PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY Jones & Bartlett Learning Titles in Physical Science Astronomy Activity and Laboratory Manual Alan W Hirshfeld Climatology, Second Edition Robert V Rohli & Anthony J Vega Earth’s Natural Resources John V Walther Environmental Oceanography: Topics and Analysis Daniel C Abel & Robert L McConnell Environmental Science, Ninth Edition Daniel D Chiras Environmental Science: Systems and Solutions, Fifth Edition Michael L McKinney, Robert M Schoch, & Logan Yonavjak Essential Invitation to Oceanography Paul R Pinet Essentials of Geochemistry, Second Edition John V Walther Igneous Petrology, Third Edition Alexander McBirney In Quest of the Universe, Seventh Edition Theo Koupelis Invitation to Oceanography, Sixth Edition Paul R Pinet Louisiana Weather and Climate Robert V Rohli, John M Grymes III, & Anthony J Vega Meteorology: Understanding the Atmosphere, Third Edition Steven A Ackerman & John A Knox Principles of Atmospheric Science John E Frederick Restoration Ecology Sigurdur Greipsson World Headquarters Jones & Bartlett Learning Wall Street Burlington, MA 01803 978-443-5000 info@jblearning.com www.jblearning.com Jones & Bartlett Learning books and products are available through most bookstores and online booksellers To contact Jones & Bartlett Learning directly, call 800-832-0034, fax 978-443-8000, or visit our website, www.jblearning.com Substantial discounts on bulk quantities of Jones & Bartlett Learning publications are available to corporations, professional associations, and other qualified organizations For details and specific discount information, contact the special sales department at Jones & Bartlett Learning via the above contact information or send an email to specialsales@jblearning.com Copyright © 2014 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend Learning Company All rights reserved No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition is an independent publication and has not been authorized, sponsored, or otherwise approved by the owners of the trademarks or service marks referenced in this product Some images in this book feature models These models not necessarily endorse, represent, or participate in the activities represented in the images Production Credits Chief Executive Officer: Ty Field President: James Homer SVP, Editor-in-Chief: Michael Johnson SVP, Chief Marketing Officer: Alison M Pendergast Executive Publisher: Kevin Sullivan Senior Acquisitions Editor: Erin O’Connor Editorial Assistant: Michelle Bradbury Production Editor: Leah Corrigan Senior Marketing Manager: Andrea DeFronzo V.P., Manufacturing and Inventory Control: Therese Connell Composition: CAE Solutions Corp Cover Design: Michael O’Donnell Rights & Photo Research Associate: Lauren Miller Cover Image: © Pichugin Dmitry/ShutterStock, Inc Printing and Binding: Edwards Brothers Malloy Cover Printing: Edwards Brothers Malloy To order this product, use ISBN 978-1-4496-9352-7 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Girard, James Principles of environmental chemistry / James Girard.—3rd ed p cm ISBN 978-1-4496-5015-5 (alk paper) Environmental chemistry I Title QD33.2.G57 2013 628.501'54—dc23 2012021748 6048 Printed in the United States of America 17 16 15 14 13 10 Dedicated to my wife, Connie Diamant, the real environmentalist in our home Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc BRIEF CONTENTS CHAPTER Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy CHAPTER Earth’s Soil and Agriculture: Feeding the Earth’s People CHAPTER The Earth’s Atmosphere CHAPTER Global Warming and Climate Change CHAPTER Chemistry of the Troposphere CHAPTER Chemistry of the Stratosphere CHAPTER Analysis of Air and Air Pollutants CHAPTER Water Resources CHAPTER Water Pollution and Water Treatment CHAPTER 10 Analysis of Water and Wastewater CHAPTER 11 Fossil Fuels: Our Major Source of Energy CHAPTER 12 Nuclear Power CHAPTER 13 Energy Sources for the Future CHAPTER 14 Inorganic Metals in the Environment CHAPTER 15 Organic Chemicals in the Environment CHAPTER 16 Sustainability and Green Chemistry CHAPTER 17 Insecticides, Herbicides, and Insect Control CHAPTER 18 Toxicology CHAPTER 19 Asbestos CHAPTER 20 The Disposal of Dangerous Wastes APPENDIX A Solubility Products, Ksp APPENDIX B Dissociation Constants for Acids and Bases in Aqueous Solution at 25°C APPENDIX C Standard Redox Potentials in Aqueous Solutions APPENDIX D Carbon Compounds: An Introduction to Organic Chemistry APPENDIX E Answers to Even-Numbered Questions GLOSSARY INDEX Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CHAPTER Planet Earth: Rocks, Life, and