to Organic Chemistry
APPENDIX E Answers to Even-Numbered Questions
GLOSSARY
INDEX
Trang 10Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER 1 Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy
The Formation of the Universe
Galaxies and Stars
The Planets in Our Solar System
The Sun
Differentiation of the Earth into Layers
Heating of the Earth
The Core
The Mantle
The Crust
Plate Tectonics
Relative Abundance of the Elements in the Earth
Formation of the Oceans
Formation of the Atmosphere
Rocks and Minerals
The Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks as Natural Resources
Ores and Metals
The Origin of Life on Earth
The Uniqueness of the Earth
The Environment
Ecosystems
Producers and Consumers
The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems
What Is Energy?
Energy Transformations
Food Chains and Trophic Levels
Trang 11Energy and Biomass
Concentration Units
Molarity and Molar Solutions
Parts per Million
Parts per Billion
Nutrient Cycles
The Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Oxygen Cycle
The Phosphorus Cycle
Nature’s Cycles in Balance
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 2 Earth’s Soil and Agriculture: Feeding the Earth’s People
The Inorganic Component
Humus: The Organic Component
New Varieties of Crop Plants
Can We Feed Tomorrow’s World?
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 3 The Earth’s Atmosphere
The Major Layers in the Atmosphere
Temperature Changes in the Atmosphere
Pressure and Density Changes in the Atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere
Units Used to Describe Atmospheric Chemistry
Parts per Million, Parts per Billion, and Parts per Trillion
Molecules per Cubic Centimeter
Micrograms per Cubic Meter
Energy Balance
Trang 12Electromagnetic Radiation
The Earth’s Heat Balance
Particles in the Atmosphere
Suspended Particulate Matter
Aerosol Particles
Anthropogenic Sources of Particulate Matter
Residence Times of Particles
Control of Particulate Emissions
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 4 Global Warming and Climate Change
Global Temperature from the Ice Ages to Present Time
The Increase in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
Infrared Absorption and Molecular Vibrations
Residence Time of Atmospheric Gases
Atmospheric Water Vapor
Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
Atmospheric Methane
Atmospheric Nitrous Oxide
Atmospheric Chlorofluorocarbons
Radioactive Forcing
Radiative Forcing Caused by Human Activity
Radiative Forcing Caused by Nature
Evidence for Global Warming
Effects of Global Warming
Slowing Global Warming
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 5 Chemistry of the Troposphere
Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere
Effects of NOx on Human Health and the Environment
Volatile Organic Compounds
Automobile Four-Cycle Internal Combustion Engine
Gasoline Powered Two-Cycle Engines
Automobile Pollutants and the Catalytic Converter
Diesel Trucks
Sulfur Dioxide
Sources of SO2
Fate of Atmospheric SO2: Acid Rain
Effects of SO2 on Human Health and the Environment
Methods for Controlling Emissions of SO2
Legislation to Control Emissions of SO2
Industrial Smog
Photochemical Smog
Trang 13Production of Hydroxyl Radicals
Reactions of Hydroxyl Radicals with Hydrocarbons
Abstraction of Hydrogen
Addition to Double Bonds
Secondary Smog-Forming Reactions
Ozone: A Pollutant in the Troposphere
Temperature Inversions and Smog
Regulating Air Pollution
Indoor Air Pollution
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 6 Chemistry of the Stratosphere
Dobson Unit
The Production of Ozone in the Stratosphere
Determining the Steady-State Concentration of Ozone
Catalytic Destruction of Ozone
Hydroxyl Radical Cycle
Nitric Oxide Cycle
Chlorine Cycle
Null Cycles
Depletion of the Protective Ozone Layer in the Stratosphere
Effects of Ozone Depletion on Human Health and the Environment Ozone Loss over the Arctic and the Middle to High Latitudes
The Montreal Protocol
Alternatives to Chlorofluorocarbons
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 7 Analysis of Air and Air Pollutants
In Situ Absorption Measurements
In Situ Ozone Measurements
In Situ Carbon Dioxide Measurements
Infrared Spectrometry
Infrared Vibrational Frequencies
Remote Measurements of Atmospheric Composition
Atmospheric Trace Molecular Spectroscopy
Limb Infrared Monitor of the Stratosphere
Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer
Light Detection and Ranging
Monitoring Automotive Emissions
Automobile Emissions: Hydrocarbons
Automobile Emissions: Nitrogen Oxides
Automobile Emissions: Carbon Monoxide
Trang 14Monitoring Particulate Emissions
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 8 Water Resources
Distribution of Water on the Earth
The Composition of Natural Waters
The Hydrologic Cycle: Recycling and Purification
The Unique Properties of Water
The Water Molecule and Hydrogen Bonding
Boiling Point and Melting Point
The Effects of Acid Rain
The Causes of Acid Rain
Acid Mine Drainage
Water Use and Water Shortages
Water Management and Conservation
The Limits of Water Consumption
Water Consumption and Economic Growth
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 9 Water Pollution and Water Treatment
Types of Water Pollutants
Point and Nonpoint Sources of Water Pollutants
Trang 15Mixed Fertilizers
The Use of Synthetic Inorganic Fertilizers
Plant Nutrients and Eutrophication
Control of Eutrophication
Anaerobic Decomposition of Organic Material
Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Aqueous Systems
Electron Activity and pE
Regulation of Water Quality
Rivers and Lakes
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Water and Wastewater
Sampling Methods
Types of Water Pollutants
Disease-Causing Agents
Microbiological Tests for Coliform
Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique
Membrane Filtration Technique
Ortho-nitrophenyl-β-D-galactopyranoside Test
Oxygen-Consuming Wastes
Dissolved Oxygen
Total Organic Carbon
Biological Oxygen Demand
Colorimetric Methods
UV-Visible Spectrometer
Plant Nutrients
Spectrophotometric Determination of Phosphorus
Spectrophotometric Determination of Nitrogen
Measuring Acidity of Natural Waters
Measuring Alkalinity of Natural Waters
Comparing Acidity, Alkalinity, and Hardness
Ion Chromatography
Trang 16Ion Exchange
Ion Chromatography Instrument
Separation and Detection of Anions by Ion Chromatography
Radioactive Substances
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 11 Fossil Fuels: Our Major Source of Energy
Energy Use: A Historical Overview
Current Use of Energy
Energy and Power
Energy from Fuels
Petroleum
The Formation of Oil Fields
Deep-Sea Oil Platforms
Jack-up Rigs
Tension Leg Platforms
Spar Platforms
Semi-submersible Platforms
Future Deep-Sea Drilling
The Composition of Petroleum
Induced Hydraulic Fracturing
Environmental Problems Caused by Fracking
Can Fracking Cause Earthquakes?
Safe Drinking Water Act Exemption
Coal
The Formation of Coal Deposits
The Composition of Coal
Problems with Coal
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 12 Nuclear Power
The Nature of Natural Radioactivity
Penetrating Power and Speed of the Types of Radiation
Nuclear Stability
Nuclear Reactions
Radioactive Decay Series
The Half-Life of Radioisotopes
The Harmful Effects of Radiation on Humans
Trang 17Why Is Radiation Harmful?
Factors Influencing Radiation Damage
Detection of Radiation
Units of Radiation
How Much Radiation Is Harmful?
Everyday Exposure to Radiation
Natural Sources of Radiation
Radiation from Human Activities
The Atomic Bomb
Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Fission
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear Fission Reactors
The Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Problems with Nuclear Energy
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
Thorium Reactor: Thorium Fuel Cycle
Liquid Fluoride Thorium Reactor
Thorium Reactor Waste
Nuclear Breeder Reactors
Nuclear Fusion
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 13 Energy Sources for the Future
Energy-Efficient Lighting
Solar Energy
Solar Heating for Homes and Other Buildings
Electricity from Solar Thermal Power Collectors
Electricity from Photovoltaic Cells
Energy from Biomass
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
Direct Methanol Fuel Cell
Alkaline Fuel Cell
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
Trang 18Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
Regenerative (Reversible) Fuel Cell
Clean Cars for the Future
Energy Sources for the Twenty-First Century
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 14 Inorganic Metals in the Environment
Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals
AA Hydride Method for Arsenic
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 15 Organic Chemicals in the Environment
Polychlorinated Hydrocarbons
DDT
Dioxin
PCBs
Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic Pollutants
Octanol/Water Partition Coefficient
Sorption on Soils
Carbon-Normalized Sorption Coefficient
Experimentally Measuring Absorption
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
Analysis of Dioxins and Furans by Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
References
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 16 Sustainability and Green Chemistry
Sustainable Consumption and Production
Trang 19Five Axioms of Sustainability
Axiom 1 Any Society that Continues to Use Critical Resources Unsustainably Will Collapse
Axiom 2 Population Growth and/or Growth in the Rates of Consumption of Resources Cannot Be Sustained
Axiom 3 To Be Sustainable, the Use of Renewable Resources Must Proceed at a Rate that Is Less Than or Equal to the Rate of Natural Replenishment
Axiom 4 To Be Sustainable, the Use of Nonrenewable Resources Must Proceed at a Rate that Is Declining, and the Rate of Decline Must Be Greater Than or Equal to the Rate of Depletion
Axiom 5 Sustainability Requires that Substances Introduced into the Environment from Human Activities Be Minimized and Rendered Harmless to Biosphere Functions
United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development
Decoupling
UN International Resource Panel
Life-Cycle Thinking
Life-Cycle Assessment
Product Life-Cycle Mapping
Identifying Inputs and Outputs
Replacing Toxic Metals
Environmentally Benign Pesticides
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 17 Insecticides, Herbicides, and Insect Control
Organophosphates
Carbamates
The Transmission of Nerve Impulses
Analysis of Organophosphate Insecticides in Water
Gas Chromatography Using a Flame Photometric Detector
Herbicides
High-Pressure Liquid Chromatography
Problems with Synthetic Pesticides
The Pesticide Treadmill
Health Problems
Alternative Methods of Insect Control
Chemical Communicating Substances
Trang 20New Varieties of Crop Plants
Can We Feed Tomorrow’s World? Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 18 Toxicology
What Is Meant by “Toxic”?
