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Page i PILE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE Page ii Other Titles from E & FN Spon Advanced Geotechnical Analysis Edited by P.K.Bonerjee and R.Butterfield Buried Structures: Static and Dynamic Strength P.S.Bulson Contaminated Land: Problems and Solutions Edited by T.Cairney Cyclic Loading of Soils M.P.O’Reilly and S.F.Brown Design and Construction of Engineering Foundations Edited by F.D.C.Henry Dynamic Behaviour of Foundations and Buried Structures Edited by P.K.Bonerjee and R.Butterfield Earth Pressure and Earth-Retaining Structures C.R.I.Clayton, J.Milititsky and R.I.Woods Engineering Treatment of Soils F.G.Bell Foundations on Rock D.C.Wyllie Geomembranes: Identification and Performance Testing Edited by A.L.Rollin and J.M.Rigo Geosynthetics in Filtration, Drainage and Erosion Control Edited by R.M.Koerner Geotechnical Practice for Waste Disposal Edited by D.E.Daniel Geotextiles N.W.M.John Ground Improvement Edited by M.P.Moseley Ground Pollution Environment, geology, engineering and law P.B.Attewell Soil-Structure Interaction: Numerical Analysis and Modelling Edited by J.W.Bull Piling Engineering W.G.K.Fleming, A.J.Weltman, M.F.Randolph and W.K.Elson Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining B.H.G.Brady and E.T.Brown Rock Slope Engineering E.Hoek and J.W.Bray Soil Mechanics R.F.Craig The Stability of Slopes E.N.Bromhead Structural Foundations Manual for Low-Rise Buildings M.F.Atkinson Underground Excavations in Rock E.Hoek and E.T.Brown Underpinning and Retention Edited by S.Thorburn and G.S.Littlejohn Geotechnical and Geological Engineering (Journal) For details of these and other books, contact E & FN Spon, 2–6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN Tel: 071–522 9966 Page iii PILE DESIGN and CONSTRUCTION PRACTICE Fourth edition M.J.Tomlinson, CEng, FICE, FIStructE E & FN SPON An Imprint of Chapman & Hall London · Glasgow · Weinheim · New York · Tokyo · Melbourne · Madras Page iv Published by E & FN Spon, an imprint of Chapman & Hall, 2–6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall, 2–6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY10003, USA Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2–2–1 Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Chapman & Hall Australia, Thomas Nelson Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R.Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India First edition 1977 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004 To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www eBookstore.tandf.co.uk Third edition 1987 Fourth edition 1994 © 1977, 1981, 1987 Palladian, 1991, 1994 E & FN Spon ISBN 0-203-47457-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-23885-0 (OEB Format) ISBN 419 18450 (Print Edition) Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers at the London address printed on this page The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made A Catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data available Page v Contents Preface to fourth edition Preface to first edition Chapter General principles and practices xi xiii 1.1 Function of piles 1.2 Historical 1.3 Calculations of load-carrying capacity 1.4 Dynamic piling formulae 1.5 Code of practice requirements 1.6 Responsibilities of engineer and contractor 1.7 References Chapter Types of