Contents: ● Front Matter ● ChapterDA1-C1) ● ChapterDA1-C2) ● ChapterDA1-C3) ● ChapterDA1-CI) ● ChapterDA2-C4) ● ChapterDA2-C5) ● ChapterDA2-C6) ● ChapterDA2-C7) ● ChapterDA2-C8) ● ChapterDA2-C9) ● ChapterDA2-CII) ● ChapterDA3-C10) ● ChapterDA3-C11) ● ChapterDA3-C12) ● ChapterDA3-C13) ● ChapterDA3-C14) ● ChapterDA3-C15) ● ChapterDA3-C16) ● ChapterDA3-CIII) ● ChapterDA4-C17) ● ChapterDA4-C18) ● ChapterDA4-C19) ● ChapterDA4-C20) ● ChapterDA4-CIV) ● ChapterDA5-C21) ● ChapterDA5-C22) ● ChapterDA5-C23) ● ChapterDA5-C24) ● ChapterDA5-C25) ● ChapterDA5-C26) ● ChapterDA5-C27) ● ChapterDA5-C28) ● ChapterDA5-C29) ● ChapterDA5-C30) ● ChapterDA5-C31) ● ChapterDA5-C32) ● ChapterDA5-CV) ● ChapterDA6-C33) ● ChapterDA6-C34) ● ChapterDA6-C35) ● ChapterDA6-C36) ● ChapterDA6-C37) ● ChapterDA6-C38) ● ChapterDA6-C39) ● ChapterDA6-C40) ● ChapterDA6-C41) ● ChapterDA6-C42) ● ChapterDA6-C43) ● ChapterDA6-CVI) ● ChapterDA7-C44) ● ChapterDA7-C45) ● ChapterDA7-C46) ● ChapterDA7-C47) ● ChapterDA7-C48) ● ChapterDA7-C49) ● ChapterDA7-C50) ● ChapterDA7-C51) ● ChapterDA7-CVII) ● ChapterDA8-C52) ● ChapterDA8-C53) ● ChapterDA8-C54) ● ChapterDA8-C55) ● ChapterDA8-C56) ● ChapterDA8-C57) ● ChapterDA8-C58) ● ChapterDA8-CVIII) ● ChapterDA9-C59) ● ChapterDA9-C60) ● ChapterDA9-C61) ● ChapterDA9-C62) ● ChapterDA9-C63) ● ChapterDA9-CIX) ● Appendices) Back Principles of Neural Science 4th_Edition Clinical Medicine Life Sciences Neurology Neuroscience Text/Reference Editors Eric R Kandel James H Schwartz Thomas M Jessell Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, College of Physicians & Surgeons of Columbia University and The Howard Hughes Medical Institute Secondary Editors Sarah Mack Art Direction Jane Dodd Art Direction John Butler Editor Harriet Lebowitz Editor Shirley Dahlgren Production Supervisor Eve Siegel Art Manager Joellen Ackerman Designer Judy Cuddihy Index Precision Graphics Illustrators R R Donnelley & Sons, Inc Printer and Binder CONTRIBUTORS David G Amaral PhD Professor Department of Psychiatry, Center for, Neuroscience, University of California, Davis Allan I Basbaum PhD Professor and Chair Department of Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco; Member W.M., Keck Foundation Center for Integrative Neuroscience John C M Brust MD Professor Department of Neurology, Columbia, University College of Physicians & Surgeons; Director; of Neurology Service, Harlem Hospital Linda Buck PhD Associate Professor Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School; Associate Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Pietro De Camilli MD Professor and Chairman Department of Cell Biology, Yale University Medical School Antonio R Damasio MD, PhD M.W Van Allen Professor and Head Department of, Neurology, University of Iowa College of Medicine; Adjunct Professor Salk Institute for Biological Studies Mahlon R DeLong MD Professor and Chairman Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine Nina F Dronkers PhD Chief Audiology and Speech Pathology VA Northern, California Health Care System; Departments of Neurology and Linguistics, University of California, Davis Richard S J Frackowiak MD, DSc Dean Institute of Neurology, University College, London; Chair, Wellcome Department of Cognitive, Neurology; The National Hospital for Neurology & Neurosurgery, London Esther P Gardner PhD Professor Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, New York University School of Medicine Claude P J Ghez MD Professor Department of Neurology and Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics; Center for Neurobiology and Behavior; Columbia University, College of Physicians & Surgeons; New York State, Psychiatric Institute T Conrad Gilliam PhD Professor Department of Genetics and Development, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons Michael E Goldberg MD Chief Section of Neuro-opthalmological Mechanisms, Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research; National Eye, Institute, National Institutes of Health Gary W Goldstein MD President The Kennedy Krieger Research Institute; Professor, Neurology and Pediatrics, The Johns, Hopkins University School of Medicine James Gordon EdD Professor of Practice Program Director, Physical, Therapy, Graduate School of Health Sciences, New York Medical College Roger A Gorski PhD Professor Department of Neurobiology, UCLA School of Medicine A J Hudspeth MD, PhD Professor and Head Laboratory of Sensory, Neuroscience, Rockefeller University; Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute Leslie L Iversen PhD Professor Department of Pharmacology, Oxford University Susan D Iversen PhD Professor Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University Thomas M Jessell PhD Professor Department of Biochemistry and Molecular, Biophysics; Center for Neurobiology and Behavior; Investigator, The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons Eric R Kandel MD University Professor Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, and Psychiatry; Center for Neurobiology and Behavior; Senior Investigator, The Howard Hughes, Medical Institute, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons John Koester PhD Professor of Clinical Neurobiology and Behavior in Psychiatry Acting Director, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons John Krakauer MD Assistant Professor Department of Neurology, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons Irving Kupfermann PhD Professor Department of Psychiatry and Department of Physiology and Cellular Biophysics, Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University, College of Physicians & Surgeons John Laterra MD, PhD Associate Professor of Neurology Oncology, and Neuroscience; The Kennedy Krieger Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Peter Lennie PhD Professor of Neural Science Center for Neural Science, New York University Gerald E Loeb MD Professor Department of Physiology, Member, MRC, Group in Sensory-Motor Neuroscience, Queen's University, Canada John H Martin PhD Associate Professor Department of Psychiatry; Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons Geoffrey Melvill Jones MD Professor Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Calgary, Canada Keir Pearson PhD Professor Department of Physiology, University of Alberta Steven Pinker PhD Professor Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Director, McDonnell-Pew Center for Cognitive, Neuroscience Donald L Price MD Professor Neuropathology Laboratory, The Johns, Hopkins University School of Medicine Allan Rechtshaffen PhD Professor Emeritus Department of Psychiatry, and Department of Psychology, University of Chicago Timothy Roehrs PhD Director of Research Henry Ford Sleep Disorders Center Thomas Roth PhD Director , Sleep Disorders and Research Center, Henry, Ford Hospital; University of Michigan Lewis P Rowland MD Professor Department of Neurology; Columbia, University College of Physicians & Surgeons Joshua R Sanes PhD Professor Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology; Washington University School of Medicine Clifford B Saper MD, PhD Professor and Chairman Department of Neurology; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard, Medical School James H Schwartz MD PhD Professor Departments of Physiology and Cellular, Biophysics, Neurology and Psychiatry, Center for, Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons Jerome M Siegel PhD Professor of Psychiatry UCLA Medical Center; Chief Neurobiology Research, Sepulveda VA Medical Center Steven A Siegelbaum PhD Professor Department of Pharmacology, Center for, Neurobiology and Behavior Investigator, Howard, Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons Marc T Tessier-Lavigne PhD Professor Departments of Anatomy and of, Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco; Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute W Thomas Thach Jr MD Professor Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Washington University School of Medicine Gary L Westbrook MD Senior Scientist and Professor of Neurology Vollum Institute, Oregon Health Sciences University Robert H Wurtz PhD Chief Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National, Eye Institute; National Institutes of Health 2000 McGraw-Hill New York United States of America 0-8385-7701-6 Principles of Neural Science, 4/e Copyright © 2000 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher Previous edition copyright © 1991 by Appleton & Lange 4567890 DOWDOW 09876543 ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 This book was set in Palatino by Clarinda Prepress, Inc This book is printed on acid-free paper Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file for this title at the Library of Congress Cover image: The autoradiograph illustrates the widespread localization of mRNA encoding the NMDA-R1 receptor subtype determined by in situ hybridization Areas of high NMDA receptor expression are shown as light regions in this horizontal section of an adult rat brain From Moriyoshi K, Masu M, Ishi T, Shigemoto R, Mizuno N, Nakanishi S 1991 Molecular cloning and characterization of the rat NMDA receptor Nature 354:31-37 Note Substantia nigra 332 basal ganglia, inputs and outputs 855 855 dopaminergic neurons in 896 dopaminergic synapses 857 inhibitory input from caudate nucleus in saccades 793 midbrain, location of dopaminergic tracts 283 nucleus in midbrain 322 Substantia nigra pars compacta degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson disease 862 dopaminergic neurons in 892 Substantia nigra pars reticular, convergence of basal ganglia circuits 858 Subthalamic nucleus basal ganglia 855 855 glutaminergic cells of 855 dopaminergic synapses 857 excessive activity and production of parkinsonian signs 862–863 functional inactivation in Huntington disease 865 and infarction of posterior cerebral artery 1308 lesions, and dyskinesias 864 surgical intervention at in Parkinson disease 863 863 Subvocal rehearsal system, Broca's area 360 Sulcal artery, spinal cord 1314 Sulci 324 widened in schizophrenia 1195 Sulcus limitans neural tube 880 relationship to cranial nerve nuclei 881 Sulfation, of proteins in Golgi complex 96 Summation and action potential in central neuron 227 columns, in primary auditory cortex 609 spatial 223 224 temporal 222 224 Sunlight, and circadian rhythm 937 Superior 321 Superior and inferior colliculus 367 Superior cerebellar artery 1303 1304 Superior cerebellar peduncle 833 Superior cervical ganglion 964 neuropeptides in 972 in pupillary dilation 905 Superior colliculus 482 788 control of saccadic eye movements 526–527 cortical inputs 526 cranial nerve nuclei at level of 884 inhibited by basal ganglia 793 lesions 793 795 movement signal to from frontal eye field 794–795 movement-related neurons in 792 projection of optic nerve to 517 retina to 523 projections through thalamic pulvinar nucleus to cerebral cortex 526 responses of neurons enhanced by selective attention 401 retinal projections to 527 role in eye movements 797 rostral, and visual fixation 793 See also Tectum structure 792 and visual attention 565 visuomotor integration of saccades 792–795 Superior mesenteric ganglion 964 Superior olivary complex, auditory pathway 606 Superior olivary nuclei, auditory pathway 604 Superior orbital fissure 877 cranial nerves passing through 878 Superior saccular ramus 802 Superior salivatory nucleus, location and function 885 Superior temporal cortex, lesions, effect on response to facial features 989 Superior temporal gyrus 333 damaged in global aphasia 1181 Supplementary eye field, motor cortex 794 Supplementary motor area 757 760 761 damage after infarction of anterior cerebral artery 1308 internally initiated movements 770 language 1174 left, damaged in transcortical motor aphasia 1180 preparation of movement sequences from memory 773 role in learning sequences of movements 771–774 Supporting cell, olfactory epithelium 627 Suppression columns, in primary auditory cortex 609 Suppressor of hairless protein, transcription factor and neuronal cell fate 1043–1044 Suprachiasmatic nucleus 976 hypothalamus, control of circadian rhythm of sleep 45 322 946 internal clock site in hypothalamus 937 larger in homosexual than in heterosexual men 1145 Supramarginal gyrus, language 1174 Supraoptic nucleus 976 Surface reflectance curves 577 reflectance function has component functions 578 Surround 517 Surround inhibition 463 breakdown of in seizure focus 919–920 loss of accompanies partial seizure 924 seizure focus 921 Survival, and drive states 999 Sustance P, neuroactive peptide 289 Swaab, Dick 1145 Sweat glands control by sympathetic and parasympathetic system 968 exocrine, establishment of neurotransmitter phenotype 1051–1052 Sweet tastant, mechanisms of transduction 639 taste quality 637–639 Swets, John 422 Swimming, lamprey pattern of muscle contractions in 745 rhythmic locomotor pattern for 745 Swing phase, stepping 740 741 Sylvian fissure, of cerebral cortex 325 Symbolic behavior 364 Sympathethic neurons, establishment of neurotransmitter phenotype 1051–1052 Sympathetic apraxia 355 Sympathetic chain 963 964 Sympathetic crisis 1221 Sympathetic division, autonomic nervous system 961 neurons and projections 964 Sympathetic nerve trunk 962 Sympathetic neuron develops from neural crest cells 1047 require neurotrophins for survival 1057 P.1405 Sympathetic pathways 963 Sympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic axons, anatomical organization 962 Sympathetic system, autonomic division of peripheral nervous system 335 Synapatic potential, in knee jerk 29 Synapses 22 22 173 175 action of membrane-permeable substances at 262 central neuron, grouped according to function 223–226 225 central nervous system, ultrastructure 1100 in cerebral cortex 85 chemical 173 175–177 amplification of signals 182–185 and electrical, functional properties 176 excitatory actions at result from opening of channels permeable to be Na+ and K+ 210–211 high density of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels 160 nerve-muscle, signaling at 187–206 neuromuscular 676 plastic capabilities, role of regulation of free calcium concentration in presynaptic terminal 276 plasticity of 34 See also Neurotransmitters short-term versus long-term physiological changes 34 synaptic delay 182 synaptic transmission at, process 183 transmission at 280 current flow in chemical and electrical 176 electrical 173 175–177 depolarizing current generated by voltage-gated ion channels of presynaptic cell 177 evidence for 178 at gap-junction channels 177 178–179 provide instantaneous signal transmission 177–182 transmission is graded 178 transmission of depolarizing and hyperpolarizing currents 178 transmission of metabolic signals 180 