Types and Routes of Exposure
Dose and Response
Testing for Toxicity: The LD50 Test
Excretion of Chemicals from the Body
Detoxification of Chemicals by the Liver Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
Chemicals That Cause Cancer
The Development of Cancer
Nucleic Acids
Functions of Nucleic Acids
The Primary Structure of Nucleic Acids The Double Helix
DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes
Cell Replication
Protein Synthesis
The Genetic Code
Mechanisms of DNA Damage
Genetic Tests for Cancer
Additional Sources of Information
Physical Properties of Asbestos Minerals
Thermal Properties of Asbestos
Chemical Resistance of Asbestos
Trang 21Asbestos Diseases
The Respiratory System’s Protective Mechanisms
Fiber Drift
Regulation of Asbestos
Analytical Methods for Asbestos Fibers
Methods to Identify the Presence of Bulk Asbestos
Light Microscopy
Polarized Light Microscopy
Methods to Determine the Amount of Airborne Asbestos
Air Sampling
Phase Contrast Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy
Comparing PCM and TEM Measurements
Asbestos Litigation
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
CHAPTER 20 The Disposal of Dangerous Wastes
Careless Waste Disposal in the Past
Defining Solid Waste
Disposal of Municipal Solid Waste
MSW and the Law
Landfills
Incineration
Recycling and Resource Recovery
Source Reduction
The Problem of Hazardous Waste
RCRA: Regulation of Hazardous Waste
What Are Hazardous Wastes?
Listed Hazardous Wastes
Characteristic Hazardous Wastes
Sources of Hazardous Waste
Policy for Management and Disposal of Hazardous Waste
Waste Minimization: Process Manipulation, Recycling, and Reuse
Conversion of Hazardous Waste to a Less Hazardous or Nonhazardous Form Incineration and Other Thermal Treatment
Chemical and Physical Treatment
EPA Methods for Testing Solid Waste
The Unsolved Problem
Superfund: Cleaning Hazardous Waste Dumpsites
Superfund Analytical Methods
Radioactive Waste
Sources of Radioactive Waste
Classification of Nuclear Waste
The Legacy from the Past
Regulation of Radioactive Waste Disposal
Low-Level Radioactive Wastes
Trang 22High-Level Radioactive Wastes
Technologies for Radioactive Waste Disposal
The Post–Cold War Challenge
Additional Sources of Information
Keywords
Questions and Problems
APPENDIX A Solubility Products, Ksp
APPENDIX B Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution at 25°C APPENDIX C Standard Redox Potentials in Aqueous Solutions
APPENDIX D Carbon Compounds: An Introduction to Organic Chemistry
APPENDIX E Answers to Even-Numbered Questions
Glossary
Index
Trang 23Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.
PREFACE
Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition has been revised and updated in response to
comments and suggestions from reviewers and users of the second edition All chapters have beenupdated to highlight events and initiatives that have transpired since the last edition, such as:
1 The tsunami in Japan, its causes and effects on Japanese nuclear power industry
2 Deep ocean drilling for oil and the effects of a disaster such as the Deepwater Horizon blowout
in the Gulf of Mexico
3 How to reduce soot in diesel truck emissions to meet new regulations
4 Changing the relationship between water use and economic growth in developing countries
5 Canadian tar sands and the Keystone XL pipeline
6 Induced hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and the production of natural gas
7 The future of the thorium nuclear reactor
8 Biofuels—ethanol from cellulose
9 The introduction of lifecycle assessments
10 Resource decoupling and the development of the third world
Users of the second edition lamented the loss of the chapter on soil and agriculture (Chapter 2) thatwas in the first edition, but removed from the second edition They will be happy to learn that anupdated chapter on soil and agriculture (Chapter 2) makes its return to the third edition
In response to reviewer’s preferences, a new chapter on sustainability and green chemistry hasbeen included I spent my last sabbatical leave as a Franklin Fellow in the U.S Department of State.While there, I coordinated the U.S.’s report to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable
Development (UNCSD) The CSD-18 report, which focused on U.S initiatives in chemicals, mining,transport, waste management, and sustainable consumption and production, can be found at
http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?menu=1135 During my time at the Department ofState, I was also fortunate to be appointed the U.S representative to the UN’s International ResourcePanel I am pleased that I can share what I learned about sustainability with students using this text Ialso want to thank Professor Jonathan Kenny of Tufts University for his review of this new chapter
I am happy to receive comments and suggestions about the content of this book at
jgirard@american.edu
Trang 24Chapter Elements
Examples and Exercises Illustrative worked examples, each one accompanied by a challenging
practice exercise, are included throughout the text, particularly in the chapters covering basic
chemical principles