pile 2.1 Classification of piles 2.2 Driven displacement piles 2.2.1 Timber piles 2.2.2 Precast concrete piles 13 2.2.3 Jointed precast concrete piles 23 2.2.4 Steel piles 24 2.2.5 Shoes for steel piles 32 2.2.6 Working stresses for steel piles 33 2.3 Driven-and-cast-in-place displacement piles 35 2.3.1 General 35 2.3.2 Withdrawable-tube types 37 2.3.3 Shell types 39 2.3.4 Working stresses on driven-and-cast-in-place piles 42 2.4 Replacement piles 42 2.4.1 General 42 2.4.2 Bored-and-cast-in-place piles 42 2.4.3 Drilled-in tubular piles 45 2.5 Composite piles 47 2.6 Minipiles and micropiles 48 2.7 Factors governing choice of type of pile 48 2.8 References 50 Chapter Piling equipment and methods 3.1 Equipment for driven piles 51 51 3.1.1 Piling frames 51 3.1.2 Crane supported (hanging) leaders 52 3.1.3 Trestle guides 54 3.1.4 Piling hammers 57 3.1.5 Piling vibrators 63 3.1.6 Selection of type of piling hammer 65 3.1.7 Noise control in pile driving 67 Page vi 3.1.8 Pile helmets and driving caps 72 3.1.9 Jetting piles 74 3.2 Equipment for installing driven-and-cast-in-place piles 76 3.3 Equipment for installing bored-and-cast-in-place piles 79 3.3.1 Power augers 79 3.3.2 Grabbing rigs with casing oscillators 81 3.3.3 Continuous flight auger drilling rigs 81 3.3.4 Reverse-circulation drilling rigs 83 3.3.5 Tripod rigs 83 3.3.6 Drilling for piles with bentonite slurry 85 3.3.7 Base and skin grouting of bored and cast-in-place piles 86 3.4 Procedure in pile installation 87 3.4.1 Driving timber piles 87 3.4.2 Driving precast (including prestressed) concrete piles 88 3.4.3 Driving steel piles 89 3.4.4 Driving and concreting steel shell piles 90 3.4.5 The installation of withdrawable-tube types of driven-and-cast-in-place piles 90 3.4.6 The installation of bored-and-cast-in-place piles by power auger equipment 90 3.4.7 Concreting pile shafts under water 93 3.4.8 The installation of bored-and-cast-in-place piles by grabbing, vibratory and reverse-circulation rigs 95 3.4.9 The installation of bored-and-cast-in-place piles by tripod rigs 95 3.4.10 The installation of raking piles 95 3.4.11 Positional tolerances 96 3.5 Constructing piles in groups 97 3.6 References 97 Chapter Calculating the resistance of piles to compressive loads 4.1 General considerations 4.1.1 The basic approach to the calculation of pile resistance 99 99 99 4.1.2 The behaviour of a pile under load 100 4.1.3 Definition of failure load 101 4.1.4 Allowable loads on piles 102 4.2 Piles in cohesive soils 103 4.2.1 Driven displacement piles 103 4.2.2 Driven-and-cast-in-place displacement piles 110 4.2.3 Bored-and-cast-in-place non-displacement piles 111 4.2.4 The effects of time on pile resistance in clays 113 4.3 Piles in cohesionless soil 114 4.3.1 General 114 4.3.2 Driven piles in cohesionless soils 119 4.3.3 Piles with open-ends driven into cohesionless soils 121 4.3.4 Grouted driven piles 122 4.3.5 Driven-and-cast-in-place piles in cohesionless soils 123 4.3.6 Bored-and-cast-in-place piles in cohesionless soils 123 4.3.7 The use of in-situ tests to predict the ultimate resistance of piles in cohesionless soils 124 4.3.8 Time effects for piles in cohesionless soils 129 4.4 Piles in soils intermediate between sands and clays 129 4.5 Piles in layered cohesive and cohesionless soils 131 4.6 The settlement of the single pile at the working load for piles in soil 133 4.7 Piles bearing on rock 138 4.7.1 Driven