Energy The Formation of the Universe Galaxies and Stars The Planets in Our Solar System The Sun Differentiation of the Earth into Layers Heating of the Earth The Core The Mantle The Crust Plate Tectonics Relative Abundance of the Elements in the Earth Formation of the Oceans Formation of the Atmosphere Rocks and Minerals The Rock Cycle Igneous Rocks Sedimentary Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Rocks as Natural Resources Ores and Metals Iron Aluminum Copper Strategic Metals Mineral Reserves The Origin of Life on Earth The Uniqueness of the Earth The Environment Ecosystems Producers and Consumers The Flow of Energy Through Ecosystems What Is Energy? Energy Transformations Food Chains and Trophic Levels secondary-forming reactions temperature inversions and smoking asbestos exposure and indoor air pollution and lung cancer and pregnancy and radiation and snakebites snowflakes Socrates sodium abundance of, on Earth in seawater sodium carbonate sodium nitrite SOFCs See solid oxide fuel cells soft coal soil elemental composition (mean) of erosion of humus, organic component in inorganic component of layers or horizons of minerals in most abundant elements in nonpolar organic molecules sorbed by pH of phosphorus cycle productivity of texture of water-holding capacity of, particle size and solar collector solar energy Earth’s heat balance and leapfrogging and solar flux, average, reaching Earth solar heating, active and passive solar power photovoltaic cells solar thermal power collectors solar system important features of planets in planets in solar thermal power (STP) designs solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) solid waste defining EPA methods of testing EPA standards sources of Solid Waste Disposal Act solubility product solute solutions, defined solvents soot sorption coefficient carbon-normalized defined sorption isotherm sorption on soils source reduction South Pole, ozone depletion over Soviet Union, radioactive waste at nuclear weapons sites soybean oil, sandwich spread made from, life-cycle map for Spacelab Shuttle mission sparganothis fruitworm spar platforms specific heat defined of pure substances spectrometers double-beam spectrometer Earth- and satellite-based UV-visible spectrometer spectrometry graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry infrared spectrometry UV spectrometer UV-visible spectrometer XRF spectrometry spectrophotometric analyses spectrophotometry for dissolved oxygen in natural waters for nitrate in natural waters for phosphate in natural waters spectroscopic measurements spectroscopy sperm count, drop in, for American and European men, 1938 and 1990 Spinosad Standard Hydrogen Electrode standard methods Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater standard reduction potential (E°) standards auto fuel standards automotive emissions CAFE standards National Ambient Air Quality Standards Safe Drinking Water Act starch stars, birth of steady-state concentration, of ozone, calculating steam engine steam turbines, generation of electricity and steel Stefan Boltzmann law STEL See short-term exposure limit steroids, structure of Stockholm Convention DDT ban and new POPs added to, 2009 and 2011 signatories to Stokes’ law STP designs See solar thermal power (STP) designs straight-run gasoline Strassman, Fritz strategic metals stratopause stratosphere chemistry of defined depletion of protective ozone layer in global warming and ozone production in temperature of streams eutrophication sediments in strip mining strontium-90 structure-activity relationships (SARs) strychnine subduction zone subsoil subway systems, chemical detection systems in sulfate aerosols sulfur abundance of, on Earth in coal in crude oil in living organisms for plants sulfur dioxide acid rain and as air pollutant in coal health effects of legislation to control emissions of methods for controlling emissions of monitoring emissions of pararosaniline spectrophotometric method for determining level of sources of TLV for sulfuric acid, acid rain and sulfur oxides, as air pollutant Sun Sun Chips bag, PLA in Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 Superfund Program analytical methods methods and instruments target compound list and contract required quantitation limits superphosphate suppliers, life-cycle management and surface impoundment surface water suspended particulate matter See also particulate matter suspended solids and sediments sustainability axioms of green chemistry and putting into practice sustainable consumption and production (SCP) sustainable development, leapfrogging and symmetric stretch