Keywords and Concepts Lists of keywords and concepts introduced in the chapter are included at
chapter’s end to help reinforce the most important information
Questions and Problems Each chapter includes a wide selection of problems and questions (40–50),
with answers to all even-numbered ones given in Appendix E Quantitative, review, and type questions are included
discussion-Additional Sources of Information A bibliography provides sources for the material covered in the
chapter and serves as a suggested list for further reading
Course Use
Principles of Environmental Chemistry offers the flexibility to tailor a course to suit both
instructors’ preferences and the needs of particular audiences The full text may be used for a
comprehensive two-semester course in which the instructor has the time to explore the underlyingchemical principles in detail Appendix B contains a chapter on basic organic chemistry, which may
be useful to cover early in the course to refresh the memory of your students A review of basic
chemistry principles is also available online through the Navigate Companion Website
The book may be used in several ways for a one-semester course An option for a one-semestercourse is to use the first eight chapters, followed by selections from the remaining chapters on moreadvanced chemistry and environmental applications according to the teacher’s preferences Thosewho wish to teach a more traditional one-semester course, not emphasizing environmental analysis,should begin with Chapter 1 and proceed through the first 13 chapters in order, skipping Chapters 7
and 10, and then cover more in-depth environmental topics in the later chapters according to
preference
Instructors’ Supplements
These supplements can be accessed online, via the Jones & Bartlett Learning catalog page
Online Solutions Manual Contains solutions to chapter-end exercises.
Image Bank Provides a PowerPoint® library of all the art and tables in the text to which Jones &Bartlett Learning owns the copyright or has digital print rights
PowerPoint Lecture Outlines Provides PowerPoint® presentations for each chapter of the text
including lecture notes and images
Student’s Supplements
Navigate Companion Website Contains a wealth of information and resources for students studying
environmental chemistry, including downloadable study resources on solving problems and equationsand the basics of chemistry in addition to glossary terms, crossword puzzles, and flashcards
Trang 25Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to a number of people who have contributed tothis book:
To my students who have suffered through draft manuscripts of this text
To the reviewers of the text for their helpful comments and suggestions:
Andrew Burns, Kent State University Stark
Brent L Lewis, Coastal Carolina University
Brian G Dixon, Massachusetts Maritime Academy
Brian Nowak-Thompson, Cornell College
Chunlong Zhang, University of Houston–Clear Lake
David P Thomas, Washtenaw Community College
Liping Wei, New Jersey Institute of Technology
Marie de Angelis, SUNY Maritime College
Matthew Elrod, Oberlin College
Michael E Ketterer, Northern Arizona University
Michelle M Ivey, Florida Atlantic University
Mygleetus W Wright, Fort Valley State University
Robert Kerber, Stony Brook University
Matthew Elrod, Oberlin College
Thomas G Chasteen, Sam Houston State University
Timothy L Rose, Brandeis University
To Nell Buell for all the discussion and hard work with background materials
To Bill Hirzy of the US Environmental Protection Agency who reviewed and updated the dataconcerning the regulation of hazardous waste in Chapter 18
To Ken Harvey of Horiba, Inc who provided details of how automobile emission measurementsare made
To Kaanan Snirvasian of Dionex Corporation who facilitated acquisition of the ion
chromatography figures
To Wayne Neimayer at McCrone Laboratories for the SEM and EDX spectra in the asbestoschapter
Trang 26To the Jones & Bartlett Learning team: Erin O’Connor, Michelle Bradbury, Leah Corrigan, andLauren Miller.
Jim Girard
Trang 27Image courtesy of NASA and H Richer (University of British Columbia).
CHAPTER
1
Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy
CHAPTER OUTLINE
The Formation of the Universe
Galaxies and Stars
The Planets in Our Solar System
The Sun
Differentiation of the Earth into Layers
Heating of the Earth
The Core
The Mantle
The Crust
Plate Tectonics
Relative Abundance of the Elements in the Earth
Formation of the Oceans
Formation of the Atmosphere
Rocks and Minerals
The Rock Cycle
Igneous Rocks
Trang 28Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks as Natural Resources
Ores and Metals
The Origin of Life on Earth
The Uniqueness of the Earth
The Environment
Ecosystems
Producers and Consumers
The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems
What Is Energy?
Energy Transformations
Food Chains and Trophic Levels
Energy and Biomass
Concentration Units
Molarity and Molar Solutions
Parts per Million
Parts per Billion
Nutrient Cycles
The Carbon Cycle
The Nitrogen Cycle
The Oxygen Cycle
The Phosphorus Cycle
Nature’s Cycles in Balance
Additional Sources of Information
Trang 29Keywords
Questions and Problems
Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc.