elimination of some after birth 1099 1100–1101 en passant 85 excitatory, distinctive ultrastructure 209–212 formation establishes information-processing circuit 1087 in central nervous system similar to that at neuromuscular junction 1101–1104 key steps 1087 and regeneration 1087–1114 formed by motor neuron with muscle cells 78–79 81 85 pyramidal cells in CA3 region of hippocampus on dendrites of CA1 cells in stratum radiatum 79 selectivity of and target recognition molecules 1112 inferring number of in reflex pathways 721 inhibitory, distinctive ultrastructure 209–212 location on neuronal surface and function of cell 335 in visceral motor system 962 related to efficiency 227 nerve-muscle, signaling at 187–206 neuromuscular 676 neuromuscular junction, substances organizing 1100 primary nociceptive neurons with neurons of substantia gelatinosa of spinal cord 476 rectifying 180 those on axon terminals often modulatory 226 those on cell bodies often inhibitory 224 those on dendritic spines often excitatory 224–225 Synapsin binds vesicles to cytoskeleton 271 277 proteins involved in neurotransmitter release 270 Synaptic action, slow modulatory, release of neurotransmitters from dense-core vesicles 261 Synaptic boutons 187 motor neuron 73 78 Synaptic cleft 22 23 176 182 188 central and neuromuscular synapses compared 1103–1104 neuromuscular junction 189 removal of neurotransmitter terminates synaptic transmission 294–295 neurotransmitters from 287 Synaptic connections changes in strength at and memory 1254 effect of neurotrophins on survival 1124 fine-tuning, and sensory experience 1115–1130 growth associated with activation of CREB-1 1257 and pruning, in consolidation of long-term implicit memory 1256–1257 morphological types of in brain 209 210 212 pruning of in long-term habituation 1257 visual cortex, model for fine-tuning 1126–1127 Synaptic current, reversal potential for 210–211 Synaptic delay, calcium role in 277 Synaptic excitation, comparison of that produced by opening and closing of ion channels 240 Synaptic inhibition associated with opening of K+ channels in cells with GABA receptors 217 cerebral cortex 922 control of spontaneously active nerve cells 209 209 short-circuiting effect 217 shunting effect 217 Synaptic input influence properties of postsynaptic cell 1107 neuronal response to 160 Synaptic integration 207–228 Synaptic mechanisms, underlying habituation 1249–1250 Synaptic membranes, study with freeze-fracture technique 263 Synaptic plasticity associated with kindling 932–933 fine-tuning 1277 genetic control 1277 molecular alphabet for 1272–1274 NMDA-mediated, and spatial memory 1272 Synaptic potential 29 characteristics 31 end-plate, method of production 190 fast and slow in ganglionic transmission 970 in knee jerk 29 muscle, passive propagation 191 originating in dendrites, and resistance 144 quantal 257 reversal potential for 210–211 summation of as neuronal integration 222 Synaptic receptors, types 229 Synaptic regeneration, required for restoration of function after axon growth 1111–1112 Synaptic stripping, after axotomy 1108 Synaptic targets, specificity of axon recognition of 1105–1108 Synaptic terminal changes in membrane potential effect on intracellular calcium 274 retraction, after axotomy 1109 Synaptic transmission 173–310 activity-dependent presynaptic depression of in habituation 1248–1250 at chemical synapses, process 183 P.1406 autonomic nervous system 962–963 central nervous system 207–228 changes in effectiveness in short-term storage of implicit memory 1248–1254 strength and learning 1250 chemical 280 genetically determined defects in depression 1224 transmitting and receptive steps 183 cholinergic 241 abnormalities in narcoleptic dogs 951 decrease in synaptic strength due to decrease of number of transmitter vesicles released from presynaptic terminals 1249 effect of residual calcium 274 electrical, demonstration in giant motor synapse of crayfish 177 fast and slow in autonomic ganglion neurons 242 long-lasting consequences endowed by second messengers 249–250 long-term depression, cGMP cascade role in 240 longest-lasting, changes in gene transcription 251 mechanisms for 176 modulation by second messengers 229–253 monoaminergic, abnormalities in narcoleptic dogs 951 overview 175–186 presynaptic facilitation of in classical conditioning 1252 sensitization 1250–1252 process 182 retrograde, evidence for 239 return of organelle membranes involved in to cell body 97 role of SNARE proteins 270 second messengers in 230–231 terminated by removal of neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft 294–295 Synaptic vesicles 182 188 189 calcium mobilization 277 clear-core, in hair cells 622 623 clustered at active zones 182 control of mobilization, docking, and function 272 discharge neurotransmitter by exocytosis 262–264 electron-translucent, in afferent terminals of nociceptive neurons 477 fusions 265 molecular machinery for fusion and exocytosis 273 neuron 68 neurotransmitter 31 neurotransmitter release from through opening of fusion pore 267 precursor membranes, anterograde transport to axon 101 proteins involved in neurotransmitter release from 270–273 and postulated receptors 271 recycling of 267 269–270 269 by endocytosis 99 release small-molecule transmitters 295 store and release neurotransmitter 261–267 question of assembly 97 Synaptobrevin 271 role in synaptic transmission 270 Synaptogenesis, highly interactive process 1112 Synaptophysin 271 Synaptotagmin 271 isoforms 272–273 membrane protein of synaptic vesicle 272 Syndactyly cortical representation of hand after surgical correction 392 use of to study cortical representation of hand 389–390 Syndenham, Thomas 1189 Syndrome 1189 Synergistic muscle 77 Syntactic processing, difficulties in Broca aphasia 1177 Syntactical processing 13 Syntax grammar 1170 principles of 1170–1171 Syntaxin 271 role in synaptic transmission 270 role in synaptic vesicle docking and fusion 277 Syringomyelia, cysts in spinal cord 733 T t-SNARE proteins docking and fusion of transport vesicles with target membranes 96 role in synaptic vesicle docking and fusion 277 Tabes dorsalis 468 and sensory neurons 33 Tabula rasa 411 Tachykinins, family of neuroactive peptides 290 Tacrine, treatment, Alzheimer disease 1158 Tactile information, object, fragmented by peripheral sensors and integrated by brain 452 Tactile stimulation behavioral relevance modifies cortical response 468 integration with visual stimuli in area of posterior parietal cortex 465 map of cortical responses to produced using evoked potentials 386 Tail-flip response, goldfish 180 Takahashi, Joseph 45 Talbot, Samuel 496 Tanji, Jun 764 Tanner, Wilson 422 Tanycytes 1293 Tanzi, Rudy 1157 Tardive dyskinesia 1201 Target cells, secrete neurotrophic factors 1055–1056 Target membrane SNARE proteins See t-SNARE proteins Target recognition molecules, selectivity of synapse formation 1112 Tastants 626 interaction with taste cells 637 sweet, binding to G protein-coupled receptors 638 Taste 625–647 brain stem is site of entry for information from 320 coding, nature of 644 four different qualities of 637–642 role of pons 322 sensory cells 625–626 sensory neurons for organized according to sensitivity 419 types of stimuli 626 Taste buds 626 detect taste stimuli 636–642 innervation 637 643 taste cells in 638 on tongue 636 transmission of taste information