piles 138 4.7.2 Driven-and-cast-in-place piles 142 4.7.3 Bored-and-cast-in-place piles 143 Hughes, J.M.O., 400 Humphries, E.F., 289 Hutchinson, J.N., 219 Irish, K., 331 Irwin, W.W., 342 Isemoto, N., 121 Ishihara, K., 153 Jackson, W.H., 319 Janes, M., 401 Page 406 Jamiolkowski, M., 258 Jardine, R.J., 105 Jezequel, J.F., 258 Johanessen, I.J., 152 Johnson, J.W., 319 Jonson, W., 355 Jones, D.A., 113 Joustra, K., 377 Jorden, E.E., 154 Journeaux, N.L., 145 Kalra, J.C, 178 Kee, R., 198 Kinder, G., 97 King, D., 311 Kinoshita, S., 343 Kishida, H., 121 Klajnerman, D., 257 Knill, J.L., 355 Koop, F.B., 244 Kraft, L.M., 113 Kulhawy, F.H., 115, 139 Lane, P.F., 92, 278 Lea, F.M., 365 Leach, B.A., 154 Lee, D.J., 289 Leung, C.F., 198 Levesque, M., 354 Little John, G.S., 219 Lizzi, F., 334 Lord, J.A., 143, 145, 187 Lunne, T., 183 Lyons, G.G., 113 Macphie, H.L., 199 Malkin, A.B., 355 Mallard, D.J., 154 Marchetti, H., 401 Marsland, A., 401 Martin, R., 153 Massarch, K.R., 349 Matlock, H., 240, 243 McAvoy, R.P., 257 McCabe, R., 353 McKenzie, A., 377 McKinlay, D.G., 401 Medland, J.W., 154 Meigh, A.C., 125, 182, 187 Meyerhof, G.G., 111, 114, 131, 150, 169, 213, 256 Mitchell, J.M., 97 Mitchell, J.K., 114, 115, 153 Moon, J., 319 Moon, R., 400 Moore, J.E., 153 Moretto, O., 86 Morley, J., 369 Morganstern, N.R., 342 Morison, J.R., 308 Mundy, F.S., 289 Murdock, L.J., 104, 114 Newmark, N., 307 Nordlund, R.L., 119 North-Lewis, J.P., 85 O’Brien, M.P., 319 O’Neill, M.W., 86 O’Riordan, N.J., 87 Ono, T., 355 Ostenfeld, C., 355 Osterberg, J.O., 141 Padfield, C.J., 178, 197 Pasqualini, E., 258 Peck, R.B., 114, 129, 166, 190, 376 Pells, P.J.N., 139, 145, 211 Penner, E., 342 Pettit, J.J., 153 Peuch, A.A., 211 Pinches, G.M., 289 Pink, S., 154 Poskitt, T.J., 153 Poulos, H.G., 136, 167, 178, 185, 250 Powderham, A.J., 194 Prakash, S., 255 Prasad, G.D., 257 Price, D.G., 355 Radhakrishna, H.S., 211 Radhakrishnan, K., 198 Randolph, M.F., 107, 251 Rausche, F., 277 Reddaway, A.L., 152 Rees, T.C., 153 Reese, L.C., 86, 95, 112, 224, 236, 244 Reid, G.O., 307 Reid, W.M., 349 Richart, F.E., 331 Rigden, W.J., 108, 110 Roberts, W.K., 50 Robins, P., 154 Robertson, P.K., 198 Robinson, K.E., 232 Rojas, E., 50 Romanoff, M., 369 Rosenberg, P., 145 Shector, L., 199 Shelbourne, H., 70 Sherif, G., 179 Sherrell, F.W., 154 Sherwood, D.E., 97 Shields, D.G., 258 Shimmi, Y., 153 Shimoni, J., 319 Sillett, D.F., 199 Simms, L.G., 289 Simpson, B., 50 Skaven-Haug, S.V., 343 Skempton, A.W., 112, 169 Sliwinski, Z., 112, 124 Smith, E.A.L., 276 Stanley, R.G., 353 St John, H.D., 2, 153, 211 Steinbrenner, W., 170 Stephen, S.C., 307 Stermac, A.G., 348 Stevens, R.F., 110 Stroud, M.A., 175, 376 Sturrock, K.R., 97 Sullavan, R.A., 315 Sutherland, H.B., 154 Taylor, P.T., 153 Teh, C.L, 190 te Kamp, W.C., 126 Terzaghi, K., 130, 166, 170, 223, 376 Thorburn, J.Q., 97 Thorburn, S., 97 Thornburn, T.H., 114, 376 Tominga, M., 153 Tomlinson, M.J., 153, 154, 401 Tonnisen, J.K., 50 Touma, F.T., 86 Tryde, P., 312 Tsytovitch, N.A., 342 Turner, M.J., 113 Turner, R.M., 139 Sainsbury, R.N., 311 Samuel, R.H., 98 Saito, A., 153 Schaaf, S.A., 319 Schmertmann, J.H., 182 Schultze, E., 179 Scott, I.D., 85 Selby, K.G., 355 Semple, R.M., 108 Sharrock, M.J., 178, 197 Van den Hoonard, J., 355 Van Hooydonk, W.K., 153 Van der Noot, H.J., 199 Vesic, A.S., 115, 128, 136 Vogelaar, L.J.J., 355 Wallays, M., 148 Walker, W.P., 331 Ward, W.H., 198 Warner, M., 319 Webb, D.L., 