TO UNDERSTAND HOW OUR ENVIRONMENT WORKS, WE MUST FIRST LOOK BACK BILLIONS OF YEARS AT THE TIME WHEN THE EARTH WAS BORN AND SEE HOW IT EVOLVED INTO THE LIFE-SUPPORTING PLANET THAT WE INHABIT TODAY In this chapter, we consider the formation of the universe, including the origin of thegalaxies, the stars, and our own planet, Earth We look at how the oceans, the atmosphere, and therocky surface on which we live were formed; examine the Earth’s mineral resources; and discuss theways in which society uses those resources We see how life developed on Earth and how all livingorganisms interact with their physical surroundings and with one another, how all of these
interactions are intertwined, and how a continuing flow of energy through all of its parts fuels theentire system
The Formation of the Universe
If we gaze at the sky on a clear night, away from the lights of any city, we can see myriads of stars
All of the stars that we see are a part of our galaxy, the Milky Way This pinwheel-shaped body,
which is made up of clouds of gas and cosmic dust and billions and billions of stars, includes oursolar system—the sun and its nine orbiting planets What we see is only a minute fraction of the entire
universe Beyond the Milky Way, extending into space for distances beyond our comprehension, are
countless other galaxies It was probably only when we humans first ventured into space in the 1960sthat we began to appreciate the smallness and insignificance of our planet in relationship to the
universe as a whole The first photographs of the Earth taken from the moon showed us our planet
suspended in the black vastness of space ( Figure 1.1 ).
According to the most recent research, the universe began between 12 billion and 13.5 billionyears ago Although differences of opinion exist, many scientists believe that all of the matter in theuniverse was once compressed into an infinitesimally small and infinitely dense mass that exploded
with tremendous force This explosion of unimaginable proportions—appropriately called the big
bang—generated enormous amounts of light, heat, and energy and released the cosmic matter from
which the galaxies and stars were eventually formed The universe began expanding in all directionsand, according to most astronomers, has been expanding ever since
Galaxies and Stars
Trang 30As the universe expanded, it cooled very, very slowly, and cosmic matter gradually condensed toform the first galaxies Atoms of hydrogen—the simplest and lightest of all of the elements—formed
in the swirling clouds of condensing matter Over billions of years, the galaxies gave birth to the earlystars, which generated sufficient heat to cause hydrogen atoms to fuse (join) to form atoms of helium,
the second lightest of the elements The energy released during these fusion reactions initiated further
fusion reactions, in which all 90 of the remaining naturally occurring elements found on Earth wereformed In the universe as a whole, 90% of all atoms are hydrogen, and 9% are helium, whereas theremaining 1% are atoms of all of the other elements Scientists believe that subsequent explosions ofthe early stars scattered the elements and that our sun was born from the debris of one of these
explosions The sun, which to us appears very bright, is an average-sized star that is located towardthe edge of the Milky Way
Figure 1.1 The Earth seen from the surface of the moon Courtesy of NASA.
The Planets in Our Solar System
Scientists still do not know with any certainty how the planets in our solar system developed (a solar
system is a group of planets that revolve around a star), but it is generally believed that they began toform approximately 5 billion years ago from hot, mainly gaseous matter rotating about the sun Withtime, the matter slowly cooled, and solid particles condensed from the gases The particles graduallycoalesced into clumps of matter Larger clumps had stronger gravity and gradually drew in and
retained additional particles, eventually forming the eight planets that revolve around the sun:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and the dwarf planet Pluto ( Figure 1.2 ).
Trang 31Figure 1.2 The solar system (a) The relative sizes of the planets (b) The planets in their orbits around the sun.