to cerebral cortex 642 types of cells in 636 Taste cells clustered in taste buds 636–637 ion channels in 637 response to bitter tastant 640 Taste information pathway 642 relayed to cerebral cortex via thalamus 642–644 transmission from taste buds to cerebral cortex 642 Taste pore 637 638 Taste sensations, variations in patterns of activity in afferent fibers 644 Taste stimuli detected by taste buds 636–642 detection 645 mechanisms of transduction 639 transduction 645 Tau protein, Alzheimer disease 1154 TDF See Testis determining factor P.1407 Teaching line, adaptive adjustment in vestibulo-ocular reflex 826–827 828 Tectorial membrane cochlea 596 organ of Corti 596 598 and stimulation of hair cells 598 Tectospinal tract 669 medial brain stem pathway 668 Tectum 669 See also Superior colliculus Telencephalon, development 1021 1022 1035 Tello, Fernando 1099 Temperature compensation, and circadian rhythm in flies 42 control, set point in humans 1001 regulation integration of autonomic, endocrine, and skeletomotor responses 1000–1002 See Drive states sense 430 sensations of mediated by anterolateral system 448–449 Temporal bone, inner ear 592 Temporal coding, and receptor adaptation rates 423–25 Temporal cortex auditory areas, monkey 608 lesions in disrupt object recognition 498 multimodal association areas, lesions in affect explicit memory 1231 visual processing area, responses of neurons enhanced by selective attention 401 Temporal crescent 525 Temporal frequency, P and M cells 530 Temporal hemiretina 524 524 Temporal lobe epilepsy See Epilepsy, temporal lobe Temporal lobe 324 325 332 368 369 abnormal cortical connection in schizophrenia 1196 and category-specific knowledge 1236 of cerebral cortex 325 decreased blood flow in Alzheimer disease 1152 dorsal surface, auditory areas 608–609 electrical stimulaton produces experiential response 1229 epileptic, mossy fiber reorganization in 933 function lesions, in patient H.M 1228 limbic association areas, lesions of and distinction between explicit and implicit memory 1230–1231 medial, increased blood flow in cocaine craving 1008 removal reduces or cures partial seizures 925 See also Left temporal lobe signals about color conveyed to 583 Temporal operculum 332 Temporal summation 222 224 Tendon jerks 730 Tendon reflexes 730 Tendons, store mechanical energy during muscle contraction 678 TENS See Transcutaneous electrical stimulation Terminal arbor, axon 1067 Terminal cistern, muscle fiber 677 Terminal degeneration, after axotomy 1109 Terminal tremor 844 Testes, produces hormones for sexual differentiation of external genitalia 1132–1134 Testicular hormones, produced sex differences in developing central nervous system 1136–1137 Testis determining factor development of testes 1132 in sex determination 1132 Testosterone effects of exposure to during early development 1136 and neuronal death in spinal nucleus of the bulbocavernosus 1141 prohormone 1134 and sexual differentiation of genital ducts 1133 suppresses apoptosis 1140 Tetanic stimulaton 274 Tetanus toxin 271 targets SNARE proteins 270 Tetrabenzine, inhibits uptake of amine transmitters 286 Tetracycline, use to control timing of gene expression 1270 Tetraethylammonium blocks voltage-gated K+ channel 153 structure 154 permeability of end-plate ion channels to 192 Tetrodotoxin action in voltage-gated versus ligand-gated channels 197 blocks voltage-gated Na+ channel 153 effect on presynaptic action potentials 253 254 structure 154 study of Na+ channels 160 Texture, object encoded by firing patterns of mechanoreceptors 440 information about signaled by populations of mechanoreceptors 438–441 Thalamic nuclei, in hallucinations in schizophrenia 1190 Thalamic pain syndrome, after infarction of posterior cerebral artery 1308 Thalamic relay neurons activity synchronized with cortical neurons during primary generalized seizure 926 hyperpolarized by GABA-ergic interneurons 924 rhythmic firing during non-REM sleep 940 special Ca2+ channel in 924 and state of sleep or wakefulness 899 T channel contribution to absence seizures 924 transmission and burst modes of signaling activity 899 Thalamic relay nuclei hyperpolarization 898 reciprocal interaction with GABA-ergic inhibitory interneurons in reticular nucleus 898–899 role in primary generalized seizures 926 transmission and burst modes 898 voltage-gated calcium channels in 898 Thalamic syndrome 481 Thalamogeniculate arteries diencephalon 1304 effects of occlusion 1309 Thalamoperforate arteries diencephalon 1304 effects of occlusion 1309 Thalamus 332 333 347 367 368 369 761 833 842 855 anterior, abnormalities in Alzheimer disease 1153 in ascending arousal system 900 and ascending pathway of nociceptive information 480–482 basal ganglia parallel circuits link with cerebral cortex 857–861 positive feedback and indirect pathway negative feedback 857 direct and indirect pathways of anterolateral tract to 449 function generation of primary generalized seizures 924 hemorrhage, PET scan 1316 and infarction of posterior cerebral artery 1308 information processing in 344 inputs to motor cortex 761 left, and category-specific knowledge 1236 link between sensory receptors and cerebral cortex for all modalities except olfaction 341 major subdivisions 343 motor nuclei inputs to premotor cortex 355–356 P.1408 neurons in project to primary motor cortex 843 normal wakefulness state 899 nuclei classification 341–342 relay nociceptive information to cerebral cortex 480–481 olfactory information processing 633 parvocellular region, projections to ipsilateral cerebral cortex, taste 643–644 pathway of sensory information 446 projections from to neocortex 341 receives return projection from neocortex 343 recorded electrical activity, nature of 897–899 relay of taste information to cerebral cortex 642–644 role in mediating emotion 984 sends sensory information to amygdala for processing emotional information 990 sensory modalities conveyed to in ascending pathways 449 subdivision of diencephalon 322 transfer of odorant information to from olfactory bulb 633 transmission of sensory information to 448 ventral posterior medial nucleus, taste information pathway 642 Thermal injury, sensitization of nociceptors 479 Thermal nociceptors 443 473 Thermal pain, activation of anterior cingulate cortex 484 485 Thermal receptors 416 432 444–445 Thermal sensations, mediated by dorsal root ganglion neurons with bare nerve endings 431 Thermoregulation effects of sleep 944 role of serotonergic neurons 896 Theta, electroencephalogram 916 Theta rhythm, in hippocampus 1266 Thiamine deficiency chronic neuropathy 702 effect on cerebellum 850 Thinking 1169 Thioacylation, protein modification 92 Thiol endopeptidases, biosynthesis of neuroactive peptides 288 Thirst See Drinking Thirst See Drive states Thompson, Richard 849 1243 1248 Thoracic intermediolateral cell column, in pupillary dilation 905 Thoracic region, spinal cord 338–340 339 Thoracic splanchnic nerve, contains preganglionic axons 963 Thorndike, Edgar 382 1242 Thought, disorders of, schizophrenia 1188–1208 Threshold 126 127 127 158 sensory determination 421 modified by psychological and pharmacological factors 422 Thryotropin, neuroactive peptide 289 Thunberg's illusion, pain 484 484 Thymectomy in myasthenia gravis patients 300 treatment, myasthenia gravis 306 Thymomas, in patients with myasthenia gravis 300 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone neuroactive peptide 289 neurons releasing 979 980 Tight junctions, endothelial cells in brain microvessels 1290 TIM protein circadian rhythm 44 light-dependent degradation and circadian rhythm in flies 46 Time constant, passive membrane property of neuron 222 Timed response paradigm, parallel processing in movement 664 665 timeless gene, Drosophila, role in circadian rhythm 42 44 Timing role of cerebrocerebellum 846 stimulus attribute conveyed by sensory system 412 414 413 Tinel sign 703 Tinnitus 807 Tip link, hair cells 615 617 Tissue injury, major ascending pathways for information 480–482 TMA See Tetramethylamonium Todd paralysis 922 Tolerance drug 1011 opioid peptides 489 Tolman, Edward 382 Tonegawa, Susumi 1266 Tongue spatial segregation in nucleus of solitary tract, thalamus, and cortex 644 taste information pathway 642 types of papillae on 636 637 Tonic neurons 790 Tonic phase, partial seizure 913 Tonic-clonic seizure 913 neuronal activity during 922 Tononi, Giulio 1318 Tonotopic mapping, hair cells 620 Tonotopic map on basilar membrane 594 formation of on neurons in cochlear nucleus, inferior colliculus, and auditory cortex 1127 in primary auditory cortex 609 Tonsil, cerebellum 833 Top of the basilar syndrome, bilateral brain stem lesions 1312–1313 Topognosis 431 Topographic map body surface, in each of four Brodmann regions of somatic sensory cortex 458 in brain 323 internal organ system, in anterior insular cortex 974 retinal, generated by synchronous activity 1127 See also Retinotopic map Topographic representation, axons of retinal ganglion cells at termination in optic tectum 1064 Torque, muscle 688 tottering mouse mutant, model for study of primary generalized seizures 925 930 Touch 451–471 dorsal column-medial lemniscal system is pathway for perception 447–448 information about integrated by primary somatic sensory cortex 452–458 mediated by dorsal root ganglion neurons with encapsulated peripheral terminals 431 mechanoreceptors in skin 432–441 model for principles of cortical organization that give rise to conscious perception 451 path of information for 341 structural basis of receptive field of receptors for 419 study of to explore internal representations of personal space 384 Tourette syndrome, and basal ganglia 1224 Tower of Hanoi, test of frontal lobe function 358 Tower of London task, test of frontal lobe function 358 Toxins as blocking molecules in ion channels 112 effect on functional state of ion channels 115 ion channels as site of activity 105 Tract of Lissauer 448 Training effect on functional organization of primary motor cortex 761–763 expansion of existing representation of fingers in cortex 1274 and increased representation of movement in primary motor cortex 763 massed and spaced 1250 P.1409 repeated, conversion of short-term into long-term memory 1254 trans -(1S, 3R)-1-amino-1, 3-cyclopentanedicarboxylic acid, activates metabotropic glutamate receptors 212 Trans-Golgi network 96 Transcortical motor aphasia brain areas damaged in 1180 characteristics 1176 nonfluent speech in 1180 Transcortical responses 767 Transcortical sensory aphasia brain areas damaged in 1180 characteristics 1176 Transcortical sensory area, fluent speech with impaired comprehension in 1180 Transcription, DNA conversion to mRNA 88–89 Transcription factors regulatory DNA-binding proteins 88–89 See also C/EBP; CREB segmental expression in hindbrain patterning 1033 Sox gene family, neural plate cell differentiation 1026 Transcutaneous electrical stimulation, relief of pain 482 Transducin, inactivation terminates light response in phototransduction 514 Transfer RNA, mitochondrial 89 Transformation, signal in stretch reflex pathway 32–33 Transforming growth factor beta, neural crest cell fate 1047 Transgenes expression, methods of regulating 1268–1270 1269–1270 introducing in flies and mice 43 methods for turning on and off 1268 Translation, messenger RNA 90–91 Translational vestibulo-ocular reflex 809 Transmembrane proteins cone photopigments 576 GABA receptor 219 glutamate receptor 219 glycine receptor 219 method of formation in endoplasmic reticulum 95 See also Receptors Transmission directly gated, at nerve-muscle synapse 187–206 electrical, rapid and synchronous firing of interconnected cells 180 synaptic, process 182 Transmitters 173 act through second messengers to stimulate local protein synthesis in specific dendritic spines of postsynaptic neurons 250 action through second messengers to mediate phosphorylation of transcriptional proteins 249–250 chemical 31–32 chemical common biochemical features of receptors for 185 short- and long-term effects on ion channels 250 release triggered by calcium influx at presynaptic nerve terminals 160 See also Neurotransmitters Transneural degeneration, after axotomy 1109 Transneuronal degeneration, after axotomy 1109 Transport systems, carrier-mediated, and blood-brain barrier 1290–1292 Transport vesicles docking and fusion with target membranes 96 for export of proteins 96–97 neuron 68 69 Transporters chloride 132 ion conductance across cell membranes 108 reuptake of transmitter substance 294–295 types 295 vesicle, for concentrating neurotransmitters 285–286 Transposable elements 48 Transsexualism 1143 Transverse tubules, muscle fiber 677 Trapezoid body, auditory pathway 604 606 cranial nerve nuclei at level of 884 Treisman, Anne 502 504 566 trembler mutation, mouse, identification of peripheral myelin protein 22 83 Tremor, cerebellar abnormality 849 Trial-and-error learning See Operant conditioning Tricyclic antidepressants block uptake of serotonin 295 treatment cataplexy 951 panic attacks 1221 effect on serotonergic and noradrenergic neurons 1218–1219 Tricylcic compounds, antidepressants 1214 Trifluopromazine, structure 1198 Trigeminal cranial nerve (V) function and dysfunction 874–875 877 lesion 878 motor and sensory roots 877 origin at brain stem 876 877 Trigeminal lemniscus, ascending somatosensory pathway 448 Trigeminal motor nuclei 671 Trigeminal motor nucleus 881 location and function 883 Trigeminal nerve areas of innervation 880 in developing hindbrain 1031 mesencephalic nucleus of, control of sleep 941 Trigger component generation of action potential 29–30 nerve cell signaling 29–30 Trigger signal 27 Trigger zone 30 30 223 high density of voltage-gated Na+ channels 160 motor neuron 78 Trinucleotide amplification, myotonic muscular dystrophy 710 Trinucleotide expansion and genetic anticipation 54 role in Huntington disease 54 Trinucleotide repeats in huntingtin gene for Huntington disease 865 neurological diseases involving 55 types involved in neurological diseases 56 Trinucleotide repeat diseases 704 Triplet repeat diseases 704 Tritanopia 584 trkA, B, and C, neurotrophic receptors 1056 1057 trkB receptors, interference with blocks formation of ocular dominance columns 1124 Trochlear cranial nerve (IV) function and dysfunction 874–875 877 origin at brain stem 876 877 Trochlear nerve in developing hindbrain 1031 innervation of extraocular muscle 787 lesion 788 Trochlear nuclei, location 883 Trochlear nucleus 881 Tropism 1080 Tropomyosin in muscle fibers 677 678 muscle contraction 679 Troponin, in muscle fibers 677 678 Trunk motor control and sensation mediated by spinal cord 320 somatosensory information conveyed from by dorsal root ganglion neurons 431 