154 Welch, R.C., 247 Weltman, A.J., 97, 111, 135, 393, 400 Wex, B.P., 348 Wheeler, P., 277 Whitaker, T., 112, 401 White, E.E., 335 Whitman, R.V., 331 Page 407 Whittle, R.T., 284 Wiegel, L., 307 Williams, A.F., 145 Williams, N.S., 73 Wilson, L.C., 154 Windle, D., 153 Wong, Y.K., 198 Wood, R.H., 289 Woods, R.D., 355 Wootton, J.R., 319 Wroth, C.P., 107, 168, 400 Wyllie, D.C., 139, 147, 219 Wynne, C.P., 50 Yaron, S.L., 319 Yeats, J.A., 87 Page 408 Subject index Abutments, bridge, 345–9 Acid attack, 368 Adfreezing, 342–3 Adhesion, see Skin friction Adhesion factor, 104–13 Allowable load, 102–3 American Petroleum Institute, 121, 218, 257, 315 Anchors, 214–21, 388 Arbed piles, 31 Attrition, 350 Auger, 42, 79–81 Auger-injected piles, 44 Barges, 315 Base grouting, 86–7 Base resistance, bored-and-cast-in-situ piles, 112, 124 driven piles, 110, 120, 125 driven-and-cast-in-situ piles, 110, 123 in cohesionless soils, 114–29 in cohesive soils, 103, 110, 112 in layered soils, 131–3 in rocks, 138–45 observations of, 392–3 related to static cone tests, 125–9 Basements, 193–8 Bauer piling system, 87, 345 Belling bucket, 80–1 Bentonite slurry, concreting under, 86, 93 drilling with, 85, 95 effects on skin friction, 112, 124 Berthing structures, see Marine structures Bitumen coating, 152 Block failure, 168 Bored-and-cast-in-place piles, base resistance of, 112, 124 continuous flight auger, 44–5 description of, 45–6 durability of, 365–6 enlarged bases for, 42, 80, 112, 212–14 in cohesionless soils, 124 in cohesive soils, 111–13 in mining subsidence areas, 340 in rocks, 144–8 installation of, 79–87, 90–1, 192–3 lateral loads on, 247 reinforcement of, 44 skin friction on, 111–13, 124 underpinning with, 332–9 working stresses on, 46 Box piles, 28 Bridge loading, 345–6 Caisson pile, see Drilled-in tubular pile Calcareous soils, 122–3, 142 Camkometer, 171, 247–8, 377 Cap block, 72 Caps and capping beams, for over-water bridges, 353–5 protection of, 365–8 structural design of, 280–9 Cased piles, 28 Cathodic protection, 372 Chalk, 141–3, 187 Characteristic loads, Characteristic strengths, Cohesionless soils, bored-and-cast-in-place piles in, 124 driven-and-cast-in-place piles in, 123–4 driven piles in, 119–23 loss of ground in, 192–3 pile groups in, 179–85 skin friction on piles in, 117–19, 124 Cohesive soils, bored-and-cast-in-place piles in, 111–13 driven-and-cast-in-place piles in, 110–11 driven piles in, 103–10 heave in, 190–2 pile groups in, 168–79 skin friction on piles in, 103–10 Composite piles, 47 Computer programs, 167–8, 250–3 Concreting piles, generally, 90–5 in permafrost, 344 in water-bearing ground, 93–5 under bentonite, 86, 93 Cone test, see Static and Dynamic cone Constant rate of penetration, 386–8 Constant rate of uplift, 396 Contiguous piles, 339 Continuous dynamic cone test, 377 Continuous flight auger, 44–5, 81 Contracts for piling, 380–3 Control of installation, 383–6 Corrosion of steel piles, 369–72 Current forces, 309–11, 350 Cyclic loading, 211 Deep pile groups, 185–6 Defects in pile shafts, 90–3, 399– 400 Deflection, due to surcharge loading, 346–8 p-y curves, 241–7 under lateral loads, 233–53, 398–9 Degaussing, 383 Design bearing capacity, 101 Design verification load, 386 Diaphragms, 318–19 Diesel pile hammers, 62 Differential-acting hammer, 61–2 Dilatometer, 378 Dolly, 72 Double-acting pile hammer, 61–2 Dragdown, see Negative skin friction Drilled-in