The four planets closest to the sun—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are called terrestrial
planets and are small and dense The more distant giant planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune—are much larger and are of lower density than the terrestrial planets
The Earth and the other terrestrial planets formed close to the sun and were so hot that lighter,easily evaporated materials could not condense and were swept away Only substances with
extremely high boiling points, such as metals and minerals, condensed on these planets Mercury—theplanet closest to the sun and, therefore, the hottest of the eight planets in our solar system—is
composed mainly of iron On the Earth, which formed at a somewhat lower temperature, silicates andother metals besides iron were able to condense (Silicates are minerals that are formed from theelements silicon, oxygen, and a variety of metals.) The larger planets, with their greater mass and thus
a stronger gravitational pull, retained gases—mostly hydrogen and helium—in the atmospheres
surrounding them Some important features of the planets as they exist today are listed in Table 1.1
The Sun
The sun is the ultimate source of energy for life on Earth It makes up 99.9% of the mass of the solarsystem, and its diameter is approximately 110 times as great as that of the Earth Scientists estimatethat temperatures near the center of this immense rotating sphere of extremely hot gases reach almost15,000,000°C (27,000,000°F) Fusion reactions occur at these incredibly high temperatures,
Trang 32continually releasing tremendous amounts of energy in the form of heat and light These fusion
reactions have allowed the sun to shine brightly for billions of years and will allow it to do so forbillions more
Differentiation of the Earth into Layers
Exactly how the Earth evolved to its present state is not known, but Earth scientists believe that whenthe Earth was first formed approximately 4.7 billion years ago It was homogeneous in composition—
a dense, rocky sphere with no water on its surface and no atmosphere Over time, the interior of thissphere gradually grew hotter, and the Earth became differentiated into layers, with each layer having
a different chemical composition This crucial period in the development of the Earth led to the
formation of the planet’s magnetic field, atmosphere, oceans, and continents—and ultimately to life
Heating of the Earth
Three factors are believed to have caused the Earth to heat First, the cosmic particles that collidedand clumped to form the Earth were drawn inward by the pull of gravity As more particles collidedwith the developing planet, heat was released Some of this heat was retained within the Earth; thisheat gradually built up as increasing amounts of material accumulated
Second, as the Earth grew, material in the center was compressed by the weight of new materialthat struck the surface and was retained Some of the energy that was expended in compression wasconverted to heat and caused a further rise in the temperature within the Earth
The third and very significant factor in the warming of the Earth was the decay of radioactiveelements within the interior that released energy in the form of heat The atoms in radioactive
elements are unstable and disintegrate spontaneously, emitting atomic particles and energy In thisprocess, which continues today, the radioactive elements are converted into atoms of other elements.Only a very small number of naturally occurring elements have atoms that disintegrate in this way,and the heat generated with each disintegration is extremely small Nonetheless, Earth scientists havecalculated that the retention of this heat within the Earth over billions of years (together with the heatreleased as new material accumulated and was compressed) would have been sufficient to raise thetemperature of the material at the center of the Earth to the point where it became molten
Table 1.1
Important Features of the Planets in Our Solar System
Trang 33Figure 1.3 The structure of the Earth (a) The Earth is differentiated into three distinct layers called the core, the mantle, and the crust.
(b) The lithosphere, which comprises the continental and oceanic crust together with the solid upper part of the mantle, rests on the partially molten asthenosphere.
It seems probable that this critical temperature was reached approximately 1 billion years after theEarth was born Metallic iron, which melts at 1,535°C (2,795°F) and makes up over 30% of the mass
of the Earth, began to melt This heavy molten iron, together with some molten nickel, sank to thecenter of the Earth As the molten iron sank, it displaced less dense material, which then rose towardthe surface As a result, the Earth ceased to be homogeneous and eventually became differentiated
into three distinct layers: the core, the mantle, and the crust ( Figure 1.3 ).
The Core
The Earth’s core, which extends 3,500 km (2,200 miles) from the planet’s center, is believed to becomposed of iron and small amounts of nickel These metals are thought to be in solid form in theinner core and molten in the surrounding outer core (Figure 1.3a) Because the core is inaccessible to
us, there is no way to prove that it consists primarily of iron, but considerable indirect evidence
supports this view For example, analysis of light emitted by the sun and stars has revealed that iron
is the most abundant metal in the universe, and most of the meteorites that have landed on the Earth
Trang 34from outer space are composed of iron Furthermore, analysis of seismic waves generated by
earthquakes has shown that the core is very dense, and iron is the densest metal found in any quantity
on Earth
The Mantle
The Earth’s mantle, which lies between the core and the crust, is approximately 2,900 km (1,800miles) thick (Figure 1.3b) The relatively thin upper part of the mantle is solid and rigid, but the layer
below it—called the asthenosphere—although essentially solid, is able to flow extremely slowly,
like a very thick, viscous liquid In the deep mantle, below the asthenosphere, the rock is believed to
be rigid
The Crust
Above the mantle is the crust, which forms the thin outer skin of the Earth (Figure 1.3b) The crust isthicker beneath the continents than beneath the oceans Its thickness ranges from 6 km (4 miles) underthe oceans to 70 km (45 miles) under mountainous regions Although the crust makes up a very smallpart of the Earth as a whole, we gather from it practically all of the resources that sustain our way oflife
Together the crust and the solid upper part of the mantle make up the relatively cool and rigid
lithosphere, which floats on the hotter, partially molten asthenosphere The boundary between the
lithosphere and the asthenosphere is not caused by a difference in the chemical composition of theirrocks but rather reflects a change in the physical properties of the rocks that occurs as temperatureand pressure increase with depth
Plate Tectonics
Until the 1970s, geologists could not explain many of the Earth’s internally generated geologic
phenomena With the general acceptance of the theory of plate tectonics, however, geologists now
have a unifying theory that helps explain the movement of continents, the growth of mountains, thedistribution of rocks, and the occurrence of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes in certain places inthe world today
According to this theory, very large segments of the rigid lithosphere, which are called plates,drift extremely slowly over the weaker asthenosphere As they drift, the plates grind against eachother or move together or apart, in a way similar to ice floes moving on the ocean This movement hasbeen taking place for millions of years and it continues today The boundaries of the plates and thedirections in which they are currently moving are shown in Figure 1.4 These boundaries are sites ofgreat geologic activity: Mountain ranges are formed, volcanoes erupt, and earthquakes occur almostexclusively at plate boundaries
Trang 35Figure 1.4 The Earth’s lithosphere is divided into rigid segments, called plates, which drift extremely slowly over the asthenosphere The
boundaries of the plates are regions of great geologic activity.