from carried to spinal cord 338–340 Tsien, Joe 1266 TTX See Tetrodotoxin Tuber, cerebellum 833 Tuberculoventral cell, cochlear nucleus 605 Tuberoinfundibular hypothalamic neuroendocrine system, dopaminergic neurons in 893 P.1410 Tuberomamillary nucleus in ascending arousal system 900 histaminergic neurons in 894 895 896 hypothalamus 977 Tubulin, in microtubules 72 Tufted relay cells, olfactory bulb 630 631 Tully, Tim 1259 Tulving, Endel 1231 Tumors affecting cranial nerves 877 brain, and blood-brain barrier function 1294 Tuning curve, frequency sensitivity of hair cell 599 599 Twin studies anatomical abnormalities in brain in schizophrenia 1195–1196 for evaluating role of genes and environment in complex behavior 40–42 41 homosexuality 1145–1146 1145 personality 42 schizophrenia 1193–1194 Twins monozygotic versus dizygotic 40 concordance rate for bipolar depression 1212 enlargement of lateral ventricle in schizophrenia 1197 sleep patterns in 944 Twitch contraction 681 Two-point discrimination and lateral inhibition 461 skin 464 Two-point threshold 438 Tympanic membrane 595 Tympanum 591 591 595 Tyrosine kinase ACh receptor as substrate for 248 regulation 235 dimerization 239 membrane-spanning, as neurotrophic receptors 1056 nonreceptor 230 pathway, receptor and cytoplasmic kinases in 238–239 U Ubiquitin, addition of as post-translational protein modification 90 93 Ubiquitin carboxyterminal hydrolase, in long-term facilitation 1254–1257 Umami, taste quality 642 Unconditioned response 1240 Unconditioned stimulus 1240 Ungerleider, Leslie 500 1237 Unimodal association areas 350 cerebral cortex 345 Unimodal association cortex, processing of sensory information in cerebral cortex 345 Unipolar disease See Depression, unipolar Unreality, ictal phenomenon 15 Unwin, Nigel 199 Upper contralateral quadrantic anopsia 544 Upper motor neurons 696 symptoms of disorders of 696 Urbach-Wiethe disease, amygdala 988–989 Urogenital reflexes, mechanism 968–969 Utricle 802 axis of mechanical sensitivity 805 cochlea 592 detection of linear acceleration 804–805 reports linear accelerations 802 structure 804 Uvula, cerebellum 833 V V See Potential difference Vm see Membrane potential V-SNARE proteins, docking and fusion of transport vesicles with target membranes 96 V1 See Primary visual cortex V2, visual cortex cells in respond to both illusory and actual contours 562–563 higher-level information processing of illusions of edges 564 interconnections with V1 549 organization 549 See also Secondary visual cortex stripes and interstripes in, 550 V4, visual cortex analyzes and represents color information in image 583 cells in respond to form 563–564 color-opponent neurons in 588 effects of visual attention on cells of 565–566 neurons, response to effective visual stimulus modified by selective attention 568 secondary visual area projects to 583 Vacuolar apparatus proteins manufacture on rough endoplasmic reticulum 103 synthesized and modified in endoplasmic reticulum 94–96 Vacuolar apparatus neuron 69 role in protein synthesis 91 Vagal nucleus, dorsal, preganglionic parasympathetic nucleus in brain stem, projections 963 Vagus cranial nerve (X) function and dysfunction 874–875 879–880 injury 880 origin at brain stem 876 877 Vagus nerve in developing hindbrain 1031 and homeostasis 965 Vagusstoff 966 Valium effect on gating of ion channels in response to GAB A 114 116 See Benzodiazepines Vallbo, Ake 729 Valproic acid, blocks absence seizures 924 VAMP in synaptic transmission 270 in synaptic vesicle docking and fusion 277 Van Essen, David 496 Vannilloid receptor, in nociceptors 474 Varicosities 962 Vascular lesions brain stem, syndromes 1310 See also Infarction; Occlusion Vascular syndromes, brain stem 1312 Vascular volume, regulation of drinking 1006–1007 Vasoactive intestinal peptide, co-release with ACh 290 Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide 972 neuroactive peptide 289 Vasogenic edema 1294 brain 1299 Vasopressin magnocellular endocrine neurons 987 neuroactive peptide 289 posterior pituitary gland 979 transmitter in neurons innervating antipyretic area of brain 1002 secretion by hypothalamic magnocellular neurons 979 Vegetative state, persistent, as result of bilateral forebrain damage 900 901 Venterolateral nucleus 761 Ventral amygdalofugal pathway 987 Ventral columns, white matter of spinal cord 338 338 Ventral corticospinal tract, pathway 670 Ventral horn, spinal cord 319 338 Ventral occipital cortex, localized damage to causes loss of color vision 563–564 Ventral posterior and ventral medial nuclei, pathway of sensory information 446 Ventral posterior lateral nucleus 342 thalamic 482 Ventral posterolateral nucleus 761 Ventral premotor area, individual cell active if monkey performs task or observes task being performed 777 Ventral root, spinal cord 320 Ventral striatum, basal ganglia 855 P.1411 Ventral sulcus, spinal cord 338 Ventral tegmental area, dopaminergic neurons in 896 Ventral 321 Ventricle 325 332 lateral and third, enlarged in schizophrenia 1195 1196 1197 third 369 Ventrolateral funiculus 751 Ventrolateral medulla in autonomic response control pathway 975 pathway of visceral sensory information 974 Ventrolateral medullary reticular formation 885 Ventrolateral nucleus, thalamus 347 Ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus 976 Ventromedial motor nucleus 668 Ventromedial nucleus, hypothalamus 977 Ventroposterior parvocellular nucleus, projections to 973–974 Verbal tasks, sex differences 1142 Vergence 797 movement system, eye 783 785 organized in midbrain 796 Vermis, cerebellum 833 834 lesions of 850 Vertebral artery 1303 branches supply blood to brain stem and cerebellum 1309 infarction, brain stem syndromes produced 1311–1312 Vertigo, cerebellar infarction 1313 Vesicles anterograde transport to axon 101 classes of 97 clathrin-coated, in endocytic traffic 98 coated, in exocytosis 265 concentrations of neurotransmitters in 285 dense-core contain neuropeptides and small-molecule neurotransmitters 281 store neuropeptides and neurotransmitters 261 large dense-core in afferent terminals of nociceptive neurons 477 anterograde transport to axon 101 storage of neuropeptides 290 store peptide neurohormones 97 targeted to axons 97 neurotransmitter, and quantal synaptic potential 277 package chemical messengers 296 precursors, neuron 68 secretion of proteins from Golgi complex 97 small lucent, contain small molecule neurotransmitters 281 SNARES, role in synaptic transmission 270 synaptic, question of assembly 97 transport, for export of proteins 96–97 transporters 287 for concentrating neurotransmitters 285–286 Vesicular SNARE proteins See v-SNARE proteins Vesicular-ATPase, vesicle transporter 285–286 Vestibular apparatus habituation 809–810 integration of vestibular, visual, and motor signals 810–813 Vestibular canals, disease in, nystagmus 812 Vestibular ganglia of Scarpa 802 Vestibular ganglion 803 Vestibular labyrinth 802 defects in, and loss of balance 824 effect of removal in cat 825 Meniere disease 807–808 parallel fiber input to Purkinje cells 827 828 Purkinje cells' inhbitory influence on vestibular nuclei 825 828 receptor organs 802–808 Vestibular movements, eye 797 Vestibular nerve 591 801 803 807 808 anatomical connections 812 cochlea 592 signals head velocity to vestibular nuclei 810–812 Vestibular nuclei 801 afferent inputs 810 lateral and medial 669 location and function 882 medial and lateral, inhibitory effect of Purkinje neurons on 841 optokinetic and vestibular peripheral inputs to 828 829 projections to oculomotor system 814 receive signals regarding head velocity from vestibular nerve 810–812 vestibulo-ocular reflex 811 811 812 Vestibular nucleus 808 881 ventral corticospinal tract 670 Vestibular nystagmus 809 resets eye position during sustained rotation of head 809 Vestibular projection, cerebral cortex, perception of rotation and vertical orientation 813 Vestibular receptors, lesions, cause disorientation and vertigo 807 Vestibular reflexes stabilize eyes and body when head moves 808–810 volitional control 822–823 Vestibular schwannoma, vestibulocochlear cranial nerve 879 Vestibular signals, covergence with vestibular signals during rotational movements 828–829 Vestibular system 801–815 contributions to postural control 821–824 824 projects information in top-down manner 830 Vestibulocerebellum 834 inputs and projections 840 regulates balance and eye movements 841 Vestibulocochlear cranial nerve (VIII) function and dysfunction 874–875 functions 879 origin at brain stem 876 877 Vestibulocochlear nerve 807 Vestibulocollic reflex, stabilizes head relative to space 822 Vestibulo-ocular control motor learning in 824–828 role of cerebellum in adaptation 825–828 Vestibulo-ocular eye movements 783 Vestibulo-ocular reflex 808 adaptive learning, memory of in brain stem 828 compensate for head movement 808–809 effect of magnifying lenses 825 826 prism glasses on 848 horizontal 812 hypotheses of adaptive adjustment 826–827 supplemented by optokinetic system 809–810 types 809 Vestibulo-ocular system 783 Vestibulospinal reflexes 808 collaboration with cervicopspinal reflexes to maintain postural stability 823–824 823 maintain vertical posture 810 Vestibulospinal tracts 669 medial brain stem pathway 668 Vibration sense, coded by spike trains in mechanoreceptors in skin 437 Vibrissae 462 Video microscopy techniques 101 Vigilance increased by ascending monoaminergic projections from brain stem and hypothalamus 896–897 role of locus ceruleus 896 Vilis, Tutis 844 Vincent, Angela 306 Violence See Behavior, aggressive VIP See Vasoactive intestinal peptide Virchow, Rudolf 1189 Virchow-Robin spaces, blood vessels in subarachnoid space 1296 Viscera innervated by dorsal root ganglion neurons 444 P.1412 mechanosensory and chemosensory receptors in 443–444 signals from nociceptors in and pain elsewhere in body 475 Visceral function, role of hypothalamus Visceral motor cortex 974 Visceral motor nuclei, in developing hindbrain 1031 Visceral motor system reflex circuits in 962 synpases in 962 Visceral reflexes, and autonomic nervous system 961 Visceral sensory afferents 980 Visceral sensory information, pathways 973–974 974 Visceral sensory thalamus, projections to 973 Visible spectrum 574 Vision achromatic 579 color 572–589 depth, monocular cues and binocular disparity 558–562 disturbed, diffuse hypoperfusion 1313 guidance of movement 654 independence from language 364–365 object versus stereopsis 561–562 role of occipital lobe posterior nuclei of thalamus 343 See also Depth; Form; Gaze; Motion; Object vision stereoscopic 560 neuronal basis 561 vestibular stabilization of eye relative to space 828–829 visuospatial sketch pad for in working memory 1239 Visual area See Primary visual cortex Visual attention See Attention, visual Visual cortex cells responsive to binocular disparity 561 function MRI study 374 hierarchical pathways in two cortical pathways 552 information conveyed by magnocellular and parvocellular pathways 529–532 model for fine-tuning of synpatic connections 1126–1127 monkey, different disparity profiles in neurons 562 partial lesions, partial visual deficits on opposite side 544 projections to 1116 See also Primary visual cortex; V2; V4 serial pathways through 552 transformation of visual signals 581–583 Visual deprivation See Eye closure Visual field 524 binocular and monocular zones 524 correspondence of regions with retinal image 525 decomposition into short line segments 545 deficits in produced by lesions at various points in visual pathway 544 each half represented in contralateral primary visual cortex 532 gaps in associated with lesions in retino-geniculate-cortical pathway 543–545 one region of, hypercolumn representation of visual properties of 539–540 optic flow 553 perception of motion in 551 retinal image inversion of 524–525 526 visual information 504 Visual hemifield, left and right 525 Visual image background versus foreground 497 built up from inputs of parallel pathways 502–504 construction 492–506 contrasts and rapid changes detected by ganglion cells 519–520 ganglion cells process different aspects 520 and interactions among areas of cerebral cortex 505 outlines of decomposed into short line segments in primary visual cortex 533–535 primary visual cortex organizes retinal inputs into building blocks of 532–537 receptive field of each receptor 420 requirement of focused attention on elements in visual field 502 Visual information areas of cerebral cortex dedicated to 499 carried by brightness variations 579 combination into coherent image, hypothetical model 504 and motor systems, role of parietal neurons 567 parallel pathways 500–501 517 processing in cerebral cortex, PET measurement of local blood flow changes during 378 multiple cortical areas 496–497 selective filtering by visual attention 565 subcortical processing by lateral geniculate nucleus 529 Visual neglect 498 Visual neurons, in frontal eye field 794 Visual orientation, disrupted by lesions in parietal cortex 498 Visual pathways central 523–547 early transformation of cone signals 577–581 functions mediated by 502 P and M 501 Visual perception activity of extrastriate cortex 500 development of 1116–1117 focal attention 503 frames of reference 498 preattentive scanning 503 requires sensory experience 1115–1117 and selective attention 400 sequential processes 502–503 winner-take-all perceptual strategy 494 Visual pigments absorption of light by in photoreceptors 510 in cones 512 genes encoding are on X chromosomes 584–585 Visual processing and developmental dyslexia 1185 by retina 507–522 Visual signals, transformation in visual cortex 581–583 Visual space, representation of body related to 402 Visual spatial agnosia 500 Visual stimuli development and role of orientation columns 1125 integration with tactile stimuli in area of posterior parietal cortex 465 responses of neurons in area 17 of monkey visual cortex 1117 Visual system 492–506 anatomical pathways 496–197 binding problem 492 566–567 circuits refined by sensory experience 1115 cognitive function 492 components of in midbrain 322 confusion by artificial means 577 distributed processing 496 505 M and P pathways 581 magnocellular pathway, slower conduction in people with dyslexia 1185 molecular cues for development 1115 motion information processed in two stages 554 556 parallel pathways in 504–505 521 545 567–568 on-center and off-center ganglion cells 519–520 P.1413 receptive field of sensory neurons defines spatial resolution of stimulus 418–419 separate circuits for global versus local features of object 397 serial pathway 505 structure 1116 Visuomotor integraton, superior colliculus 792–795 Visuomovement neurons, in frontal eye field 794 Visuospatial buffer, localization 360 Visuospatial sketch pad localization 360 working memory 1239 Visuospatial tasks, sex differences 1142 Vitamin A, deficiency, night blindness 512 Vitamin B12 deficiency, chronic neuropathy 702 Vm See Resting membrane potential Vogt, Marthe 299 Volition, disorders of, schizophrenia 1188–1208 Voltage current in ion channel related to linearly 109–110 110 equal to membrane potential 143 relationship with current 141 Voltage clamp technique 169 calculate membrane conductance 155 current generator 152 determining origin of electrical resonance in hair cells 621 demonstrates rapid rate of Na+ channels turning on and off over range of membrane potentials 156 determine separate time courses of oppositely directed currents 153 electrical equivalent circuit of nerve cell undergoing 155 mechanism of 151 152 negative feedback system 152 study of end-plate potential 190 See also Patch-clamp technique, 152 study of Na+ and K+ conductance as function of membrane potential 151 study of Na+ and K+ currents with 151–154 Voltage response, passive neuronal process, and electrotonic conduction 145 Voltage-gated channel, structure 119 118 See Ion channel, voltage-gated Voltametry 266 Voluntary behavior, law of effect 1242 Voluntary movement 756–781 See also Movement, voluntary Vomeronasal organ mediates information about pheromones 634 olfactory information processing 633 pattern of expression of pheromone receptors 635 635 sensory transduction in 634 Vomeronasal receptors, layered 634 Vomeronasal system 634 von Bekesy, Georg 594 von Helmholz, Herrmann W Wada test, for hemispheric distinction 364 Wagnor, Jackson 1134 Wake-sleep cycle with no cognitive content, as persistent vegetative state 900 role of serotonergic neurons 896 Wakefulness disorders of 948–959 increased by ascending monoaminergic projections from brain stem and hypothalamus 896–897 Waking, signaling activity of thalamic relay neurons 899 Waking state, promoted by stimulation of midbrain reticular formation 939 Walker, Mary 299 Walking central motor command for modifies transmission in spinal reflex pathways 724 human bipedal and demands on descending systems 754 spinal pattern generators in 753–754 proprioceptive signals in 727 role of descending pathways in initiation and adaptive control 750–753 750 See also Locomotion; Stepping spinal circuits in 717 Wallenberg syndrome, damage of cranial nuclei in lateral medulla 886 886 Wallenberg, Adolph 886 Waller, Augustus 88 Wallerian degeneration, after axotomy 1108 1109 Warm-sensitive neurons, hypothalamus 1001 Warmth, mediated by thermal receptors 444–445 Warrington, Elizabeth 1237 Water, shell of surrounding ions 108 Water balance, regulation by hypothalamus 1006–1007 Water intake, set point 1006 Water maze memory test 1267 1271 1272 test of spatial memory defects 1271 Water regulation, feedback signals for 1006 See also Drinking Water-soluble compounds, transport across blood-brain barrier 1292 Watson, J.B 382 Weakness after occlusion of carotid artery 1309 areas of after middle cerebral artery infarction 1307–1308 infarcts of medial or lateral brain stem structures 1311 Weber syndrome, midbrain infarction 1312 Weber's law 421 Weber, Ernst 411 412 421 Weigert stain, layers of neurons in cerebral cortex 326 Weinberg, Stephen 398 Weinberger, Daniel 1203 Weischaus, Eric 1032 Weiskrantz, Lawrence 1318 Weiss, Paul 100 1064 Wender, Paul 1193 1212 Werner syndrome, premature aging, mechanism 1150 Wernicke aphasia after middle cerebral artery infarction 1308 characteristics 1176 damage to left temporal lobe structures 1179–1180 MRI of lesion 1179 phonemic paraphasias in 1179–1180 spontaneous speech, auditory comprehension, and repetition in 1178 Wernicke's area activation when words are heard 13 language 1174 1175 lesion, effect on speech 897 and speech 11 temporal lobe, damage to produces sensory aphasia 355 Wernicke, Karl 10–11 Wernicke-Geschwind model, language 1175 Wertheimer, Max 493 Wheatstone, Charles 560 Whiskers and developmental organization of barrels in somatosensory cortex of rodents 1037 1037 mapping in primary motor cortex and plasticity 761 representation on rodent cortex 460 462 See also Barrels White communicating ramus 962 White matter, spinal cord 319 structure 338 White myelinated rami 963 Wide-dynamic-range neurons, in dorsal horn of spinal cord 475 Wiesel, Torsten 529 533 537 579 1116 Wilks, Samuel 299 Williams syndrome 1172 Wind-up phenomenon, C fibers 479 Winner-take-all perceptual strategy, visual perception 494 P.1414 Wisconsin Card Sorting Test blood flow to prefrontal areas in schizophrenic patients 362 test of frontal lobe function 358 Withdrawal reflexes, muscle 654 Wnt-1, differentiation of mesencephalon 1034 Wolffian ducts, sexual differentiation 1133 1133 Woodworth, Robert 662 Woolsey, Clinton 385 Word 1170 Words activation of different areas of cerebral cortex 13 PET identification 14 association, role of cerebellum 848 for categories of things, left temporal cortices contain neural systems for accessing 1182 open-class and closed-class vocabularies 1170 recall of in amnesiacs and normal subjects 1230 Working memory 357 and Broca aphasia 1179 components 357 cortex surrounding the principal sulcus 357–361 imaging of 360 modular nature 359 nonverbal 360 and prefrontal association area 357 See also Memory tracked by neurons in principal sulcus 361 verbal 360 Worm See Caenorhabditis elegans Writing acquired disorders of 1183–1184 motor equivalence in 657 versus language 1170 Wundt, Wilhelm 411 1317 Wurtz, Robert 400 565 X X chromome L and M pigment genes on 585 locus of genes encoding visual pigments 584–585 See also Duchenne muscle dystrophy; Mental retardation X-linked spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy, trinucleotide repeats in 55 X-ray computerized tomography, functional imaging of brain 366 X-ray crystallography structure of extracellular glutamate binding domain 220 study of ion channels 109 used to solve structure of K+ -selective ion channels 120–123 122 X-ray diffraction studies, three-dimensional structure of gap-junction channel 179 XX individual, formation, phenotypic female 1132 1132 XX male, formaton 1132 1132 XY female, formation 1132 1132 XY individual, formation, phenotypic male 1132 1132 Y Y chromosome location of testis determining factor 1132 in sex determination 1132 Yellow-blue mechanism, in cones 580 Yellow-blue variation, component function of reflectance function 578 Yeo, Christopher 849 Yin, Jerry 1259 Yohimbine induces panic attack in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder 1222 induction of panic attacks 1221 Young, Thomas 575 Z Z disk, sarcomere 677 678 Zeitgebers, timing cures 937 Zeki, Semir 496 505 583 587 Zona limitans intrathalamica, forebrain 1035 Zotterman, Yngve 421 430 Zurif, Edgar 13 ... Research Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine Peter Lennie PhD Professor of Neural Science Center for Neural Science, New York University Gerald E Loeb MD Professor Department... the cerebral hemisphere to the cerebellum ● The cerebellum lies behind the pons and is connected to the brain stem by several major fiber tracts called peduncles The cerebellum modulates the... infer the amino acid sequences for the proteins they encode has revealed unanticipated similarities between proteins in the nervous system and those encountered elsewhere in the body As a result,