tubular piles, description, 45–7 for marine structures, 304–5 Drilling equipment, for site investigations, 374–6 flight auger, 81 grabbing, 81 reverse circulation, 83, 315–16, 350 rotary power auger, 79–81 tripod, 83–5 Driven-and-cast-in-place piles, Page 409 advantage, 35 base resistance of, 110, 123 equipment for installing, 76–8 Franki, 24 Fundex, 39 in cohesionless soils, 123–4 in cohesive soils, 110 in rocks, 143–4 installation of, 90 lateral loads on, 247 Positive, 40 Raymond, 40–1 shell types, 39–41 skin friction, 110–11, 123, 143 Vibrex, 39 Vibro, 39 Vibroform, 39 West’s, 40–1 working stresses on, 42–3 Driven displacement piles, in cohesionless soils, 123–4 in cohesive soils, 103–10 in rocks, 138–43 skin friction on, 103–10, 117–19 Driving cap, 72 Driving tests, 275–7, 383–5 Driving stresses, 275–7 Drop hammers, 57 Dutch cone tests, see Static cone tests Dynamic cone test, 377 see also Continuous dynamic cone Dynamic pile formulae, 3–4, 276 Eccentric loading on piles, 232, 253–7, 277–8 Effective stress (pressure), 103, 150 Efficiency formulae, 166 of piling hammers, 66–7 Elastic continuum, 250–3 Elastic modulus, see Deformation modulus End bearing resistance, see Base resistance Enlarged bases, for bored-and-cast-in-place piles, 42, 81, 112, 212–14 for driven-and-cast-in-place piles, 37 for marine structures, 317 for precast concrete piles, 15 Equivalent raft, 168 Esch-Belval piles, 28 Eurocode, 101–3, 108, 112–14, 212, 213, 383, 388, 393, 396, 398 Europile, 23–4 Failure load, 101 Fender piles, 353 Filled ground, pile groups in, 189–90 single piles in, 148–51 Fondedile piles, 334 Frames, for piling, 51–2 Franki piles, 24, 37, 336 Friction, skin, see Skin friction Frozen ground, piling in, 342–4 Fundex piles, 39 Gamma ray logging, 400 Geophysical surveys, 374 Glacial till, piles in, 111 Grabbing rigs, 81, 95 Ground beams, 280–1, 284–8 Ground heave, 190–3, 382 Ground water, concreting under, 93–5 observations of, 357, 374, 379 Groups of piles, block failure of, 168 eccentric loading on, 253–7 heave effects, 190–3 in filled ground, 189–90 in rock, 186–9 in soils, 166–86 lateral loads on, 253–7 negative skin friction on, 189–90 optimization of settlements in, 196–8 settlement of, 170–86 ultimate resistance of, 168–70 Grouting, skin, 122–3 Guides, for piling, 53–7 H-section piles, advantages of, 28 curvature of, 30 for machinery foundations, 331–2 for underpinning, 337 Peine, 31 skin friction on, 110, 120 strengthening toes of, 32–3 wings for, 29–31 Hammers, piling, 57–72 Heave, ground, 190–3, 352 Helmets, 72–4 Hercules piles, 23 High-alumina cement, 367 Hoesch piles, 28 Horizontal load, see Lateral loads Hush piling, 72 Hydraulic hammers, 60–1 Ice forces, 311–12, 342–4 Inclined loading, 232 Impact forces, 301–4, 350–1 Integrity, structural, 399–400 Jacket structures, 313–15 Jacking piles, 336–7 Jetting piles, 74–5 Jetties, see Marine structures Krupp piles, 28 Laboratory testing, 379–80 Larssen piles, 28 Lateral loads, from bridge abutments, 345–6 on pile groups, 253–7 on raking piles, 253 on single piles, 221–53 Lateral load tests, 398–9 Leaders, 52–4 Limit states, Load-settlement curves, 393–6 Load transfer to piles, 100–1 Load-uplift curves, 396–7 Loading tests, compression, 386–95 constant rate of penetration, 386–8 constant rate of uplift, 396 lateral, 398–9 maintained load, 386–8, 396 uplift, 396 Loss of ground due to piling, 192, 382 M.V piles, 