Figure 1.5 A divergent plate boundary As adjacent plates move apart, magma rises up from the mantle to fill the space between the
retreating plates The magma solidifies to form a new ocean crust In this way, new sear floor is continually being added to the Atlantic Ridge.
Mid-At divergent boundaries, adjacent plates pull apart, as shown in Figure 1.5 This divergenceoccurs in the Atlantic Ocean between the North and South American plates on one side and the
Eurasian and African plates on the other side (Figure 1.4) As a result of this spreading apart of the
sea floor, molten rock, known as magma, rises up from below the lithosphere to fill the gap between
the receding plates New sea floor is slowly being formed and added to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(Figure 1.5)
Trang 36At convergent boundaries, plates grind together, and one plate usually buckles and slides
downward beneath the other plate ( Figure 1.6 ) at what is termed a subduction zone The overriding
plate, which also buckles, is uplifted, leading to the formation of mountain ranges The Andes
Mountains, for example, were formed where the Nazca and South American plates ground together(Figure 1.4) Convergent boundaries, which are indicated on Figure 1.4 as black circles, are sites offrequent and severe earthquakes and explosive volcanic eruptions The 2011 earthquakes in Japanand New Zealand and the 2008 earthquakes in Indonesia, for example, took place at convergentboundaries
Plates may also move parallel to each other, as they do along the San Andreas Fault in California.There, the North American plate is moving southward relative to the Pacific plate, creating a
transform fault ( Figure 1.7 ) When these plates get locked together, pressure builds up When the
lock is finally broken, the sudden slippage triggers earthquakes that may be very violent, as was thecase in the 1906 quake in San Francisco
Convection currents generated in the Earth’s interior are believed to be the driving force thatkeeps the plates in motion Within the Earth, the continuing decay of radioactive elements providesthe source of heat that sets up convection currents in the mantle It is thought that the hot viscous
material of the asthenosphere is conveyed upward to the underside of the lithosphere ( Figure 1.8 ),
where it breaks through the surface at zones of divergence Lateral movements carry the plates along,and downward flow occurs at zones of convergence
Figure 1.6 A convergent plate boundary As plates collide, one plate slides under the other, and crust disappears into the mantle The
overriding plate is deformed and uplifted into mountain ranges Earthquakes and volcanoes occur frequently at convergent boundaries.
Relative Abundance of the Elements in the Earth
Trang 37By mass, the four most abundant elements in the Earth are iron, oxygen, silicon, and magnesium,
which together account for approximately 93% of the Earth’s mass ( Figure 1.9a ) Nickel, sulfur,
calcium, and aluminum make up another 6.5% The remaining 0.5% or so of the Earth’s mass is made
of the other 84 naturally occurring elements
Figure 1.7 A transform fault When plates move parallel to each other in opposite directions, a transform fault develops If the slippage
is sudden and jerky, earthquakes occur along the fault, and the opposing landmasses are offset as indicated in the right-hand figure.
Figure 1.8 In the Earth, molten material carried upward by convection currents reaches the surface at midocean ridges and is then
carried laterally to convergence zones, where it moves downward.
Primarily because most of the iron sank to the center of the Earth during the period of the planet’sdifferentiation, the relative abundance of the elements in the crust differs greatly from that in the Earth
as a whole ( Figure 1.9b ) Seventy-four percent of the crust consists of oxygen and silicon, whereas
aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, and sodium together account for 25% of this layer
It might have been expected that as the Earth became differentiated into layers, the elements wouldhave been distributed strictly according to mass, with the heavier elements falling to the Earth’s
Trang 38center and the lighter ones rising to the surface This distribution did not occur, however, becausesome elements combined with other elements to form compounds, and the melting points and densities
of these new compounds (rather than those of the elements from which they were formed) primarilydetermined how the elements were distributed in the Earth For example, silicon, oxygen, and variousmetals combined to form silicates, which are relatively light compounds that melt at relatively lowtemperatures When the Earth’s interior was hot, these silicates rose to the surface As a consequence,they are the most abundant minerals in the Earth’s crust
Figure 1.9 The relative abundance (by mass) of elements in the entire Earth and in the Earth’s crust Because of the differentiation that
occurred early in the Earth’s history, the percentage of iron in the crust (b) is lower than that in the whole Earth, (a) and the percentages
of aluminum, silicon, and oxygen (the elements that combine to form silicates) are higher.