synapse synergistic effect synthesis gas (syngas) synthetic fertilizers cost of inorganic water pollution and synthetic pesticides health problems with pesticide treadmill and systemic herbicides T Tabun tailpipe emissions See automotive emissions tailpipe gases, wavelength of maximum absorbance of Tainter, Joseph talc tar, in cigarette smoke tar sands TBL See triple bottom line TCDD TDS See total dissolved solids TEL See tetraethyl lead tellurium, boiling point of, and hydride for TEM See transmission electron microscopy Temik temperature air, variations in, over time compost and global mean temperature global temperature through time and global warming and Henry’s law constant Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and of surfaces of planets and Moon, calculated and actual thermal pollution and temperature changes, in atmosphere temperature-density relationship, of water temperature inversions tension leg platforms (TLPs) teratogens termites termite treatments, environmentally benign terpenes terrestrial planets terrestrial radiation tertiary treatment Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste: Physical/Chemical Methods (EPA) testosterone alcohol and oxidation of structure of tetrabromodiphenyl ether tetraethyl lead (TEL) texture, soil thalidomide thallium, MCL for thermal pollution thermodynamics first law of second law of thermosphere thiazoles thorium thorium-234 thorium fuel cycle thorium reactor waste thorium series three-dimensional networks and sheets Three Gorges Dam, China 3-methylguanine Three Mile Island nuclear plant accident 3M Sprayable Pheromone threshold limit values (TLVs) for commonly encountered environmental chemicals inhalation exposure and thymine tidal power tidal power plants tillage time-weighted average (TWA) tin, depletion of TIS See total ionized solids Title X TLPs See tension leg platforms TLVs See threshold limit value tobacco smoke indoor air pollution and radiation and Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor toluene topsoil total dissolved solids (TDS), measuring total ionized solids (TIS), measuring total organic carbon (TOC) total ozone mapping spectrometer (TOMS) total suspended particulate (TSP) test tourmaline, in soil toxaphene toxic, meaning of toxic chemicals Ames test carcinogens coupling reactions DNA damage dose-response curve excretion from the body inhalation exposure mutagens mutations oral exposure oxidation-reduction reactions for excretion of parenteral percutaneous absorption routes of administration routes of exposure teratogens See also heavy metals; toxicity; toxicology toxicity LD50 test PBT Profiler and toxic metals atomic spectroscopy of replacing See also heavy metals toxicology defined LD50 test Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) toxic substances Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) toxic waste toxins Toyota, hybrid cars trace elements trail pheromones, aggregation and transcription (genetics) transesterification reaction transfer RNA (tRNA) transform fault translation (genetics) transmission electron microscopy (TEM) transmittance, defined transmutation transpiration, hydrologic cycle transportation, energy consumption and transportation industry, air pollution and transuranic waste trash, combustion of See also municipal solid waste trees, acid rain and tremolite tremolite asbestos trench warfare (World War I) TRI See Toxic Release Inventory triazine pesticides trichloroamines trichloroethylene, TLV for trichlorophenol triglycerides triple bottom line (TBL) tris phosphate tristearin tritium gas trophic levels, energy and tropical rain forests, disappearing tropopause troposphere anthropogenic sources of methane in chemistry of global warming and Truman, Harry TSCA See Toxic Substances Control Act TSP test See total suspended particulate (TSP) test tumors, carcinogens and tungsten lamp, intensity of Tupi oil field, Brazil TWA See time-weighted average 20-hydroxy ecdysone two-cycle engines, gasoline powered 2,4-D 2-naphthylamine 2,4,5-T type I PSCs type II PSCs typhoid fever U ultraviolet band, electromagnetic spectrum ultraviolet light, DNA damage from ultraviolet (UV) absorbance ultraviolet (UV) radiation as disinfectant regions of UV spectrum Underground Injection Control (UIC) laws undersea oil Union Carbide, Bhopal, India disaster Union of Concerned Scientists United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) United Nations International Resource Panel objectives of reports issued by United Nations (UN) United States acid rain in coal deposits in energy use in ethanol production in ethyl alcohol production in GDP and