28 Machinery foundations, 303–7 Made ground, see Filled ground Maintained load test, 386–8, 396 Marine structures, current forces on, 309–11 durability of piles in, 361–3, 368–9, 370–2 ice forces on, 311–12 impact forces on, 301–4 wave forces on, 306–9 wind forces on, 311 Mass factor, 186 Menard pressuremeter, 247–50, 377 Micropiles, 48 Miga piles, 214, 336 Mining subsidence, 339–42 Minipiles, 48 Modulus, deformation, of cohesionless soils, 182–4 deformation, of rocks, 147, 186–9 of subgrade reaction, 223 pressuremeter, 247–8 Monotube piles, 31–2 Mooring dolphins, 306 Mooring forces, 305–6 Negative skin friction, 148–52, 189–90, 347–8 Noise control, 67–72, 382 Open-endpiles, resistance of, 109–10, 121–2 Organic acids, 368 Page 410 Oscillation of piles, 310–11 Oscillators, casing, 81 Oslo point, 17, 33 PMI piles, 24 P-y curves, 241–7 Packing, 72–4 Painting, 371 Pali Radice, 334 Partial safety factors, 4, 101, 108, 112, 134, 212 Peine piles, 31 Permafrost, 343–4 Permeability tests, 379–80 Plate bearing tests, 134, 136, 378–9 Platforms, petroleum production, see Marine structures Plugging, with concrete, 110 with soil, 109–10, 121–2 Portland cement concrete, 365–6 Positional tolerance, 96–7, 278, 382 Positive piles, 40 Power augers, 79–81 Precast concrete piles, breakage of, 21–3 concreting of, 17–21 cracks in, 15 driving of, 88–9 driving stresses on, 275–7 Hardrive, 23 Hercules, 23 jointed types, 23–4 lengthening of, 278–9 lifting of, 272–5 prestressed, 15–16 reinforcement of, 15, 273–4 shoes for, 17–19 structural design of, 272–9 working stresses on, 19 Pressure distribution, beneath pile groups, 165–8, 175 Pressuremeter, 171, 247–8, 377–8 Prestressed concrete piles, advantages of, 16 casting of, 17–21 cylindrical, 21 for marine structures, 312 structural design of, 274 Pretest piles, 335–6 Pruyn point, 33 Pyrites, 286 Raking piles, bending of, 253 calculating loading on, 255–6 for bridges, 345–6 for marine structures, 300, 306 installation of, 95–6 resistance to lateral loads of, 209– 10, 255–6 Raymond piles, 40 Reinforcement, for bored-and-cast-in-place piles, 44–5 for driven-and-cast-in-place piles, 37–8 for precast concrete piles, 15, 273–4 Replacement piles, see Bored and cast-in-place Responsibilities, contractual, 5–6 Reversed circulation drilling, 83, 315–16, 350 Rock, anchoring piles to, 214–21 deformation moduli of, 147, 186–9 drilled piles in, 47 base resistance in, 138–45 quality designation, 145 settlement of piles in, 147–8, 186–9 site investigations in, 375–80 skin friction on piles in, 142–5 Rockwell connector, 26 Rotary auger, 79–81 Rotary table, 83 Safety factors, 4, 101, 108, 112, 133–4, 152, 212 Sampling soils, 375, 379 Sand, see Cohesionless soils Scour, effects of, 126–8, 350–2 Secant piles, 339 Seismic logging, 400 Selection of pile type, 7–9, 48–9 Serviceability limitstate, Set of piles, 275–7, 383–5 Setting out, 382 Settlement, of pile groups, 170–90 of single piles, 133–8, 147–8 Shear connectors, 217–18 Sheathing, 152, 363, 368 Shell piles, description of, 39–42 installation of, 90 Positive, 40 Raymond, 40 West’s, 40–1 working stresses on, 43 Shoes, for concrete piles, 17–19 for steel piles, 32–3 for timber piles, 12 Single-acting hammers, 60 Site investigations for piling, 373–80 Skin friction, effects of overburden on, 106 in cohesionless soils, 117–19, 124 in cohesive soils, 103–11 in layered soils, 133–4 in rock, 142–5 negative, 148–52 observations of, 392–3 on bored-and-cast-in-place piles, 113–24 on driven piles, 103–10, 117–19 on driven-and-cast-in-place piles, 110–11, 123, 143 on grouted piles, 122–3 Small displacement piles, 8, 110, 120–2 Sonic logging, 400 Spacing of piles, 169–70 Specifications, piling, 9, 92–3, 95, 195, 380–3, 386 Spiral welding, 27 Splicing piles, 278–9, 315 Standard penetration tests, related to deformation modulus, 179 related to φ2-values, 114 techniques for, 376–7 Static cone penetration test, related to φvalues, 114 related to base resistance, 124–9 related to compressibility of soils, 182–5 related to skin friction, 125 techniques for, 377 Statnamic tests, 393 Steel, for anchors, 216 for piles, 33–5 reinforcing, see Reinforcement Steel piles, advantages of, 49 Arbed, 31 box, 29 cathodic protection of, 372 concrete filling of, 24 connectors for, 26 corrosion of, 369–72 driving of, 89–90 Esch-Belval, 28 for marine structures, 312, 370–2 H-section, 28–31 Hoesch, 28 Krupp, 28 Larssen, 28 M.V., 28 Monotube, 31–2 painting of, 371 Peine, 31 shoes for, 32–3 splicing of, 278–9, 315 tubular, 25–8 Union, 28 welding of, 27, 279, 315, 383 working stresses on, 33–5 Step tapered, 40 Stress grades, timber, 11 Stress wave theory, 275 Sulphate (and sulphuric acid) attack, 365–7 Sulphate resisting cement, 366 Supersulphated cement, 367 Surcharge loading on pile groups, 346–8 Page 411 Tapered piles, description of, 31–2, 40 Temporary compression, 385 Timber piles, damage to, 11–12 driving of, 11, 87 durability of, 357–63 for fenders, 304 preservation of, 360–1 shoes for, 12 splicing of, 12, 279 working stresses on, 12 Time effects, in clays, 113–14 in cohesionless soils, 129 Tolerances, positional, 96–7, 278, 382 Tremie concreting, 93–4 Trestle guides, 54–7 Tripod rigs, 83–5, 95, 332–3 Tubex piles, 39 Tubular piles, steel, cleaning out, 89–90 descriptions of, 25–8 driving caps for, 74 for marine structure, 304–5, 315–19, 370–2 plugging of, 109–10, 121–2 Ultimate resistance, of piles in groups, 168 to compressive loads, 100–2 to lateral loads, 211–57 to uplift loads, 210–21 Underpinning with piles, 332–9 Under-reamed piles, 42, 81, 112, 212–14, 317 Underwater concreting, 93–5 Underwater hammers, 61 Union piles, 28 Unloading effects, 127, 352 Uplift on piles, due to frost action, 209, 342–3 due to swelling clays, 208–9, 286–7 resistance to, 210–21 Vane tests, 376 Vibratory pile hammers, 63–4 Vibrex piles, 39 Vibro piles, 39 Vibroform piles, 39 Vibro-replacement, 64 Wave forces, 306–9, 350 Welding, 27, 279, 315, 383 West’s piles, 25, 40–1 Winches, piling, 54 Wind forces, 311 Winged piles, 29–31 Working load, specified, 386 Working stresses, on bored-and-cast-in-place piles, 46 on driven-and-cast-in-place piles, 42–3 on shell piles, 43 on steel piles, 33–5 on timber piles, 12 ... displacement piles (driven types) Timber (round or square section, jointed or continuous) Precast concrete (solid or tubular section in continuous or jointed units) Prestressed concrete (solid or tubular... concrete (tubular section driven with open end) Prestressed concrete (tubular section driven with open end) Steel H-section Steel tube section (driven with open end and soil removed as required) Steel... jointed units) Prestressed concrete (solid or tubular section) Steel tube (driven with closed end) Steel box (driven with closed end) Fluted and tapered steel tube Jacked-down steel tube with