As a result of the chemical changes that occurred during the period of differentiation, the
distribution of the elements on the Earth is very uneven The relative abundance in the Earth’s crust ofthe economically valuable elements is shown in Table 1.2 Of these elements, only four—aluminum,iron, magnesium, and potassium—are present in amounts greater than 1% of the total mass of thecrust It is fortunate for us that as the result of geologic processes that have been occurring for
millions of years, the less abundant (but valuable) elements such as gold and silver are concentrated
in specific regions of the world If these elements had been distributed evenly throughout the Earth’scrust, their concentrations would be too low to make their extraction technically or economicallyfeasible
Trang 39Source: Adapted from F Press and R Siever, Earth, 3rd ed (New York: W H Freeman, 1982), p 553.
Formation of the Oceans
It is generally accepted that there was no water on the Earth’s surface for millions of years after theplanet was formed Most scientists believe that water and organic compounds appeared on the
Earth’s surface about 4 billion years ago Two scenarios have been proposed to explain how watercame to the surface of the Earth
The first scenario suggests that as the interior of the Earth heated up, minerals below the Earth’ssurface became molten The molten material rose to the surface, and oxygen (O) and hydrogen (H)atoms that were chemically bound to certain minerals escaped explosively into the atmosphere asclouds of water (H2O) vapor In these tremendous volcanic eruptions, which were worldwide andnumerous, carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases were also released from the planet’s interior
( Figure 1.10 ) The lighter gases escaped into space, but the heavier ones, including water vapor and
CO2, were held by gravity and formed a thick blanket of clouds surrounding the Earth In time, as theEarth’s surface cooled, the water vapor condensed, and the clouds released their moisture For thefirst time, rain fell on the Earth During the next several million years, this cycle continued as
volcanoes erupted, filling the oceans with water as more rain fell
The second, and much newer scenario, suggests that the water on Earth might have been delivered
by comets Using the Hershel Space Telescope, scientists have discovered water in the form of ice onseven comets The telescope also assisted these scientists in determining the molecular composition
of this ice In the first six of these comets, the ratio of deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) in the frozen water
is (2.96 ± 0.25) × 10–4, which is about twice the ratio found in the Earth’s water [(1.558 ± 0.001) ×
10–4] However, in 2011, the telescope found that the ice in the seventh comet, Hartley 2, has a D/Hratio of (1.61 ± 0.24) × 10–4, which is close to matching the deuterium to hydrogen isotope ratio of theEarth’s water Because the D/H ratio in water is very sensitive to the physical conditions in which itwas formed, especially the temperature of the gas-phase isotopic exchange reactions between
Trang 40molecular hydrogen and HDO molecules, this finding may imply that the water in the Hartley 2 cometwas formed in a different location, or through a different process, than the other comets The other sixwater-bearing comets, which include Halley and Hale-Bopp, come from the Oort cloud, which is agroup of comets about a light-year away from Earth, on the edge of the solar system Hartley 2, whichpassed close to Earth in November 2010, comes from the Kuiper belt, which is 1,000 times closer toEarth and lies just beyond Neptune The Kuiper belt is larger than the Oort cloud and may prove tohold more ice comets This scenario would suggest that 4 billion years ago, when water and mineralsbegan to appear on the surface of the Earth, a large number of ice comets may have bombarded theEarth If the Hershel Space Telescope finds additional water-bearing comets in the Kuiper belt thathave the proper D/H ratio, such a discovery will add further credibility to this scenario.
Figure 1.10 Green plants such as this tree are producers In the process of photosynthesis, they use light energy from the sun to convert
carbon dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen The oxygen is released to the atmosphere; the glucose, together with mineral nutrients from the soil, is used to produce the complex organic compounds that make plant tissues.
Formation of the Atmosphere
The Earth’s first atmosphere was quite different from the one that surrounds the planet today
Volcanic eruptions continued to occur long after the Earth’s surface had cooled to the point wherewater vapor began to condense to form the oceans Evidence suggests that in addition to water vaporand CO2, the enormous volumes of gases emitted were mostly nitrogen, with smaller amounts of
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and hydrogen chloride—the same gases that erupting volcanoes emittoday Hydrogen gas, being very light, was lost into space, but the Earth’s gravitational pull heldother gases near the surface
After millions of years of volcanic activity, the atmosphere was rich in nitrogen and carbon
dioxide but was completely devoid of oxygen Today, the Earth’s atmosphere is still rich in nitrogen(78%), but only 0.03% of the atmosphere is carbon dioxide, whereas oxygen accounts for 21% The