total water withdrawals in Kyoto Protocol nuclear power plants in operation in oil shale deposits in per capita daily water use in waste disposal in waste per capita in wind power classification in universe age of formation of upper atmosphere uracil uranium depletion of transmutation of uranium-235 uranium-238 decay rate of half-life of nuclear reactors and uranium decay series Uranus urea U.S Geological Survey U.S Navy, asbestos used by U.S Public Health Service Utica Shale UV See ultraviolet (UV) radiation UVB radiation UV spectrometer UV-visible spectrometer V vanadomolybdophosphoric acid van der Waals attraction vehicle miles traveled (VMT) Venturi device Venus calculated and actual temperatures of vertical-growth/closed-loop systems, algal production Vietnam War vivianite, phosphorus cycle VMT See vehicle miles traveled (VMT) volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as air pollutant photochemical smog and in tobacco smoke volcanic eruptions volcanoes, ocean formation and Volt (hybrid electric vehicle) W Walton-Beckett graticule Washington Area Sanitation Authority, water-lead levels scandal and waste biogas as energy source categories of oxygen-consuming reducing See also hazardous waste; municipal solid waste; radioactive waste; solid waste waste disposal examples of past dumping See also hazardous waste disposal; radioactive waste waste exchanges Waste Isolation Pilot Plant, New Mexico waste-to-energy plants waste treatment wastewater potable water from See also sewage treatment; water and wastewater analysis water acid-base properties of acidity of acid-neutralizing capacity of acid rain alkalinity of atmospheric, infrared spectrum of autoprotolysis of boiling point of brackish water carbon dioxide in composition of natural waters content of selected organisms and foods desalination of distribution of, on Earth on Earth, origin of forms of fracking fluids freezing freshwater groundwater hardness of heat capacity of heat of fusion/vaporization of hydrogen bonding in hydrologic cycle ice infrared absorption of management and conservation of melting point of properties of rainwater saline seawater as solvent surface water temperature-density relationship use and shortages of vaporization of withdrawal and consumption of See also water and wastewater analysis; water pollutants; water pollution; water quality water and wastewater analysis for alkalinity for anions, by ion chromatography for disease-causing agents for dissolved solids for nitrogen for oxgen-consuming wastes for phosphorus for plant nutrients for radioactive substances sampling methods water conservation water consumption economic growth and limits on water pollutants disease-causing agents dissolved solids emerging contaminants oxygen-consuming wastes plant nutrients and point/nonpoint sources of suspended solids and sediments synthetic fertilizers types of water pollution eutrophication of freshwater of groundwater regulation of water quality and sewage treatment and synthetic fertilizers and thermal pollution water power water quality regulation of See also water and wastewater analysis water resources water turbines, generation of electricity and water vapor absorption of radiation emitted from Earth’s surface by atmospheric saturated partial pressure of, in air watt (unit) weathering weed control See herbicides Wein’s displacement law Weyburn oil field, Canada wind farms wind power wind turbines wood burning biomass fuel values of work World Bank World Health Organization world population growth doubling times and growth rates ten most populated countries, 2011 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), in Johannesburg World War I mortars that may contain mustard gas trench warfare during World War II World Wildlife Fund X X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry X-rays electromagnetic radiation radiation xylenes Y yttrium, in automotive paint Yucca Mountain nuclear repository Z Zernike, Frits zinc depletion of for plants zinc products, cadmium in zircon, in soil ... sponsored, or otherwise approved by the owners of the trademarks or service marks referenced in this product Some images in this book feature models These models not necessarily endorse, represent,... Chemistry Answers to Even-Numbered Questions Image © Vividfour/ShutterStock, Inc PREFACE Principles of Environmental Chemistry, Third Edition has been revised and updated in response to comments... participate in the activities represented in the images Production Credits Chief Executive Officer: Ty Field President: James Homer SVP, Editor-in-Chief: Michael Johnson SVP, Chief Marketing Officer: